EARTHWORKS AND SIGHT DISTANCE

TOPICS:

1. SPIRAL CURVE
2. SUPER ELEVATION
3. EARTHWORS
4. SIGHT DISTANCE

CROSS- SECTION TYPICAL HIGHWAY

The cross section of a typical highway has

latitude of variables to consider such as:

1. The volume of the traffic

2. Character of the traffic
3. Speed of the traffic
4. Characteristics of motor vehicles
and of the driver

The cross-section design generally offers the

expected level of service for safety and a
recent study showed that:

1. A 7.20 meters wide pavement has l8% less

accident compared with pavement narrower
than 5.50 m. wide.

2. A 7.20 meters wide pavement has 4% fewer

accidents than the 6.00 meters wide roadway.

3. Accident records showed no difference

between the 6.60 meters and the 7.20 meters
wide pavement.

4. For the 6.00 m., 6.60 m. and,7.20 meters

wide pavement with 2.70 to 3.00 m. wide
shoulder, recorded accident decreases by 30%
compared to 0 to .60 m. wide shoulder. And
20% compared with a .90 to 1.20 meters wide
shoulder.
 CROSS SECTION METHOD It depends on

The method of plotting the existing cross a) Feature of road ahead

section perpendicular to a particular line for b) Height of driver’s eye above the road
the purpose of obtaining quantities such as surface (1.2m)
volumes. The procedure involves staking the c) Height of the object above the road
centerline then elevations are obtained at surface (0.15m)
strategic points on the right angle to the
Criteria for measurement
centerline at intervals of full or half stations.
Cross- sectional data is needed in estimating a) Height of driver’s eye above road
the amount of cut or fill needed for a given surface (H)
strip of roadway. b) Height of object above road surface (h)

Factors affecting SSD

• Total reaction time of driver

• Speed of vehicle
• Efficiency of brakes
• Frictional resistance between road and
tire
• Gradient of road
VOLUME APPROXIMATION METHODS IN Total reaction time of driver:
EARTHWORKS
• It is the time taken from the instant the
object is visible to the driver to the
instant the brake is effectively applied.
• It is divided into types
a) Perception time
- It is the time from the instant the object
comes on the line of sight of the driver to
the instant he realizes that the vehicle
needs to be stopped.
b) Brake reaction time.
- The brake reaction also depends on
several factor including the skill of the
driver, the type of the problems and
various other environment factor. Total
reaction time of driver can be calculated
SIGHT DISTANCE by “PIEV” theory.
Types of Sight Distances
PIEV Theory: P-perception, I-intellection, E-
1. Stopping or absolute minimum sight Emotion, V-Volition Theory
distance (SSD)
ANALYSIS OF SSD
Minimum sight distance available on a
The stopping sight distance is the sum of lag
highway at any spot should be of sufficient
distance and the braking distance
length to stop a vehicle traveling at design
speed, safely without collision with any other 1. Lag Distance
obstruction.
- The distance the vehicle travelled during the
reaction time

- If “V” is the design speed in m/s, ‘t’ is the total

reaction time of the driver in seconds

lag distance = v ∙ t
• Using typical units for velocity (kph) and
d=vt considering the braking action of the driver,
the stopping sight distance may also be written
- If “V” is in kph,
as
lag distance = 0.278 v ∙ t 𝑉2
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 0.278𝑣𝑡 + 0.039
AASHTO recommended reaction time is 2.5 𝑎
seconds where v is in kph and a is the braking action
2. Breaking Distance deceleration in m/s

- Distance travelled by the vehicle after the

application of brake.

- For a level road, this is obtained by equating

the work done in stopping the vehicle and the
kinetic energy of the vehicle.

- Work done against friction force in stopping

the vehicle is

F∗L=f∙W∙L

where W is the total weight of the vehicle

- The kinetic energy at the design speed of v in

m/s will be 1⁄2 mv
Braking Action
𝑣2
𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
2𝑔𝑓 - Based on the driver’s ability to decelerate
the vehicle while staying within the travel
The stopping sight distance lane and maintaining steering control
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑙𝑎𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 during the braking maneuver. A
deceleration rate of 3.4 m/s2 is
𝑣2
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑣𝑡 + comfortable for 90% of the drivers.
2𝑔𝑓
But use this: SSD and CREST VERTICAL CURVE

𝒗𝟐
𝑺𝑺𝑫 = 𝒗𝒕 +
𝟐𝒈(𝒇 ± 𝑮)
Note that in this equation, v is in m/s, t is the
reaction time, g is the gravity (9.81m/s2), f is
the coefficient of longitudinal friction, G is the
roadway grade.
The equations used in designing a crest vertical • H = height of headlight above
curve are as follows: roadway, in meters
• α = inclined angle of headlight beam,
Assuming SSD < L:
in degrees
𝑨𝑺𝟐 • A = absolute value of the difference in
𝑳𝒎 =
𝟐𝟎𝟎(√𝑯𝟏 + √𝑯𝟐)𝟐 grades, in percentage

