sensors

Article
A New Type of Dynamic Vibration Fiber Sensor
I-Nan Chang 1, * , Chih-Chuan Chiu 2 and Wen-Fung Liu 2

1 Department of Electronic Engineering, Feng Chia University, Taichung 40724, Taiwan

2 Department of Electrical Engineering, Feng Chia University, Taichung 40724, Taiwan;
[email protected] (C.-C.C.); [email protected] (W.-F.L.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: A new-type vibration sensor based on a fiber Bragg grating combined with a special
structure-packaged design is proposed for monitoring the mechanical vibration signals. Three
different sensing structures, including the film squeeze type, new film squeeze type, and elastic tape
squeeze type are proposed for measuring the vibration signals with the frequency range from tens to
thousands of Hz. In the comparison to experimental results, the new film squeeze structure has a
nice sensing performance in the range from 100 to 1000 Hz with a sensitivity of 0.302 mV/g. For the
elastic tape squeeze structure, the elastic tape is designed to encapsulate the optical fiber with a good
frequency response from 1100 to 3100 Hz. In addition, by using the new film squeeze structure to
measure the steady-state and non-steady-state vibration signals, the spectral components of sensing
signals are analyzed by using the wavelet transformation for confirming the testing signals. These
vibration fiber sensors can be applied in the measurement of high-end manufacture-facility vibration
or earthquake vibrations etc.

Keywords: fiber Bragg grating; vibration wave sensors; fiber sensors

1. Introduction
In recent years, the development of fiber grating sensors has greatly attracted the
attention of researchers due to a wide range of applications. In comparison with the
Citation: Chang, I.-N.; Chiu, C.-C.;
conventional sensors, there are many advantages, including the simple structure, long
Liu, W.-F. A New Type of Dynamic life-time, high sensitivity, nice stability, etc. [1]. Even in special or harsh operating envi-
Vibration Fiber Sensor. Sensors 2024, ronments, such as high temperature, high electric field, radiation, and corrosive gases,
24, 6973. https://doi.org/10.3390/ the sensing performance can be effectively maintained. For the field of measuring the
s24216973 vibration signals created from an instrument or facility, there are many different sensing
technologies including the conventional eddy current vibration wave sensors, piezoelectric
Academic Editors: Flavio Esposito
vibration sensors, soft PZT nanofiber sensors, and fiber grating sensors, etc. [2]. Generally,
and Lingze Duan
the vibration wave can be divided into a damped and non-damped vibration wave. The
Received: 2 September 2024 real vibration mode is damped vibration, in which the frequency of vibration can be a
Revised: 22 October 2024 single frequency or a mixture of frequencies and the vibration period is included in the
Accepted: 28 October 2024 periodic and aperiodic vibration according to the different vibration sources. Based on
Published: 30 October 2024 the nice characteristics for sensing vibration signals, a variety of FBG-based vibration or
accelerometer sensors have been proposed [3–10]. By utilizing a cantilever beam and fiber
gratings, the fiber Bragg grating is one of the most important vibration or acceleration
sensors [3–7]. For these previous publications and according to the parameters of light
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
modulation, optical vibration sensors can be divided into three categories: light intensity
This article is an open access article
modulation, light phase modulation and optical wavelength modulation [8]. In general, the
distributed under the terms and simple vibration or acceleration sensors are mostly of one- or two-dimensional design. For
conditions of the Creative Commons a one-dimensional FBG accelerometer or vibration meter, the FBG is typically attached to a
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// mass-spring system. When the system senses acceleration or vibration signals, it causes a
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ displacement of the mass, which induces a strain on the FBG to in turn cause a fiber grating
4.0/). wavelength shift. By monitoring the grating wavelength shift, the acceleration or vibration

Sensors 2024, 24, 6973. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24216973 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2024, 24, 6973 2 of 14

can be accurately obtained. By adjusting the effective distance between the sensor axis
and the cantilever neutral axis, the sensor sensitivity can be effectively improved [9]. A
string-type-based two-dimensional FBG vibration sensor is a nice technology that utilizes
the transversal vibrational property of a tightly suspended optical fiber [10]. This type
of sensor can be used in distributed two-dimensional vibration measurement due to its
two-dimensional sensing properties. It is a significant advancement in the field of optical
fiber sensing, where precision and innovation converge. In recent years, three-dimensional
measurement has become increasingly important, so the design of three-dimensional sen-
sors has gradually received attention [11]. The new three-dimensional acceleration sensor
uses composite flexure hinges and fiber Bragg grating. The researchers investigated the
coupling mechanism between a new integrated elastomer structure and fiber grating. They
studied the influence of structural parameters on the static and dynamic characteristics,
volume, and mass of the sensor.
Our purpose of measuring the vibration signals created from instruments or facilities is
to monitor their operating performance for estimating the requirement of being maintained.
For our proposed fiber grating sensors, the fiber grating combining the packaged design can
be applied in checking the instrument or facility whether or not it is maintained according
to the sensing spectrum.

