International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 24 (2021) 100316

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijgfs

Anthocyanin content in raspberry and elderberry: The impact of cooking

and recipe composition
Tânia Cordeiro a, Iva Fernandes b, Olívia Pinho a, c, Conceição Calhau d, e, f, Nuno Mateus b,
Ana Faria d, e, g, *
a
Faculty of Food and Nutrition of University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
b
REQUIMTE/LAQV, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade Do Porto, Porto, Portugal
c
REQUIMTE/LAQV, Department of Chemical Sciences, Laboratory of Bromatology, Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy of University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
d
Nutrição e Metabolismo, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
e
CINTESIS - Center for Research in Health Technologies and Information Systems, Porto Portugal
f
Unidade Universitária Lifestyle Medicine José de Mello Saúde By NOVA Medical School, Lisboa, Portugal
g
Comprehensive Health Research Centre NOVA Medical School – FCM Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Background: Anthocyanins are known phytochemicals with beneficial properties for human health. The most
Anthocyanin important route of entry is by consumption of anthocyanins’ naturally rich food such as berries and red wine, in
Cooking its natural form or as a part of recipes. The effect of cooking methods (boiling, steaming and baking) and recipe
Elderberry
composition with two different berries, raspberry and elderberry, on the content of anthocyanins was investi­
Raspberry
Recipes
gated. Raspberries and elderberries were cooked either in a pan with water, in steam, or baked in the oven. Four
recipes containing raspberries and elderberries were prepared: jam, crumble, muffin and mousse. Anthocyanin
content was quantified by HPLC-DAD.
Results: Generally, and compared to raw fruit, a reduction of anthocyanin content after cooking was observed,
independently of the heating process. Elderberries were more prone to decrease anthocyanin content after
cooking process. Nevertheless, about 70% of the anthocyanins were recovered from the fruit and the water used
in the cooking process. Berry anthocyanins’ content decreased the most in jam, and in recipes with baking soda.
As opposed to jam, their inclusion in mousse led to almost no decrease in anthocyanin content.
Conclusion: All cooking methods tested led to a loss of the original anthocyanin content in berries but, in recipes
without a thermal treatment, anthocyanin lost was minimal. These results support the incorporation of berries in
cooking processes, particularly those that do not require heat, as a valid alternative to increase phytochemical
consumption such as anthocyanins.

Introduction Anthocyanins are flavonoids responsible for the red, purple and blue
colour of several fruits like raspberry and elderberry (Fang, 2015) and
Phytochemicals are bioactive plant compounds generally classified many vegetables (Bhagwat et al., 2013). The anthocyanins more
as flavonoids, carotenoids, phenolic alkaloids, nitrogen-containing commonly identified in raspberry species are cyanidin-3-sophoroside,
compounds or organosulfur compounds. Phytochemicals are found in cyanidin-3-glucoside, cyandin-3-rutinoside, cyanidin-3-glucoside-r­
fruits, vegetables, grains and other plant parts (Nebeling, 2003). Several utinoside (Määttä-Riihinen et al., 2004) and those identified in elder­
studies have demonstrated that a high consumption of phytochemicals berry are cyanidin-3-glucoside, cyanidin-3-sambubiose,
has a positive correlation with the prevention of various chronic diseases cyanidin-3-sambubiose-5-glucoside (Lee and Finn, 2007). Anthocya­
(Fiorentini et al., 2015), such as cancer (Metere and Giacomelli, 2017), nins have distinguishing physicochemical properties that confer them
chronic inflammation, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes (Rocha et al., their unique colour. They are extremely reactive molecules and thus
2019), inflammatory bowel disease (Martin and Bolling, 2015) and sensitive to degradation reactions. Oxygen, temperature, light, enzymes
neurological diseases (Ishwarya and Narendhirakannan, 2016). or pH are some of the factors that can affect anthocyanins stability and