Assuming SSD > L 2. Safe overtaking (OSD) or passing sight

distance (PSD)
𝟐𝟎𝟎(√𝑯𝟏 + √𝑯𝟐)𝟐
𝑳𝒎 = 𝟐𝑺 −
𝑨 - The minimum distance open to the vision
where, of the driver of a vehicle intending to
overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety
• Lm = minimum length of crest curve, in against the traffic of opposite direction is
meters known as the minimum overtaking sight
• S = stopping sight distance, in meters
distance (OSD) or the safe passing sight
• H1 = driver’s eye level above roadway
distance
surface,
• in meters - In limited 2-lane or 2-way highways,
• H2 = height of obstruction above vehicles may overtake slower moving
roadway surface, in meters vehicles, and the passing maneuver must
• A = absolute value of the difference in be accomplished on a lane used by
grades, in percentage opposing traffic
SSD and SAG VERTICAL CURVE

The equations used in designing a sag vertical

curve are as follows:

Assuming SSD < L:

𝑨𝑺𝟐
𝑳𝒎 = These values are determined using the
𝟐𝟎𝟎(𝑯 + 𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜶)
AASHTO Policy on geometric design of
Assuming SSD > L highways and streets.
𝟐𝟎𝟎(𝑯 + 𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜶)
𝑳𝒎 = 𝟐𝑺 −
𝑨
• Lm = minimum length of sag curve, in
meters
• S = stopping sight distance, in meters
 AGENDA:

1. Railways Historical Development

2. Philippines Railways System

3. Railways Versus Road Transport

4. Track Components

RAILWAY HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

Historical Notes in Railways

• 1824 – Nicolas Carnot, carried out the

pioneering work of developing steam
energy
For Rural Areas, the guideline considers the • 1804 –Richard Trevithick designed
terrain in which road is being constructed. and constructed a steam locomotive
Table below shows the recommended values • 1814 – George Stephenson, produced
the first steam locomotive used for
traction in railway
• 1825 –Recorded first public railway in
the world was opened to public,
between Stockholm and Darlington
• 1833 –First railway line in USA
3. Safe sight distance for entering an between Mohawk and Hudson
intersection, Intersection Sight Distance • 1835 –First railway in Germany was
opened from Nuremberg to Furth
- Driver entering an uncontrolled intersection • 1875 –King Alfonso XII of Spain
(particularly unsignalized intersection) has promulgated a Royal Decree directing
sufficient visibility to enable him to take the Office of the Inspector of Public
control of his vehicle and to avoid collision with Works of the Philippines to submit a
another vehicle. general plan for railroads on Luzon
- The corner sight distance available in (June 25, 1875).
intersection quadrants that allows a driver o The plan, was entitled
approaching an intersection to observe the Memoria Sobre el Plan
actions of vehicles on the crossing leg(s) General de Ferrocarriles en la
Isla de Luzón.
- Evaluations involve establishing the needed
sight triangle in each quadrant by determining Historical Notes in Railways
the legs of the triangle on the two crossing
roadways PHILIPPINE RAILWAY DEVELOPMENT

- Clear sight triangle must be free of sight • 1876 – Memoria Sobre el Plan General
obstructions such as buildings, parked or de Ferrocarriles en la Isla de Luzón
turning vehicles, trees, hedges, fences, Grand Master Plan
retaining walls, and the actual ground line. • 1891 –First rail tracks laid
• 1892 –Opened for commercial use,
from Ferrocarril de Manila to
Dagupan
 • Before series of wars engulfed • MRT 7 –elevated railway from North Ave.
Philippines, more than a thousand to SJDM, Bulacan. Expected to serve
route-kilometers were built. 350,000 daily commuters.
• Only 452 km were operational after
the war.
• Only 129 km remain operational
(2021).
• The government aims to expand
railway network to 1900 km by 2022

Greater Manila Railway Networks

• Green –LRT 1
• Blue –LRT 2
• Yellow – MRT 3
• Orange –PNR

Greater Tokyo Railway Networks

• Metro Manila Subway Project –
Ongoing Rail Projects expected to serve 370,000 daily
passengers.
• LRT 1 Cavite Extension – expected to
reduce the travel time between Baclaran
and Bacoor to around 20 minutes from
the usual one hour.