2. Basic Sensing Principle

The key element of this vibration fiber sensor is the fiber Bragg grating, which is one
of the potentially passive fiber components. For the fabrication of fiber gratings, the most
general method is the phase-mask fabricating technique firstly proposed by K.O. Hill et al.
in 1993 [12,13]. The ultraviolet light beam (248 nm) from a KrF excimer laser passes through
the phase mask to form the interference fringe of ±1 order diffraction beams to exposure
on the optical fiber to form the fiber grating with a periodical index variation along the fiber
core axis. When the measuring light source from a broad-band light source is launched into
a fiber grating, the forward fundamental propagation mode is coupled to the backward
fundamental core mode to cause reflection light with a specific wavelength, called the
grating Bragg wavelength (λB ), and the relationship between the Bragg wavelength and
the grating period is shown in Equation (1):

λ B = 2ne f f Λ (1)

in which neff is the effective index of grating and Λ is the grating period. From the formula,
we can see that the different fiber-grating wavelengths can be easily fabricated by changing
the grating period (i.e., the period of phase mask). For writing high reflectivity fiber
gratings, the general commercial single mode fiber (SMF-28, Corning, New York, NY,
USA) requires hydrogen-loading for increasing the fiber photosensitivity. The operating
mechanism for measuring the vibration signal by using a fiber grating is to combine the
design of fiber-grating packaged-structure and to induce the strain caused by the vibration
signals to create the grating center-wavelength shift.
For the design of the sensor structure, since the natural resonance frequency of the
structure itself is fixed, if the resonant cavity structure is fabricated to amplify the signal
amplitude, it may be limited by the vibration wave of a specific frequency or due to
the compressibility of the air to cause the vibration wave to be absorbed. Therefore, the
design of the film squeeze structure mainly refers to the traditional load-bearing extrusion
method of piezoelectric sensors. During the vibration process, the piezoelectric material
is deformed by the squeeze of the weight and the process of generating electrical signals.
The sensing mechanism of these proposed fiber sensors is based on the grating wavelength
shift caused by the vibration signals from the speaker. The speaker acts as a vibration
signal source to create the vibration signals to drive the elastic silicon thin-film to result
in the spontaneous vibration of the thin-film for stretching and depressing the sensing
fiber grating to cause the grating wavelength shift. The configuration of the operating
mechanism for this sensor is shown in Figure 1. This idea is to combine the fiber grating
 structure using silicone adhesive (3M Silicone Adhesi
USA). In this way, the bottom film can be aligned with
the upper and lower resonance effect of the bottom fi
Sensors 2024, 24, 6973
stretched and compressed to cause the grating to be
3 of 14

grating
with the specialcenter wavelength
structure-packaged shift.
design. Firstly, Bygrating
the fiber measuring
is embedded in the a gra
signals can be obtained. From the experiments, the el
silicone rubber film with a thickness of 277 µm, and then the film is cut into strips along
the axial direction of the grating. The silicone rubber film is made by utilizing a mixture of
3M, Maplewood,
SL-2500A (agents A and B) (Chih MN, Yi BussinessUSA)
Company, has Newnice tensile
Taipei, Taiwan).
batch, agents A and B are mixed in a 10:1 ratio. The prepared solution is poured into the
and ela
For each

sponse.
center The
of a circular iron film fiber
plate with grating
a diameter of 10 cm andis placed
fabricated byThe
in a spin coater. a fiber
spin coater uses centrifugal force to evenly distribute the silicone rubber solution across
film
the to compare
iron plate. By adjusting the the
amount sensing performance
of silicone rubber between
solution or controlling the speed the

In addition, the 3Dthatprinting time ofend the film fiber sque

and duration of the spinning process, films of different thicknesses can be produced. A 3D
printing technique is used to print a circle is closed on one side. One of the

the measurement process, the sensing

PN08019, 3M,height
Maplewood,must
grating is passed through the circular film, and finally, the whole is fixed to the cylindrical
structure using silicone adhesive (3M Silicone Adhesive MN, be
object to stand up to cause the structure deformation
USA). In this way, the bottom film can be aligned with the vibration source, and through
the upper and lower resonance effect of the bottom film. The central vertical film will
blocks.
be stretched and For solving
compressed to causethe problem,
the grating to be strainedthe support
and then to result in frame
grating center wavelength shift. By measuring the grating wavelength shift, the vibration
the

structure
signals forFrom
can be obtained. measuring
the experiments, the vibration
the elastic signals
tape (3M Polyester Tape 8901,accordi
3M,
Maplewood, MN, USA) has nice tensile and elastic effects for better frequency response.
The
The film 3D viewis and
fiber grating cross-section
fabricated of thewith
by a fiber grating embedded new film
an elastic filmsqueez
to
compare the sensing performance between the two different sensors.