* Corresponding author. NOVA Medical School – FCM, Universidade Nova de Lisboa Campo Mártires da Pátria, 130 1169-056 Lisboa, Portugal.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Faria).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2021.100316
Received 6 October 2020; Received in revised form 27 January 2021; Accepted 3 February 2021
Available online 8 February 2021
1878-450X/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
T. Cordeiro et al. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 24 (2021) 100316

colour (Fernandes et al., 2014a). Structurally, anthocyanins may occur fruits and in the cooking water used for boiling and steaming. All
in different forms in aqueous solution depending on the pH, which in­ cooking methods were performed in triplicate.
fluences their colour: at a pH lower than 3, anthocyanins occur as a
flavylium cation form that presents an orange or red colour. The storage Preparation of desserts
environment plays a critical role in maintaining anthocyanin pigmen­ Four desserts, prepared using different cooking methods, utilization
tation, and temperature is known to promote anthocyanin degradation and temperatures were analysed: jam, crumble, muffin and mousse.
(Abdel-Aal and Hucl, 2003). Thus, anthocyanins may be degraded Table 1 shows the time, temperature and ingredients of each dessert
through numerous processes occurring during food processing, storage recipe. All recipes were performed in triplicate. The cooking times of
and extraction (Brouillard and Dubois, 1977). these dessert recipes were tested and raspberries and elderberries had
Cooking is a process that promotes both physical and chemical different cooking time in crumble and muffin, as indicated in Table 1.
changes in food. The application of various cooking methods provides
food with unique characteristics either in a sensory level or in a nutri­ Extraction of anthocyanin from berries
tional level. Therefore, the process of cooking improves the process of
digestibility of foods and, in general, improves the bioaccessibility and Five g of raw berries and 5 g from each cooked sample was acidified
consequently the bioavailability of various nutrients (Hotz and Gibson, with 1 mL of HCl 2% (v/v) and kept at 5 ◦ C during 12 h before analysis.
2007) and promotes food safety by reducing the load of microorganisms Anthocyanins were extracted with 10 mL of methanol. After 15 min in a
(Manios and Skandamis, 2015). However, cooking may also promote the shaker, each sample was centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 min and the
loss of various nutrients, particularly antioxidants, iron, folic acid, supernatant was used for the HPLC analysis. The anthocyanins resultant
amino acids, among others (Vinha et al., 2015), and the production of from the extraction of 5 g of raw fruit were used as control (100%). Five
undesirable compounds such as several carcinogenic compounds mL of the cooking water was acidified with 1 mL of HCl 2% (v/v), kept at
(Stavric, 1994). There is a growing awareness of the health beneficial 5 ◦ C during 12 h and directly analysed.
potential of berries (Noratto et al., 2017) and these small fruits are
gradually gaining their space as everyday ingredients. Moreover, rasp­ Extraction of anthocyanin from desserts
berry and particularly, elderberry are small fruits with considerable
local production: their production in Portuguese farmhouses increased The desserts were weighed after the cooking process. Five g of each
in the last 5 years (INE, 2017). Nevertheless, elderberry has a reduced desert was acidified with 1 mL of HCl 2% (v/v) and kept at 5 ◦ C during
commercial value despite its nutritional value and health professionals’ 12 h before analysis. The sample was shattered with the help of a spatula
recommendation for their consumption. and anthocyanins were extracted with 10 mL of methanol. After 15 min
The intake of these small fruits is, most of the time, in fresh and raw in a shaker, each sample was centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 min and the
forms, but several composed dishes, and particularly, desserts may supernatant was used for the HPLC analysis (adapted from Karakaya
incorporate them to enrich the antioxidant content and, at the same et al. (2016)). The anthocyanin content was expressed in g/100 g of
time, reduce the amount of sugar. It is therefore important to understand product. The anthocyanins resultant from the extraction of 5 g of raw
whether the content of these compounds is kept after the application of fruit were used as control (100%).
cooking processes such as boiling, steaming and baking and after their
incorporation in recipes such as jam and cakes.
Few studies have evaluated the impact of cooking methods on small
fruits. Previous studies showed that when fruits are cooked, changes in
physical and chemical compositions occur compared to the raw form
(Queiroz et al., 2009). Oliveira et al. (2010) quantified the anthocyanin Table 1
content from cooked blueberry and found a progressive heating degra­ Time, temperature and ingredients of each dessert recipe.
dation effect on the anthocyanin content, but cooked blueberries Cooking Cooking condition
maintained or increased radical-scavenging activity. Also, it was shown method
Temperature Time Ingredient
that anthocyanin content of blueberries decreased during cooking,
Jam 100 ◦ C 10 25 g of sugar
proofing and baking (Rodriguez-Mateos et al., 2014). However, the min 50 g of raspberry/elderberry
impact of cooking methods on the anthocyanin content of raspberry and Crumble 180 ◦ C 20 10 g of brown sugar
elderberry is unknown, as well as the effect of berries incorporation in min 10 g of white flour
different recipes. 6.25 g of butter
50 g of raspberry
Therefore, the present study aimed at evaluating the effect of
10 10 g of brown sugar
different cooking methods and different food matrices on the anthocy­ min 10 g of white flour
anin content of raspberry and elderberry. 6.25 g of butter
50 g of elderberry
Muffin 180 ◦ C 20 50 g of sugar
Material and methods
min 30 g of butter
10 mL o water,
Sample preparation 55 g of egg
2 g of baking powder (Disodium
Cooking methods diphosphate, sodium bicarbonate)
50 g of raspberry
Raspberries were obtained from a local and rural farmer in Mir­ 10 50 g of sugar
andela, Portugal on the second week of July, and refrigerated at 5 ◦ C min 30 g of butter
during two days before the study. Elderberries were obtained from a 10 mL o water,
rural farmer in Oliveira de Azeméis, Portugal, on the second week of 55 g of egg
2 g of baking powder (Disodium
August, then frozen at − 18 ◦ C during four months before the study. In
diphosphate, sodium bicarbonate)
both cases, plants with good solar exposition were selected. A sample of 50 g of elderberry
50 g of fresh raspberry and thawed elderberries were cooked in a pan Mousse 5 ◦C 1.5 g of colourless gelatine
with water (50 mL) for 5 min at 100 ◦ C, cooked in steam (50 mL of 17.5 g of egg white
water) for 5 min at 100 ◦ C and baked in the oven for 5 min at 180 ◦ C. 62 g of condensed milk
50 g of raspberry/elderberry
Following the cooking process, anthocyanins were quantified in all the