• North South Commuter Rail Project –

Clark-Calamba Railway, expected to be
full operational by 2025

• LRT 2 East Extension –to add new

stations: Marikina-Pasig and Antipolo
• Mindanao Railway System –Phase 1
construction expected to begin Q4 in
2021
 FEATURE RAIL TRANSPORT ROAD TRANSPORT
• Tractive • The movement of steel wheels on • The tractive resistance of a
Resistance steel rails has the basic advantage of pneumatic tire on paved
low rolling resistance. roads is almost five times
• This reduces haulage costs because of compared to that of wheels
low tractive resistance. on rails.

• Right of Way • A railway track is defined on two rails • Roads,though having well
and is within protected limits. defined limits, can be used by
• Trains work as per prescribed any vehiculartraffic and even
schedule and no other vehicle has the by pedestriansthey are open
right of way except at specified level to all.
crossings.

• Cost of • Owing to the heavy infrastructure and • The cost of construction and
Analysis equipment, the initial as well as maintenance of roads is
maintenance cost of a railway line is comparatively cheaper.
high

• Gradients • The gradients of railways tracks are • Roads are constructed

and Curves flatter(normally not more than 1 in normally with steeper
100), and curves are limited up to only gradients of up to 1 in 30 and
10° on broad gauge. relatively much sharper
curves.

• Flexibility of • Due to the defined routes and • Road transports have much
movement facilities required for the reception more flexibility in movement
and dispatch of trains, railways can be and can provide door-to-door
used only between fixed points. services.

• Environment • Railways have minimum adverse • Road transport creates

pollution effects on the environment comparatively greater
pollution than the railway

• Suitability • Railways are best suited for carrying • Road transport is best suited
heavy goods and large numbers of for carrying lighter goods and
passengers over long distances. smaller numbers of
passengers over shorter
distances.
RAILS

➢ Rails are the members of the track laid

TRACK COMPONENTS:
in two parallel lines to provide an
The Track is the railroad on which trains runs. unchanging, continuous, and level
surface for the movement of trains.
➢ To be able to withstand stresses, they
are made of high-carbon steel.

Functions

1. Rails are similar to steel girders. These

are provided to perform the following
functions in a track.
 2. Rails provide a continuous and level SLEEPERS
surface for the movement of trains.
▪ Sleepers are the transverse ties that are laid
3. Rails provide a pathway which is
to support the rails.
smooth and has very little friction.
4. Rails serve as a lateral guide for the ▪ They have an important role in the track as
wheels. they transmit the wheel load from the rails to
5. Rails bear the stresses developed due the ballast.
to vertical loads transmitted to them
through axles and wheels of rolling Functions
stock as well as due to braking and 1. Holding the rails in their correct gauge
thermal forces. and alignment
6. Rails carry out the function of 2. Giving a firm and even support to the
transmitting the load to a large area of rails
the formation through sleepers and 3. Transferring the load evenly from the
the ballast. rails to a wider area of the ballast
TYPES OF RAILS: 4. Acting as an elastic medium between
the rails and the ballast to absorb the
1. Double Headed Rail (DH) blows and vibrations caused by moving
2. Bull Headed Rail (BH) loads
3. Flat – Footed Rail (FF) 5. Providing longitudinal and lateral
stability to the permanent way
RAIL GAUGE:
6. Providing the means to rectify the
• Gauge is defined as the minimum track geometry during their service
distance between two rails. life.
• The gauge is measured as the clear
Sleeper Density and Spacing
minimum distance between the
running faces of the two rails Sleeper density is the number of sleepers per
rail length. It is specified as M +x or N +x
RAIL SPECIFICATIONS:
M or N is the length of the rail in meters and x
Every rail has a brand on its web, which is
is a number that varies according to factors
repeated at intervals
such as
IRS-52kg – 710 –TISCO –II1991 –>OB
A. axle load and speed,
A. IRS-52-kg: Number of IRS rail section, B. type and section of rails,
i.e., 52 kg C. type and strength of the sleepers,
B. 710: Grade of rail section, i.e., 710 or D. type of ballast and ballast cushion, and
880 E. nature of formation.
C. TISCO: Manufacturer’s name, e.g.,
BALLAST
Tata Iron and Steel Co.
D. II 1991:Month and year of • The ballast is a layer of broken stones,
manufacture (February 1991) gravel, or any other granular material
E. ->:An arrow showing the direction of placed and packed below and around
the top of the ingot sleepers for distributing load from the
F. OB: Process of steel making, e.g., open sleepers to the formation.
hearth basic (OB) • It provides drainage as well as
longitudinal and lateral stability to the
track
 TRACK FITTINGS AND FASTENINGS

➢ For joining rail to rail - Fish plates,

combination fish plates, bolts, and
nuts
➢ For joining rails to sleepers – Cast-iron
bearing screws, plate screws, pandrol
clifts, rubber pads

➢ Moorum ballast -It normally used as

the initial ballast in new constructions
and as sub-ballast.
➢ Coarse sand ballast – used primarily
for cast iron rails.
➢ Coal ash cinder – normally used in
yards as initial ballast in new
constructions since it is very cheap
➢ Broken stone ballast – made from
hard stones, normally used for
highspeed tracks.