Figure 1. The cross-section of the package structure without

Figure 1. The cross-section of the package structure without the excitation of vibration signals.

In addition, the 3D printing time of the film squeeze structure is longer and, during
the measurement process, the sensing height must be fixed by hand-holding or using the
object to stand up to cause the structure deformation or to create additional protruding
blocks. For solving the problem, the support frame is designed to stabilize the overall
structure for measuring the vibration signals according to the appropriate fixed height. The
3D view and cross-section of the new film squeeze structure are shown in Figure 2.
Sensors 2024, 24, 6973 4 of 14
Figure 1. The cross-section of the package structure without the excitation of vibration signals.

Figure 2.
Figure 2. The
The 3D
3D view
view and
and cross-section
cross-section of
of the
the new
new film
film squeeze
squeeze structure.
structure.

The operating mechanism of sensors is based on that the film of sensors can sense
vibrational signals to transfer the vibrational force to squeeze and extrude the fiber grating
to cause the grating wavelength shift. When a uniform stress (P) is applied in the sensing
fiber grating along the axial direction, it will create a fiber strain (ε) in the fiber grating,
ε = (υP)/E, where υ is Poisson’s ratio and E is the fiber module parameter. The strain in a
fiber grating will cause the variation both of grating period and grating effective index and
then to create the grating wavelength shift. This equation can be given as the following

∆λ B = 2Λ∆ne f f + 2∆Λne f f (2)

where ∆Λ is the grating period variation induced by the strain-elastic coefficient and ∆neff
is the effective index variation induced by the strain-optic effect.
Equation (2) can be further indicated as
 
∂ne f f ∂ne f f ∂Λ
∆λ B = 2Λ ∆L + ∆d + 2 ∆Lne f f (3)
∂L ∂d ∂L

where ∆L is the grating physical length variation along the fiber axis and ∆d is the fiber
∂n ∂n
diameter variation in the radial direction. ∂Le f f is the strain-optic effect and ∂de f f is the
photo-waveguide effect which can be neglected due to being very small value. By using
Taylor-series expansion to neglect the high order terms and to introduce the strain-optic
coefficient components of fused-silica (pij ), Equation (3) can be given as
( )
∆λ B n2 e f f
= 1− [ p12 − ( p11 + p12 )v] ε zz = Se ε (4)
λB 2

where Se is the strain-induced coefficient of the relative grating wavelength shift and υ is
the Poisson ratio.
n2 e f f
Se = 1 − [ p12 − ( p11 + p12 )v] (5)
2

3. Experimental Setup and Results

For the experiment, the source of vibration signals is a full-range speaker with 8 Ω-3
W. Each sensor is fixed at a support frame to have a height of 45 mm above the speaker.
The signal generator generates a sine wave signal with an amplitude of 300 mVpp to be
amplified by a signal amplifier to create 6 Vpp signals to drive the speaker as shown in
Figure 3. The output frequency of the signal generator is tuned in the range from 20 to
2000 Hz with a 20 Hz interval for the overall measurement. The frequency of vibration
 3. Experimental Setup and Results
For the experiment, the source of vibration signals is a full-range speaker with 8 Ω-3
W. Each sensor is fixed at a support frame to have a height of 45 mm above the speaker.
The signal generator generates a sine wave signal with an amplitude of 300 mVpp to be
Sensors 2024, 24, 6973 amplified by a signal amplifier to create 6 Vpp signals to drive the speaker as shown in
5 of 14
Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEWFigure 3. The output frequency of the signal generator is tuned in the range from 20 to 5 of 13
2000 Hz with a 20 Hz interval for the overall measurement. The frequency of vibration
signalsfrom
signals from00toto100
100Hz
Hzisisdefined
definedasasthe
thelow-frequency
low-frequencyband,
band,100
100toto1000
1000Hz
Hzisisdefined
defined
the mid-frequency
For confirming
the mid-frequency band, and above
the frequency
band, 1000
and aboveresponseHz
1000 Hz of is defined as
the output
is defined the high-frequency
signals
as the band.
of the speaker,
high-frequency band.we firstly
use the no-packaged bare-fiber grating to directly glue on the surface of the speaker to
sense the vibration signals. This original frequency response can be obtained for provid-
ing a comparison with that of another sensing heads. The original frequency response is
obtained, as shown in Figure 4, acting as a benchmark for comparing the sensing perfor-
mance by using different packaged-structures.
The overall experimental set-up is shown in Figure 5, in which the output light of the
broadband spontaneous emission light source (ASE Light Source) is put into the first fiber
circulator and then launched into the matching fiber grating (Match Gating, MG) to obtain
the grating reflection signal, which is input into the second fiber circulator. The overlap-
ping spectrum between the matching grating and sensing grating (SG) from port 3 of the
second fiber circulator is sent to the photodetector (InGaAs), and finally converted into an
electrical signal by the photodetector and connected to an oscilloscope. In addition, the
center wavelength
Figure3.3. of configuration
Experimental the matching fiber gratingvibration
and thesignals.
sensing fiber grating must be the
Figure Experimental configuration ofofgenerating
generatingvibration signals.
same, because the light energy finally transmitted to the photoelectric converter will be
determined according
For confirming the to the overlapping
frequency responsearea ofoutput
of the the sensing
signalscenter
of thewavelength
speaker, weand the
firstly
matching center wavelength. The demodulation mechanism of grating wavelength
use the no-packaged bare-fiber grating to directly glue on the surface of the speaker to sense shift
based
the on the overlapping
vibration signals. Thisreflection spectra between
original frequency the MG
response can and the SG is for
be obtained shown in Figure
providing a
6. During the
comparison withprocess, the change
that of another in light
sensing energy
heads. will be frequency
The original displayedresponse
on the oscilloscope,
is obtained,
and
as the waveform
shown will
in Figure 4, be reflected
acting as a sinefor
as a benchmark wave signal, sothe
comparing that the amplitude
sensing performanceand fre-
by
quency
using of the vibration
different wave can be observed and analyzed.
packaged-structures.