2
T. Cordeiro et al. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 24 (2021) 100316

Anthocyanin quantification by HPLC-DAD

High-performance liquid chromatography (Dionex Ultimate Thermo

Scientific® Standard 3000) was performed to analyze anthocyanin
content. A reversed-phase C18 column (LiChrospher® 100 RP -18, 5 μm,
25 cm) at 25 ◦ C, equipped with a security guard column, was used to
separate the anthocyanins. Anthocyanins were eluted with a gradient
system consisting of ultra-purified water and formic acid (9:1 v/v) as
solvent A and water, formic acid and acetonitrile (6:1:3 v/v/v) as sol­
vent B at a flow rate of 1.0 mL min− 1 and run time of 52 min. The column
temperature was maintained at 25 ◦ C and the injection volume was 50
μL. The gradient system was 80% solvent A and 20% solvent B for 42.5
min, 40% solvent A and 60% solvent B from 42.5 to 46.2 min and 100%
solvent B from 46.2 to 52 min. After each run the column was stabilized
at the initial conditions (20% solvent B and 80% solvent A) for 10 min
(Fernandes et al., 2012). Quantitative analyses were carried out with an
external calibration curve and expressed as cyanidin-3-glucoside
equivalents. All analyses were performed in triplicate.

Mass spectrometry analysis

LC-MS analysis was performed on a liquid chromatograph (Hewlett-

Packard 1100 series) equipped with an AQUATM (Phenomenex, Tor­
Fig. 1. HPLC chromatogram of fresh raspberry recorded at 520 nm and iden­
ance, CA, USA) reversed-phase column (150 × 4.6 mm, 5 μm, C18), at
tification of anthocyanins present in a fresh raspberry sample by LC-MS.
35 ◦ C. Solvents were A: H2O/HCOOH (9.9:0.1) and B: H2O/CH3CN/
HCOOH (6.9:3:0.1). The HPLC gradient used was the same reported
above for the HPLC analysis. Double online detection was done in a
photodiode spectrophotometer and by mass spectrometry. The mass
detector was a Finnigan LCQ (Finnigan Corporation, San Jose, USA)
equipped with an API source, using an electrospray ionisation (ESI)
interface. Both the auxiliary and the sheath gas were a mixture of ni­
trogen and helium. The capillary voltage was 3 V and the capillary
temperature 190 ◦ C. Spectra were recorded in positive ion mode be­
tween m/z 120 and 1500. The mass spectrometer was programmed to
perform a series of three scans: a full mass, a zoom scan of the most
intense ion in the first scan, and a MS-MS of the most intense ion using
relative collision energies of 30 and 60.

Data and statistical analysis

Results were expressed in % control, being 100% control the amount

of anthocyanins in the raw fruit. The results were related in concen­
tration of anthocyanins/g final product in order to eliminate the con­
centration effect by water loss and the dilution effect by addition of the
other recipe components. All data was expressed as mean ± SEM from
triplicates of undertaken in each of the three independent experiments.
One-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparisons test were
performed using GraphPad Prism version 7.00 (GraphPad Software, San
Diego California USA). Statistical significance was considered when p < Fig. 2. HPLC chromatogram of anthocyanins present in thawed elderberry
recorded at 520 nm and identification of anthocyanins present in thawed
0.05.
elderberry sample by LC-MS.

Results
cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside and cyanidin-3-sambubiose-5-glucoside; peaks
Anthocyanin characterization in raspberries by LC-MS 3 and 4 were identified as cyanidin-3-sambubiose and cyanidin-3-
glucoside, respectively.
The anthocyanin HPLC profile of the raspberry sample is presented in
Fig. 1. In total, 5 peaks were identified. Peaks 1, 3 and 5 yielded a Changes in anthocyanin content after cooking
fragment ion with an m/z of 287 [M]+ and were hence assigned as
cyanidin glycosides. Peak 2 revealed a fragment ion with an m/z of 611 Changes in anthocyanin content in raspberries were evaluated after
[M]+ and was hence assigned as cyanidin-3-(2-glucosylrutinoside). In a different cooking methods and compared to anthocyanin content in the
similar way, pelargonidin-3-sophoroside was assigned for peak 4. raw fruit. The total loss in anthocyanin content was around 40% for
boiling, 30% for steaming and 28% for baking (Fig. 3A). However,
Anthocyanin characterization in elderberries by LC-MS anthocyanin losses in boiling and steaming methods are smaller when
their content in the boiling water (~15%) and in the steaming water
The anthocyanin HPLC profile of the elderberry sample is presented (~2%) are taken into consideration (Fig. 3A).
in Fig. 2. Four peaks were identified. Peak 1 and 2 were assigned as In the case of elderberries, the total loss in anthocyanin content was

3
T. Cordeiro et al. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 24 (2021) 100316

Fig. 3. HPLC quantification of anthocyanin content in A) raspberries and B)

elderberries, after application of cooking methods. Results are expressed as %
control (raw fruit) and are presented as mean ± SEM. Columns with different
letters represent results in which the difference is statistically significant (p
< 0.05).

around 45% for boiling, 60% for steaming and 35% for baking (Fig. 3B).
However, and as already referred in the case of raspberries, the antho­
cyanin losses in boiling and steaming are smaller when the content
present in the boiling water (20%) and steaming water (20%) is
Fig. 4. HPLC quantification of anthocyanin content in dessert recipes using A)
considered.
raspberries and B) elderberries. Results are expressed as % control (raw fruit)
Comparing the effects of cooking processes between elderberries and and are presented as mean ± SEM. Columns with different letters represent
raspberries, a greater reduction was found for elderberry after heat results in which the difference is statistically significant (p < 0.05).
application. Conversely to what was observed in raspberry, steaming
generated the greatest loss of anthocyanins in elderberry, and a greater Discussion
amount of anthocyanins were recovered in the steaming water, which
contained 20% of anthocyanin content. Effect of cooking processes on anthocyanin content