Functions

1. Provides a level and hard bed for the

sleepers to rest on.
2. Holds the sleepers in position during
the passage of trains.
3. Transfers and distributes load from the
sleepers to a large area of the
formation.
4. Provides elasticity and resilience to the
track for proper riding comfort.
5. Provides the necessary resistance to
the track for longitudinal and lateral
stability.
6. Provides effective drainage to the
track.
7. Provides an effective means of
maintaining the level and alignment of
the track.

Size of Sieve % retained

65mm 5% maximum
40mm 40% to 60%
20mm Not less than 98% for
machine crushed and
not less than 95% for
hand broken
 FAILURES, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION - Block Cracking
OF TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURES - Slippage Cracking
- Reflective Cracking
- Edge Cracking
TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURES
2. Surface Deformation
- Transportation infrastructures are
foundational structures and systems for - Rutting
transporting people and goods. - Corrugations
- Shoving
Common Types of Transportation - Depressions
Infrastructures - Swell
- Roads 3. Disintegration
- Railways
- Bridges and Tunnels - Pot Holes
- Ship Canals - Patches
- Ports
4. Surface Defects
- Airports Runways
- Ravelling
ROADS
- Bleeding
- Roads such as streets, avenues and - Polishing
highways. Includes paved roads, unpaved - Delamination
roads and roads with unique surfaces like
Road Maintenance and Rehabilitation
cobblestone and such.
Includes
Roads Failure Causes
Physical Maintenance:
- Rutting due to high variation in ambient
Activities such as sealing, patching, filling joints
temperature
etc.
- Uncontrolled heavy axle loads
- Inadequate Stability Traffic Service activities:
- Loss of binding action
Including painting pavement markings,
- Poor Design and Fabrication
removing snow ice and litter
- Congestion
- Environmental Hazard (Flood, Rehabilitation:
Earthquake etc.)
Includes restoring or betterment of roadway
- Accidents
such as resurfacing.
- Poor Maintenance
Types Road Maintenance
TYPES OF ROAD FAILURES
1. Surface maintenance
2. Roadside and drainage maintenance
THE FOUR MAJOR TYPES OF PAVEMENT 3. Shoulder and approaches
FAILURE ARE: maintenance
4. Snow and ice control
1. Cracking
5. Traffic service
- Fatigue Cracking
- Longitudinal Cracking
- Transverse Cracking
RAILWAYS surrounding soil/earth/rock and enclosed
except for entrance and exit, commonly at
Railways including high speed rail, subways
each end.
and elevated railway such as cable car
Bridge and Tunnels Failure Causes
Railways Failure Causes
➢ High variation in ambient temperature
- Impact of moving loads
➢ Uncontrolled heavy axle loads.
- Effect of acceleration and
➢ Inadequate Stability
deceleration
➢ Effect of seawater/water especially to
- Constant reversal of stresses
the bridge columns
- Defects in manufacture
➢ Inadequate ground Investigation
- Braking of wheels
➢ Poor Design and Fabrication
- Fatigue caused by shearing
➢ Congestion of Vehicles
stresses
➢ Environmental Hazard (Flood,
- Effect of weather and
Earthquake, Tsunami etc.)
Temperature
➢ Accidents (Car crash, Boat Crash, Train
- Maintenance of rail joints
Crash etc.)
- Axle load of locomotive
➢ Inadequate Support method of
- Design of rail joints
excavation
- Frequency of rail renewal
- Corrosion Type of Bridge and Tunnel Failures
- Poor Maintenance
1. Steel Materials
Type of Railway Failures ➢ Corrosion of Steel
➢ Paint Deterioration
1. Crushed Head
➢ Loose Connections
2. Transverse and Compound Fissure
2. Concrete Material
3. Split Head
➢ Collapse
4. Horizontal Fissure
➢ spalling
5. Square of Angular Breaks
➢ Wear/Abrasion
6. Rail Misalignment
➢ Material Deterioration
➢ Surface Defect
➢ Delamination
Railway Maintenance and Rehabilitation
➢ Water Leak at Deck
Includes
3. Expansion Joint
1. Ballast Checking ➢ Abnormal Spacing
2. Lubricating Places such as curves ➢ Difference in Level
on the side of the head of the rails ➢ Rupture
3. Tightening of joints and Fittings ➢ Drainage Blocked
4. Use of special alloy rails where 4. Drainpipe
wear is more
Bridge and Tunnel Maintenance and
5. Renewal of Rails
Rehabilitation Includes
BRIDGES AND TUNNELS
❖ Exposed steel work must be cleaned and
A bridge is a structure to cross an open space repainted
or gap. Bridges are mostly made for crossing
rivers, valleys, or roads. While a tunnel is an ❖ Cleaning and resealing of Deck joint
underground passageway, dug through the
❖ Damage to guard rail, must be repaired and Ports and Ship Canal Maintenance and
strengthened Rehabilitation includes