Figure4.4.Frequency
Figure Frequencyresponse
responseofofbare
barefiber
fibergrating
gratingfor
forsensing
sensingvibrational
vibrationalsignals.
signals.

The overall experimental set-up is shown in Figure 5, in which the output light of
the broadband spontaneous emission light source (ASE Light Source) is put into the first
fiber circulator and then launched into the matching fiber grating (Match Gating, MG) to
obtain the grating reflection signal, which is input into the second fiber circulator. The
overlapping spectrum between the matching grating and sensing grating (SG) from port 3
of the second fiber circulator is sent to the photodetector (InGaAs), and finally converted
into an electrical signal by the photodetector and connected to an oscilloscope. In addition,
the center wavelength of the matching fiber grating and the sensing fiber grating must be
the same, because the light energy finally transmitted to the photoelectric converter will be
determined according to the overlapping area of the sensing center wavelength and the
matching center wavelength. The demodulation mechanism of grating wavelength shift
based on the overlapping reflection spectra between the MG and the SG is shown in Figure 6.
During the process, the change in light energy will be displayed on the oscilloscope, and
Sensors 2024, 24, 6973 6 of 14

the waveform will be reflected as a sine wave signal, so that the amplitude and frequency
Figure
of 4. Frequency
the vibration waveresponse
can beofobserved
bare fiberand
grating for sensing vibrational signals.
analyzed.

Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 13

Figure
Figure 5. Experimental set-up
5. Experimental set-up of
of sensing
sensing vibrational
vibrational signals.
signals.

Figure 6.
Figure 6. The overlapping reflection
The overlapping reflection spectra
spectra between
between the
the sensing
sensing grating
grating and
and the
the matched
matched grating.
grating.

For comparing
For comparingthe the experimental
experimental results
results in different
in different sensingsensing structures,
structures, the filmthe film
squeeze
squeeze type is used for detecting vibration signals in the mid–high frequency range from
type is used for detecting vibration signals in the mid–high frequency range from 260 to
260 toHz
1000 1000
andHz in and in the mid–low
the mid–low frequencyfrequency
range fromrange100
from 100 Hz.
to 150 to 150 Hz. Because
Because the vi-
the vibration
bration amplitude
amplitude of the film
of the bottom bottom film
is too is too
large, large,
the the irregular
irregular oscillation
oscillation makes the makes the wave-
waveform dis-
form distortion
tortion as shownas inshown
Figure in7a.Figure
In the 7a. In the intermediate
intermediate frequency frequency band,the
band, although although
amplitudethe
amplitude
is not enough is not enough
large, large, the waveform
the waveform can be measured can be measured stably as
stably as shown in shown
Figure in Figure
7b,c. For
7b,c.signals
the For the signals
above 2000above
Hz, it2000 Hz, it istodifficult
is difficult measure, todue
measure,
to the due
smalltovibration
the smallamplitude
vibration
amplitude and the soft absorption characteristics of the film. The overall signal measure-
and the soft absorption characteristics of the film. The overall signal measurement with its
ment with its frequency response spectrum is shown in Figure 8.
frequency response spectrum is shown in Figure 8.
 bration amplitude of the bottom film is too large, the irregular oscillation makes the wave-
form distortion as shown in Figure 7a. In the intermediate frequency band, although the
amplitude is not enough large, the waveform can be measured stably as shown in Figure
7b,c. For the signals above 2000 Hz, it is difficult to measure, due to the small vibration
Sensors 2024, 24, 6973
amplitude and the soft absorption characteristics of the film. The overall signal measure- 7 of 14

ment with its frequency response spectrum is shown in Figure 8.

Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 13

Figure 7. (a) 100 Hz sensing signal, (b) 300 Hz sensing signal, (c) 1000 Hz sensing signal.
Figure 7. (a) 100 Hz sensing signal, (b) 300 Hz sensing signal, (c) 1000 Hz sensing signal.