Changes in anthocyanin content in the dessert recipes In raspberry, there was a higher retention of anthocyanins in the fruit
and there were lower losses to the water than in elderberry. Lower
Results obtain in dessert recipes are presented assuming the raw fruit amount of anthocyanins was yielded from raspberry than from elder­
as control (100%). For raspberries, the recipes in which there was a great berry, when applying these cooking processes.
loss of anthocyanin content were jam and muffin (at least 70%, p < Time and temperature are known factors influencing the leaching of
0.05), followed by crumble (at least 35%, p < 0.05) and mousse (at least these compounds. The tested processes were controlled for time and
25%, p > 0.05) (Fig. 4A). In the case of the elderberries, the dessert temperature, hence, it is possible to suggest an effect of the fruit itself.
recipe with greater loss of anthocyanin was also jam (60%), but, inter­ Raspberry is an aggregate fruit, which means that it contains more peel,
estingly, the muffin (35%) did not present such a great loss as seen in which confers a barrier for the anthocyanin extraction as opposed to
raspberry. Crumble (35%) and mousse (10%) had the lower losses of elderberry.
anthocyanins (Fig. 4B). To avoid the effect of exposure time in the various temperatures used
in the cooking processes, in the present study all processes occurred with
equal cooking times, varying only temperature. Both boiling and
steaming are processes than involve water, but in steaming, the fruit is
not immersed in water. It was possible to observe that there are