❖ Resurfacing of deck ➢ Steel repair and painting

➢ Implementation of coatings for
❖ Scour around and under piers and corrosion protection
abutments should be removed ➢ Epoxy injection into small Cracks on
deck and supported beams
❖ Sealing, patching, filling joints and such.
➢ Removal of plastered concrete and
❖ Checking of steel cables for corrosion. cleaning of surface
➢ Subject rebars replacement and re-
❖ Checking of supports concreting of damage section
➢ Placement of anti-scouring devices.
PORTS

A port is a maritime facility which may AIRPORT RUNWAYS

comprise one or more wharves where ships A complex of runways and buildings for the
may dock to load and discharge passengers take-off, landing, an maintenance of civil
and cargo. Although usually situated on a sea aircraft, with facilities for passengers.
coast, some ports can be miles inland, with
access to the sea via river or canal. Airport Runways Failure Causes

SHIP CANALS ➢ Poor Design and Fabrication

➢ High variation in ambient temperature
A ship canal is a canal especially intended to ➢ Poor Maintenance
accommodate ships used on the oceans, seas ➢ Degradation
or lakes to which it is connected, as opposed to ➢ Congestion of Aircrafts
a barge canal intended to carry barges and ➢ Environmental Hazard (Flood,
other vessels specifically designed for river Earthquake, Tsunami, Bird Strikes etc.)
and/or canal navigation. ➢ Accidents
Ports and Ship Canal Failure Causes Type of Airport Runways failures
➢ Poor Design and Fabrication 1. Cracking
➢ High variation in ambient temperature 2. Surface Deformation
➢ Effect of seawater to the construction 3. Disintegration
materials 4. Surface Defects
➢ Severe Corrosion 5. Rubber Deposits
➢ Congestion of Ships
➢ Environmental Hazard (Flood, Airport Runways Maintenance and
Earthquake, Tsunami etc.) Rehabilitation Includes
➢ Accidents (Boat Crash) Airport maintenance means any work carried
➢ Poor Maintenance out to keep airports runways excellent
Type of Ports and Ship Canal failures condition, keep their operations running
smoothly and meet the high safety standards
➢ Material Deterioration
➢ Damage of components 1. Maintenance of Visual Aids
➢ Scouring ➢ Airport Light maintenance
➢ Collapsing of wharf / Settlement of ➢ Basic maintenance programmed for
➢ Sedimentation Foundation approach, runway and taxi way
lighting systems
 ➢ Special types of lights 6. Removal of snow and ice
➢ Cleaning procedures for lights
➢ Procedures for snow removal
➢ Light measurement
➢ Surface de-icing
➢ Lamp replacement
➢ Surface anti-icing
2. Signs
7. Drainage
➢ Markings
➢ Cleaning of slot drains
3. Maintenance of Airport Electrical Systems ➢ Drain pipes or culverts between
surfaces and collector basins
➢ Power cables and distributors in field
➢ Oil and fuel separators
➢ Transformers and regulators (including
➢ Water hydrants
standby units)
➢ Transformer stations for electric 8. Maintenance of Unpaved Areas
power supply
➢ Maintenance of green areas within
➢ Relay and switch cabinets (including
strips
switch cabinets in sub-stations)
➢ Maintenance of grass on unpaved
➢ Control cables, monitoring units,
runways and taxiways
control desk
➢ Maintenance of green areas outside
➢ Secondary power supplies
strips
(generators)
➢ Treatment of cut grass
➢ Fixed 400 Hz ground power supplies
➢ Apron floodlighting

4. Maintenance of Pavements

➢ Surface repair
➢ Repair of cracks
➢ Portland cement concrete pavements
➢ Bituminous pavements
➢ Repair of joints and cracks
➢ Joints in concrete pavements
➢ Concrete joint maintenance
➢ Joints in bituminous pavements
➢ Repair of pavement edge damage
➢ Edge repair
➢ Corner repair
➢ Repair of other pavement surface
deficiencies