Figure8.8.Comparison
Figure Comparisonofoffrequency
frequencyresponse
responseofoffilm
filmsqueeze
squeezetype
typeand
andbare
barefiber
fibergrating.
grating.

Theelastic-tape
The elastic-tapesqueeze
squeezetype typeshows
showsits itsmaterial
materialproperties
propertiesfor forthe
thefrequency
frequencyrangerange
from 100 to 200 Hz, and has a high signal amplification effect, but also due to the excessive
from 100 to 200 Hz, and has a high signal amplification effect, but also due to the excessive
deformationofofthe
deformation the fiber
fiber grating,
grating, thethe waveform
waveform distortion
distortion is shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure 9a,b.9a,b. How-
However,
ever,
the the characteristic
characteristic of thisofstructure
this structure is that
is that it has
it has a significant
a significant sensing
sensing effectininthe
effect thehigh-
high-
frequencyrange
frequency rangefrom
from1100
1100toto2500
2500Hz.Hz.The
Themainmainreason
reasonisisthat
thatthe
thestretching
stretchingeffect
effectofofthe
the
elastictape
elastic tapeisisbetter,
better,and
andit it
is is
notnot easy
easy to to absorb
absorb thethe signal
signal amplitude,
amplitude, so that
so that it can
it can meas-
measure
uretoup
up to about
about 3100The
3100 Hz. Hz.sensor
The sensor with performance
with better better performance in theand
in the mid- mid- and high-fre-
high-frequency
quency response is shown in Figure 9c,d. We can also observe that in comparison
response is shown in Figure 9c,d. We can also observe that in comparison with with
unstructured
unstructured
fiber grating, the fiber grating, the high-frequency
high-frequency response is nice response
than thatis nice than that
of a pure of aas
grating pure grating
shown in
as shown
Figure in Figure
10. The sensor10. Thethe
with sensor
best with the best high-frequency
high-frequency response in the response in theisexperiment
experiment an elastic
is ansqueeze
tape elastic tape squeeze structure.
structure.
 elastic tape is better, and it is not easy to absorb the signal amplitude, so that it can meas-
ure up to about 3100 Hz. The sensor with better performance in the mid- and high-fre-
quency response is shown in Figure 9c,d. We can also observe that in comparison with
unstructured fiber grating, the high-frequency response is nice than that of a pure grating
Sensors 2024, 24, 6973
as shown in Figure 10. The sensor with the best high-frequency response in the experiment 8 of 14

is an elastic tape squeeze structure.

Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEWFigure9.9.(a)

Figure (a)100
100Hz
Hzsensing
sensing signal,
signal, (b)(b)
400400
HzHz sensing
sensing signal,
signal, (c) 2000
(c) 2000 Hz sensing
Hz sensing signal,
signal, (d)
(d) 3100 3100
8 of 13
Hz
Hz sensing
sensing signal.
signal.

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Comparison
Comparison of
of frequency
frequency response
response of
of elastic
elastic tape
tapesqueeze
squeezestructure
structureand
andunstructured
unstructured
fiber grating.
fiber grating.

For improving
For improving the the low-frequency
low-frequency sensing
sensing performance,
performance, aa probeprobe isis installed
installed atat the
the
bottomof
bottom ofthe
theelastic
elastictape
tapesqueeze
squeezesensor,
sensor,as asshown
shownin inFigure
Figure11, 11,by
bydirectly
directlycontacting
contactingthe the
vibrationsource
vibration sourcecreated
createdby bythe
thespeaker.
speaker. The
The purpose
purpose of of the
theprobe
probestructure
structuredesign
designisisto to
obtainaabetter
obtain betterresponse
responsein inthe
thelower-frequency
lower-frequencyband bandby byutilizing
utilizingthethe probe
probetiptiptoto directly
directly
contact the
contact the vibration
vibration film
film of
of speaker
speaker to todirectly
directlyconduct
conductthe thespeaker
speakervibration
vibration signal
signal toto
drive the
drive the silicon
silicon thin-film.
thin-film. TheThepurpose
purposeofofthis
thisdesign
designisistotocompare
compare the sensing
the sensing character-
charac-
istics between
teristics between thethe
non-contact
non-contact type andand
type contact typetype
contact fiber-grating
fiber-gratingvibration
vibrationsensors. The
sensors.
probe is wooden material with a length of 3.6 cm, a width of 3.6 cm, and a height of 4.2
The probe is wooden material with a length of 3.6 cm, a width of 3.6 cm, and a height of
cm.cm.
4.2 ThisThis
design is attributed
design to thetofact
is attributed thethat
factthe sensing
that thin-film
the sensing of the sensor
thin-film of the can directly
sensor can
detect the
directly larger
detect thevibration signals in
larger vibration the lower
signals in thefrequency band created
lower frequency band from
createdthefrom
speaker.
the
It is confirmed by the experimental results, as shown in Figure 12, which show the capa-
bility to detect the 10 Hz signal. Due to the small vibration amplitude in the middle- and
high-frequency bands, the sensing performance will be decayed by using the probe con-
tact method.
 obtain a better response in the lower-frequency band by utilizing the probe tip to directly
contact the vibration film of speaker to directly conduct the speaker vibration signal to
drive the silicon thin-film. The purpose of this design is to compare the sensing character-
istics between the non-contact type and contact type fiber-grating vibration sensors. The
Sensors 2024, 24, 6973 probe is wooden material with a length of 3.6 cm, a width of 3.6 cm, and a height of 9 of4.2
14
cm. This design is attributed to the fact that the sensing thin-film of the sensor can directly
detect the larger vibration signals in the lower frequency band created from the speaker.
It is confirmed
speaker. by the experimental
It is confirmed results,results,
by the experimental as shown in Figure
as shown 12, which
in Figure show show
12, which the capa-
the
bility to detect the 10 Hz signal. Due to the small vibration amplitude in the middle-
capability to detect the 10 Hz signal. Due to the small vibration amplitude in the middle- and
high-frequency
and high-frequencybands, the sensing
bands, performance
the sensing will be
performance willdecayed by using
be decayed the probe
by using con-
the probe
tact method.
contact method.

Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 13

Figure 11.
Figure 11. The
The cross-section
cross-section of
of elastic-tape
elastic-tape squeeze
squeeze type
type with
with aa probe.
probe.

Figure12.
Figure 12.The
Thesensing
sensingsignal
signalof
of10
10Hz
Hzand
andsensing
sensingsignal
signalof
of500
500Hz.
Hz.

For solving
For solving thethe limitation
limitation of of the
the film
film squeeze
squeeze sensor
sensor that
that can
can only
only be
be held
held atataafixed
fixed
height, a new film squeeze structure is proposed to improve this
height, a new film squeeze structure is proposed to improve this problem. The frequency problem. The frequency
responsespectrum
response spectrumofofthe thenewnew film
film squeeze
squeeze structure
structure is shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure 13. We13.can
Wesee canthat,
see
that, owing
owing to the to the of
effect effect
the of the sensing
sensing support support fixing frame,
fixing frame, the amplitude
the amplitude gain response
gain response is nice
is the
in nicefrequency
in the frequency
from 100 from 100Hz,
to 250 to 250
butHz,
the but
filmthe film vibrates
vibrates with too with tooanlarge
large an ampli-
amplitude to
tude to
cause thecause thethe
drift of drift of thecenter
grating grating center wavelength
wavelength to exceed the to exceed
matching thegrating
matching rangegrating
and
range
then toand
sensethen
thetowaveform
sense the waveform with the phenomenon
with the phenomenon of positiveof positive
peak peak interception,
interception, as shown
as shown in Figure 14a. This is attributed to the high sensitivity of the new filmsensor
in Figure 14a. This is attributed to the high sensitivity of the new film structure structure
in
sensor
this in this frequency
frequency band. If the band. If the amplitude
amplitude of vibration
of vibration signal issignal is decreased,
decreased, this sensor
this sensor has a
has acapability
nice nice capability to measure
to measure the signal
the signal of thisoffrequency
this frequency
band asband as shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 14b.
14b. This
This sensor
sensor has a has a stable
stable sensing
sensing performance
performance in theinmid-frequency
the mid-frequency rangerange
fromfrom
100 to100 to 1000
1000 Hz,
Hz,
as as shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 14c,d.14c,d.
However, in order to clearly understand the sensing sensitivity of each sensor, a sine
wave from the signal generator with a frequency of 300 Hz is amplified and adjusted to
be the output voltage range from 2 Vpp to 20 Vpp per 2 Vpp to drive the speaker. The output
signals of the photodetector detecting from the sensing-head optical signals are monitored
for obtaining the relationship between the output and input amplitudes, as shown in Fig-
ure 15. From the figure, we can see that the measurement curves between the output and
the input voltages for the sensors are almost linear. The sensitivity of each sensor is the
curve slope, which can also be linearly fitted from each line segment in the figure. From
the curves, a sensitivity of 35 mV/V, which can be converted to 0.302 mV/g according to
the speaker specifications, the driving speaker voltages, and detecting signals, etc. The
 the speaker specifications, the driving speaker voltages, and detecting signals, etc. The
new film squeeze type at 300 Hz is obtained and the sensitivity of the elastic tape squeeze
type is 15 mV/V, which can be converted to 0.129 mV/g according to the speaker specifi-
cations, the driving speaker voltages, and detecting signals, etc., at 300 Hz. Thus, the sen-
Sensors 2024, 24, 6973
sitivity of the new film squeeze structure in the intermediate frequency is higher than that
10 of 14

of other types of sensors.

Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 13

Figure 13.
Figure 13. Comparison
Comparison of
of frequency
frequency response
response of
of new
new film
film squeeze
squeeze and
and unstructured
unstructured fiber
fiber grating.
grating.

Figure14.
Figure 14.The
Thesensing
sensingsignals
signalswith
withdifferent
differentvibration
vibrationamplitude
amplitudeandandfrequency.
frequency.(a)
(a)220
220Hz
Hzsensing
sensing
signal vs 300 mV vibration amplitude, (b) 220 Hz sensing signal vs 100 mV vibration amplitude,
signal vs 300 mV vibration amplitude, (b) 220 Hz sensing signal vs 100 mV vibration amplitude, (c)
500 Hz sensing signal vs 300 mV vibration amplitude, (d) 900 Hz sensing signal vs 300 mV vibration
(c) 500 Hz sensing signal vs 300 mV vibration amplitude, (d) 900 Hz sensing signal vs 300 mV
amplitude.
vibration amplitude.

However, in order to clearly understand the sensing sensitivity of each sensor, a sine
wave from the signal generator with a frequency of 300 Hz is amplified and adjusted to
be the output voltage range from 2 Vpp to 20 Vpp per 2 Vpp to drive the speaker. The
output signals of the photodetector detecting from the sensing-head optical signals are
monitored for obtaining the relationship between the output and input amplitudes, as
shown in Figure 15. From the figure, we can see that the measurement curves between
the output and the input voltages for the sensors are almost linear. The sensitivity of each
sensor is the curve slope, which can also be linearly fitted from each line segment in the
figure. From the curves, a sensitivity of 35 mV/V, which can be converted to 0.302 mV/g
according to the speaker specifications, the driving speaker voltages, and detecting signals,
etc. The new film squeeze type at 300 Hz is obtained and the sensitivity of the elastic tape
squeeze type is 15 mV/V, which can be converted to 0.129 mV/g according to the speaker
specifications, the driving speaker voltages, and detecting signals, etc., at 300 Hz. Thus, the

Figure 15. The relationship between vibration signal and sensing amplitude.
Sensors 2024, 24, 6973 11 of 14
Figure 14. The sensing signals with different vibration amplitude and frequency. (a) 220 Hz sensing
signal vs 300 mV vibration amplitude, (b) 220 Hz sensing signal vs 100 mV vibration amplitude, (c)
500 Hz sensing
sensitivity of signal
the newvs 300
filmmV vibration
squeeze amplitude,
structure (d) 900
in the Hz sensing frequency
intermediate signal vs 300
ismV vibration
higher than
amplitude.
that of other types of sensors.

Figure
Figure 15.
15. The
Therelationship
relationship between
between vibration
vibration signal
signal and
and sensing
sensing amplitude.
amplitude.

In
In addition to to monitoring
monitoringthe thetime-domain
time-domain signals
signals fromfromthethe output
output signals
signals of pho-
of the the
photodetector, it is required to obtain frequency information for the sensing signals. Dif-
todetector, it is required to obtain frequency information for the sensing signals. Different
ferent
digitaldigital
signal signal algorithms
algorithms are usedarefor used for confirming
confirming the frequency
the frequency spectrumspectrum of sensing
of sensing signals.
signals.
The actual Thesensing
actual sensing
signalssignals
are usuallyare usually
not a not a single
single frequency
frequency or a or a stable
stable amplitude.
amplitude. By
By using
using thethe Fourier
Fourier transform,
transform, it itisisdifficult
difficulttotosimultaneously
simultaneouslyobtain obtain the
the signal
signal spectrum
spectrum
at
at various
various time
time points.
points. Therefore,
Therefore, in in order
order to
to improve
improve this this problem,
problem, thethe wavelet
wavelet analysis
analysis
(Continuous Wavelet Transform, CWT) is used for this signal analysis [14]. The following
(Continuous Wavelet Transform, CWT) is used for this signal analysis [14]. The following
formula shows
formula shows thethe theoretical
theoretical expression
expression of of wavelet
wavelet analysis:
analysis:
Z ∞∞
11 t𝑡𝑡−−b𝑏𝑏
 
W𝑊𝑊(𝑎𝑎,
( a, b)𝑏𝑏) == � x𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)
(t) √ ψ𝜓𝜓 � �dt,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, (6)
(6)
−∞−∞ √a𝑎𝑎 a𝑎𝑎