4
T. Cordeiro et al. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 24 (2021) 100316

differences in the behavior of anthocyanins (retaining or extraction) those obtained in this work, with losses of approximately 20% (Jian
depending on the cooking processes and on the fruit. et al., 2011; Rodriguez-Mateos et al., 2014). Accordingly, Górnaś et al.
In this study, 20% of the anthocyanin content was found in the (2016) indicate that anthocyanins were the most unstable polyphenols
boiling water for both fruits. The temperature and contact with water during the baking process of the muffins. This author also refers a sig­
turns the cellular walls softer, breaking them, which may facilitate the nificant impact on the stability of anthocyanins, during baking due to
release of compounds from inside the cells (Blessington et al., 2010). the baking time and temperature, but also to the source of heating. A
Nevertheless, in steaming, anthocyanins were retained to a greater study carried out in muffin with baking purple wheat verified a total loss
extension in raspberry than in elderberry. Moreover, the steam water of anthocyanins (Li et al., 2007). However, the latter study differed in
contained significantly less anthocyanins in raspberry than in elder­ the type of leavening used, which could therefore justify the different
berry, which may demonstrate that the leaching of these compounds to results found. Rosales-Soto et al. (2012) used a baking powder with
the steam water and by condensation is protected by the harder peel double action and that contained yeast, while the two studies with
from the fruit. greater losses of anthocyanin used sodium bicarbonate (Li et al., 2007)
In addition, the differences between the food matrices, the pectolytic and baking powder (Rupasinghe et al., 2008). It has been suggested that
enzymes, that facilitate accessibility to the pulp, may influence differ­ fermentation agents can drastically affect the polyphenols content of
ently the content of polyphenolic compounds in food. Therefore, cook­ baking products, with baking soda producing the greatest loss on the
ing processes and the nature of the fruit can distinctly influence the polyphenols content (Stahl et al., 2009). In fact, it has been reported that
anthocyanin content present in food (Murador et al., 2018). baking soda and baking powder may induce alkalinity and consequently
It has been reported that high temperature induces the degradation induce the loss of flavonoids and the decrease of antioxidant activity
of anthocyanins. (Mourtzinos et al., 2008). Despite the retention of the (Stahl et al., 2009). However, addition of citric acid may increase the
compounds in the fruit and water, a considerable loss of anthocyanin stability of the anthocyanins, reducing the loss of these compounds due
was observed after the cooking processes. These compounds are highly to a pH reduction (Li et al., 2011). In this study, sodium bicarbonate was
soluble and highly reactive. The liberation anthocyanins from the food used, which may have promoted the reduction of the anthocyanins in
matrix which favors their interaction with other food components, in the muffins. The difference in content between raspberry and elderberry
addition to pH changes that provoke anthocyanins changes from flavy­ muffins may be due to the fact that the first one was baked for 20 min
lium form to hemiketal or quinonoidal forms, may lead to anthocyanin and the second for 10 min, leading to a different degree of anthocyanin
loss by reaction and/or degradation. degradation. In addition, it is possible to hypothesize that the fact that
Regarding baking, the process reduced the anthocyanin content, elderberry peel is more fragile than raspberry, anthocyanin content
contrary to what was reported by Murador et al. (2014), who observed could be more spread in the elderberry muffin than in raspberry muffin,
an increase in the concentration of these compounds. This increase may leading to higher anthocyanin detection.
be related to the baking technique, where the heat transfer to cooking Similarly to muffin, the raspberry and elderberry crumble had a
food occurs through the air, which will induce a dehydration and different anthocyanin loss, of 65% (p < 0.05) and 35%, respectively.