Airport Runways Maintenance and

Rehabilitation Includes

5. Sweeping

➢ Purpose of sweeping
➢ Surface monitoring
➢ Cleaning of surfaces
➢ Purpose of cleaning pavements
➢ Removal of rubber deposits
➢ Fuel and oil removal
 DENSITY
TRAFFIC FLOW FUNDAMENTALS
- is defined as the number of
vehicles in a given length of road at
Traffic Analysis
an instant point in time.
- provides basis in measuring the operating 𝒏
performance of the highway. 𝒌=
- Primary function of a highway system is 𝑳
providing high level of transportation
TIME HEADWAY
service (LOS) and safety

Various dimensions used in traffic analysis - Time headway is defined as the

time interval between passage of
- Number of vehicle per unit time (traffic
consecutive vehicles at a specified
volume)
- Vehicle types and speeds point on the road with a unit of
- Variation in traffic volumes over time time per vehicles.
(e.g., Peak Hour)
𝟏
Other dimensions that influenced traffic operations 𝒉𝒕 =
𝒒
- Traffic control device (i.e., traffic signals,
signs and markings) 𝒗𝒆𝒉
- Types of pavements and geometric
𝒒(𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘) =
𝒉𝒓
design 𝒉𝒓
- Selection of the number of lanes 𝒕(𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒘𝒂𝒚) −
𝒗𝒆𝒉
Most used numerical dimensions of traffic flow SPACING
- Speed (km/hr) - Spacing is the distance between
- Flow/flowrate/volume (veh/hr)
- Density (veh/km)
two vehicles measure from the
front bumper of a vehicle to that of
FLOW RATE OR VOLUME another.
- Flow rate is defined as the number of
vehicles passing a point during a specified 𝟏
period of time.
𝒔=
𝒌
SPEED
𝒗𝒆𝒉
𝒌(𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚) −
𝒉𝒓
Speed is defined as rate of motion in distance per unit 𝒌𝒎
time. When describing traffic stream, two types of speed 𝒔(𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒏𝒈) −
𝒗𝒆𝒉
are used: time mean speed and space mean speed.
TIME OCCUPANCY
Time Mean Speed / Spot Speed

- is simply the arithmetic mean of the speeds of vehicles - It can only be measure, however,
passing a point within a given interval of time. if a detector is installed at a
specific point on the carriageway.
∑𝒏𝒊 𝟏 𝒖𝒊
𝒖𝒊 = - It is defined as the total time of a
𝒏 detector is occupied divided by
Space Mean Speed / Harmonic Mean Speed the total time of observation.
- is used to describe the rate of movement of a traffic
stream within a given section of road. It is the speed
based on the average travel time of vehicles in the stream
within the section.
𝒏
𝒖𝒊 =
𝟏
∑𝒏𝒊 =𝟏
𝒖𝒊
RELATIONSHIP OF FLOW, SPEED, AND
DENSITY POISSON DISTRIBUTION MODELS
A relationship exists among the three most
- A model that accounts for the non
important traffic variables: flow rate, space
– uniformity of flow by assuming
mean speed, and density. A dimensional that the pattern of arrivals
analysis of the units will show that flow rate corresponds to some random
(veh/hr) is simply the product of density process.
(veh/km) and space mean speed (km/hr), or

𝑞 = 𝑘(𝑢𝑠 )
As mentioned earlier, density is the most
difficult variable to measure. It can be
obtained indirectly using this relation. Where: P(n) is the probability od having n vehicle arrive
in the time t
t = the duration of time interval over which vehicles are
counted.
= average vehicle flow or arrival rate ( in
vehicle/ unit time)

POISSON DISTRIBUTION
- Poisson vehicle arrivals also implies a
distribution of the time intervals between
the arrivals of successive vehicles (i.e.,
time headway).
- Determine the probability of delay for
vehicle and pedestrian crossing, length of
waiting lines at toll booths and traffic
signals.

LIMITATION POISSON DISTRIBUTION MODEL

- Only applicable for lightly congested

traffic conditions.
- Not appropriate for heavy traffic
conditions particularly in urban area
where traffic signals cause cyclical stream
disturbance.