where ψ(t) is a continuous function in both time domain and frequency domain called the
mother wavelet and the over-line represents operation of complex conjugate. a is the scaling
√
parameter, b is the translation parameter, and the factor (1/ a) is used to normalize the
energy of the CWT. The main purpose of the mother wavelet is to provide a source function
to generate the daughter wavelets, which are simply the translated and scaled versions
of the mother wavelet. Since it introduces a special window function for calculation, the
low-frequency component is calculated with long-term series and narrow bandwidth and
the high-frequency component is calculated with a short time series and a wide bandwidth
to obtain the timing of the frequency to be reflected in the time series of the signal, as
shown in Figure 16, in which the time-domain signal is measured by a new film squeeze
sensor. By using the fast Fourier transform analysis, the vibration signal has frequency
changes from 100 Hz to 300 Hz within 0.5 s, as shown in Figure 17, in which the peak of
around 150 Hz can be used for confirming to match the peak of frequency response in
Figure 13. From the comparison between Figures 13 and 17, we can see that the frequency
response of the sensor is mainly focused on the frequency range from 100 Hz to 300 Hz,
but the frequency response obtained by using the FFT has a large amount of noise. It
shows the sensing signals in components of 100~300 Hz. Figure 18 is a wavelet analysis
diagram in which the color contrast is used to distinguish different time points and the
amplitude of the components that appear at each frequency. The marked-red region shows
that, within the time variation, the appearance time of frequency components from 100 Hz
to 300 Hz extends from the bottom left to the top right. It can be known that the vibration
 but the
Figure 13.frequency response between
From the comparison obtainedFigures
by using the17,FFT
13 and hassee
we can a large
that theamount
frequency of noise. It
shows the
response sensing
of the sensorsignals
is mainlyin focused
components
on theof 100~300range
frequency Hz. Figure
from 10018Hzis to
a wavelet
300 Hz, analysis
but the frequency
diagram in which response
the color obtained by is
contrast using
used thetoFFT has a large
distinguish amount time
different of noise.
pointsIt and the
shows the sensing
amplitude of thesignals in components
components of 100~300
that appear Hz. Figure
at each 18 is a wavelet
frequency. analysis region
The marked-red
Sensors 2024, 24, 6973 diagram in which
shows that, thethe
within color
timecontrast is used
variation, thetoappearance
distinguish time
different time pointscomponents
of frequency and the 12 from
of 14
amplitude of the components that appear at each frequency. The marked-red region
100 Hz to 300 Hz extends from the bottom left to the top right. It can be known that the
shows that, within the time variation, the appearance time of frequency components from
vibration
100 Hz to 300signals whosefrom
Hz extends frequency changes
the bottom left towith time
the top rather
right. than
It can a mixing
be known thatsignal
the can re-
duce
signalsthe misjudgment
whose frequency of the spectrum.
changes with time rather than a mixing signal
vibration signals whose frequency changes with time rather than a mixing signal can re-
can reduce the
misjudgment of the spectrum.
duce the misjudgment of the spectrum.

Figure 16.
Figure 16.AAsignal
signalfrequency varies
frequency withwith
varies timetime
seriesseries
(100~300 Hz). Hz).
(100~300
Figure 16. A signal frequency varies with time series (100~300 Hz).

Figure 17. The time-frequency analysis of vibration signals with FFT.

Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 13

Figure17.
Figure 17.The
Thetime-frequency
time-frequencyanalysis
analysisofofvibration
vibrationsignals
signalswith
withFFT.
FFT.

Figure 18.
Figure 18. The
Thetime-frequency
time-frequencyanalysis of vibration
analysis signals
of vibration with CWT.
signals with CWT.

4. Conclusions
In this paper, various packaged-structure fiber-grating vibration sensors are pro-
posed. From the experimental results, we can see that the contact-type structure in the
low-frequency vibration band has better sensing performance. The film type is suitable in
the medium-frequency vibration wave. For high-frequency vibration waves, the sensing
materials with more elasticity and tension are required due to the fact that the high-fre-
Sensors 2024, 24, 6973 13 of 14

4. Conclusions
In this paper, various packaged-structure fiber-grating vibration sensors are proposed.
From the experimental results, we can see that the contact-type structure in the low-
frequency vibration band has better sensing performance. The film type is suitable in the
medium-frequency vibration wave. For high-frequency vibration waves, the sensing mate-
rials with more elasticity and tension are required due to the fact that the high-frequency
extrusion and stretching effects can effectively cause the deformation of the fiber grating.
In addition, in terms of signal analysis, a wavelet transform can be used simultaneously to
analyze time-frequency signals for obtaining more time-frequency information. Thus, the
sensor based on fiber gratings can effectively achieve the measurement of vibration signals
created from high-end machines or facilities owing to the characteristics of high sensitivity,
anti-corrosion, anti-electromagnetic interference, etc.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.-C.C.; methodology, I.-N.C. and C.-C.C.; software,

C.-C.C.; validation, C.-C.C. and I.-N.C.; formal analysis, C.-C.C. and I.-N.C.; investigation, C.-C.C.;
resources, I.-N.C. and C.-C.C.; data curation, C.-C.C.; writing—original draft preparation, C.-C.C.;
writing—review and editing, I.-N.C.; visualization, I.-N.C. and W.-F.L.; supervision, I.-N.C. and
W.-F.L.; project administration, W.-F.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to specifically thank the National Science and Technology
Council, Taiwan, for sponsoring this research under Contract No. NSTC 112-2221-E-035-061.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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