ORIGIN- DESTINATION SURVEY

TRAVEL SURVEY

- are conducted to establish a complete

understanding of the travel patterns
within the study area.
- For single projects (such as a highway
project), it may be sufficient to use traffic
 counts on existing roads or (for transit) facilities also may be provided for specific purposes, such
counts of passengers riding the present as to provide handicapped parking or as bus stops or
system. loading bays.
- To understand why people travel and
where they wish to go, origin- destination Off-Street Parking Facilities
(O-D) survey data can be useful. These facilities may be privately or publicly owned; they
ORIGIN DESTINATION SURVEY include surface lots and garages. Self-parking garages
require that drivers park their own automobiles;
- The O-D survey asks questions about each attendant- parking garages maintain personnel to park
trip that is made on a specific day—such as the automobiles.
where the trip begins and ends, the
purpose of the trip, the time of day, and DEFINITIONS OF PARKING
the vehicle involved (auto or transit)—and ▪ A space-hour is a unit of parking that defines the use of
about the person making the trip—age, a single parking space for a period of 1 hour.
sex, income, vehicle owner, and so on.
- The O-D survey may be completed as a ▪ Parking volume is the total number of vehicles that park
home interview, or people may be asked in a study area during a specific length of time, usually a
questions while riding the bus or when day.
stopped at a roadside interview station.
Sometimes, the information is requested ▪ Parking accumulation is the number of parked vehicles
by telephone or by return postcard. O-D in a study area at any specified time. These data can be
surveys are rarely completed in plotted as a curve o parking accumulation against time,
communities where these data have been which shows the variation of the parking accumulation
previously collected. during the day.

PARKING STUDIES ▪ The parking load is the area under the accumulation
curve between two specific times. It is usually given as the
- Any vehicle traveling on a highway will at one time or number of space-hour used during the specified period of
another be parked for either a relatively short time or a time.
much longer time, depending on the reason for parking.
The provision of parking facilities is therefore an essential ▪ Parking duration is the length of time a vehicle is parked
element of the highway mode of transportation. The at a parking bay. When the parking duration is given as an
need for parking spaces is usually very great in areas average, it gives an indication of how frequently a parking
where land uses include business, residential, or space becomes available.
commercial activities. In areas of high density, where ▪ Parking turnover is the rate of use of a parking space. It
space is very expensive, the space provided for is obtained by dividing the parking volume for a specified
automobiles usually has to be divided between that period by the number of parking spaces.
allocated for their movement and that allocated for
parking them. METHODOLOGY OF PARKING STUDIES

- used to determine the demand for and the supply of A comprehensive parking study usually involves
parking facilities in an area, the projection of the demand,
and the views of various interest groups on how best to ➢ inventory of existing parking facilities
solve the problem. ➢ collection of data on parking accumulation,
parking turnover and parking duration
TYPES OF PARKING FACILITIES ➢ identification of parking generators
➢ collection of information on parking demand.
On-Street Parking Facilities
Information on related factors, such as financial, legal,
These are also known as curb facilities. Parking bays are and administrative matters, also may be collected.
provided alongside the curb on one or both sides of the
street. These bays can be unrestricted parking facilities if
the duration of parking is unlimited and parking is free, or
they can be restricted parking facilities if parking is
limited to specific times of the day for a maximum
duration. Parkin at restricted facilities may or may not be
free. Restricted
INVENTORY OF EXISTING PARKING FACILITIES IDENTIFICATION OF PARKING GENERATORS

An inventory of existing parking facilities is a detailed This phase involves identifying parking generators (for
listing of the location and all other relevant example, shopping centers or transit terminals) and
characteristics of each legal parkin facility, private and locating these on a map of the study area.
public, in the study area. The inventory includes both on-
and off-street facilities. The relevant characteristics PARKING DEMAND
usually listed include the following: - Information is obtained by interviewing drivers
➢ Type and number of parking spaces at each at the various parking facilities listed during the
parking facility inventory.
➢ Times of operation and limit on duration of - An effort should be made to interview all drivers
parking, if any using the parking facilities on a typical weekday
➢ Type of ownership (private or public) between 8:00 a.m. and 10:00 p.m. Information
➢ Parking fees, if any, and method of collection sought should include (1) trip origin, (2) purpose
➢ Restrictions on use (open or closed to the of trip, and (3) driver’s destination after parking.
public) The interviewer must also note the location of
➢ Other restrictions, if any (such as loading and the parking facility, times of arrival and
unloading zones, bus stops, or taxi ranks) departure, and the vehicle type.
➢ Probable degree of permanency (can the ANALYSIS OF PARKING DATA
facility be regarded as permanent or is it just a
temporary facility?) - includes summarizing, coding, and interpreting
the data so that the relevant information
The information obtained from an inventory of parking required for decision making can be obtained.
facilities is useful both to the traffic engineer and to
public agencies, such as zoning commissions and planning The relevant information includes the following:
departments. The inventory should be updated at regular
intervals of about four to five years. ▪ Number and duration for vehicles legally parked

COLLECTION OF PARKING DATA ▪ Number and duration for vehicles illegally parked

Accumulation ▪ Space-hours of demand for parking

- are obtained by checking the amount of ▪ Supply of parking facilities

parking during regular intervals on The analysis required to obtain information on the first
different days of the week. two items is straightforward; it usually involves simple
- The checks are usually carried out on an arithmetical and statistical calculations. Data obtained
hourly or 2-hour basis between 6:00 a.m. from these items are then used to determine parking
and 12 midnight. space-hours.
- The selection of the times depends on the
operation times of land-use activities that ANALYSIS OF PARKING DATA
act as parking generators.
- The information obtained is used to The space-hours of demand for parking are obtained
determine hourly variations of parking and from the expression
peak periods of parking demand. 𝑁

𝐷 = ∑(𝑛1 𝑡1 )
COLLECTION OF PARKING DATA
𝑖=1

Turnover and Duration. Information on turnover and

duration is usually obtained by collecting data on a
sample of parking spaces in each block. This is done by
recording the license plate of the vehicle parked on each
parking space in the sample at the ends of fixed intervals
during the study period. The length of the fixed intervals
ANALYSIS OF PARKING DATA
depends on the maximum permissible duration.
The space-hours of demand for parking are obtained
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒗𝒆𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒌𝒆𝒅
𝑻= from the expression
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝑁

𝑆 = 𝑓 ∑(𝑡1 )
𝑖=1
 mistakes that lead to lack of the intersection’s capacity or
to its being accident-prone.

▪ The maximum number of legs should be four. It has

been shown that the number of conflicts increases
The efficiency factor f is used to correct for time lost in each exponentially as the number of intersection legs
turnover. It is determined on the basis of the best performance increases.
a parking facility is expected to produce. Efficiency factors for
curb parking, during highest demand, vary from 78 percent to 96 ▪ Staggered intersections should be avoided. Due to
percent; for surface lots and garages, from 75 percent to 92 proximity of the two side roads, inadequate length of
percent. Average values of f are 90 percent for curb parking, 80 storage lane for left vehicles often causes blockage of the
percent for garages, and 85 percent for surface lots.
through traffic.
INTERSECTION DESIGN
▪ Main traffic flow should be near straight as possible.
- Intersections play an important role in any network Sharp turns, such as left and right turns, cause
system. They are the points where traffic flow unnecessary reduction in traffic speeds.
converges and where direction of travel changes.
Intersections may be categorized according to shape,
type of structure, and type of operation.

Shape

- This refers to the configuration of the intersection and

would depend largely on the number of legs. Carefully
planned and properly designed road networks often
lead to intersections with simpler shape having lesser
number of legs.

▪ Roads should not intersect at a small angle. Oblique

intersections pose potential hazards and cause high
severity of accidents due to the almost head-to-head
collision of vehicles. An angle of 60 degrees must be
considered as the minimum.

Type of Structure ▪ Two intersections should be as far as possible from

each other. In addition to the reason cited in (2),
▪ Most of the intersections are either designed as at- adequate weaving sections may not be provided. As a
grade intersection or grade separation such as flyovers or rule of thumb, the distance between the two
interchanges. Almost all intersections are initially intersections must be
designed at-grade and are planned to be grade-separated
in the future to cope with high traffic volume. The type of distance = design speed (kph) x number of lanes x 2
grade separation depends largely on the extend of
For instance, if the prevailing speed is 30 kph and three
improvement it would provide in terms of easing
are four lanes in one direction, the distance between the
congestion or reducing traffic accidents.
two intersections must be at least 30 x 4 x 2 = 240 m.
Type of Operation
Turning geometry
▪ Rules and regulations applied to a given intersection
The principal purpose of an intersection is to provide
depend largely on the type of control which is in
change in the direction of travel. As a vehicle approaches
operation at that intersection. The main objective is to
an intersection, the driver has to decide whether to go
simplify traffic flow. This is often achieved by reducing the
straight or to turn to left or right. For turning movements,
number of conflicts of vehicles.
a number of turning geometries may be considered, the
▪An intersection operates as unchannelized or most direct of which is highly preferred. Configurations of
channelized, and unsignalized or signalized. turning geometries are shown below:
Channelization often leads to simplified movements of
vehicles as it leads drivers to one conflict at a time. On
the other hand, signalization greatly crossing conflicts at
the intersection area.

BASIC INTERSECTION DESIGN PRINCIPLES

▪ When designing or improving an intersection, it is very

important to follow some basic principles to avoid costly
Turning geometry

These types of turning movements may be found as

elements of the interchanges shown below:

Turning geometry

▪ The different elements of an intersection are shown in

Figure 5.1. The adequacy in design of each element must
be carefully checked, considering traffic flow and
availability of right of way.

For the left turn storage bay, the recommended length is

= 2 x no. of left turners in one cycle x spacing in queue.

The spacing in queue may range from 6.0 m to 7.0 m,

depending on the type of vehicles using the intersection.

A factor of 2 is used to take into account randomness of

traffic flow.

Turning geometry