consequently the increase of the anthocyanin concentration. In the These differences could be explained by the same factors as for the
present study, anthocyanins were more retained in raspberry than in muffin’s dessert. These results showed that time and temperature are
elderberry, probably due to this stronger barrier conferred by the greater crucial determinants of anthocyanin retention in processed food. In
peel area of raspberries. addition, an inverse relation between water activity and anthocyanin
There are only few studies that analyze the effect of cooking on small stability at high temperatures has been reported (Jiménez et al., 2012)
fruits: a study was carried out to evaluate the anthocyanin content in which can also be a contributive factor to anthocyanin’ reduction in the
cooked blueberries in the belly of a fish, verifying a reduction of recipes with higher temperatures, and consequently, lower water
anthocyanin content when compared to raw fruit. (Oliveira et al., 2010). activity.
On the other hand, Liao et al. (2019) observed a 6.55% increase of the The recipe that preserved the greatest content of anthocyanins was
total anthocyanin content after boiling purple-fleshed sweetpotato. the mousse, which would be expected since this dessert is not subjected
Since thermal treatments might release more anthocyanins from phys­ to any thermal treatment. However, losses of about 10% were found,
ical entrapment in other structures (Xu and Chang, 2008), these authors which could be explained by the refrigeration and the imprisonment of
suggested that boiling would lead to an increase of mono-acylated an­ these compounds in the food matrix, particularly fat and sugar present in
thocyanins, and the di-acylated anthocyanins could potentially trans­ the condensed milk.
form and strengthen mono-acylated anthocyanins. On the other hand,
Xu and Chang (2009) have verified a reduction of the anthocyanin Conclusion
content in black beans after boiling and steaming.
All cooking methods tested in the present study led to a loss of the
Effect of recipe composition on the anthocyanin content original anthocyanin content. Elderberry, with a softer peel, seemed to
be more prone to water extraction of anthocyanins and its degradation
According to this study, jam was the process that induced a greater by heat. Nevertheless, including berry fruits in dishes may be a good
loss of anthocyanins in both small fruits (~60%). These results are in alternative for consumers to include anthocyanins in every daily meal
accordance with other studies that evaluated the impact of jam pro­ and increase phytochemical consumption. Their inclusion in recipes
duction on the anthocyanin content (Merve et al., 2017). This can be without a thermal treatment should be preferred since it preserve the
explained by the complex network that is created in the process of most of the anthocyanin content of these fruits.
cooking jam, the sugars and pectin naturally present in these fruits and
the addition of refined sugar, which interacts with water under high Declaration of competing interest
temperature, and the affinity of anthocyanins to sugars. These facts can
imprison anthocyanins in complex networks that hence render them The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
inaccessible to methanol extraction (Fernandes et al., 2014b). interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
Muffin was the second dessert recipe that revealed the greater the work reported in this paper.
decrease in the anthocyanin content. Elderberries and raspberries had
different behaviors, since elderberry muffin showed a smallest loss of Acknowledgments
anthocyanins. Several studies have observed the impact of baking culi­
nary processing in red fruit muffins, having observed results identical to This work was supported by FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e

5
T. Cordeiro et al. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 24 (2021) 100316

Tecnologia, Portugal through national funds and co-financed by FEDER, (family Rosaceae). J. Agric. Food Chem. 52, 6178–6187. https://doi.org/10.1021/
jf049450r.
under the Partnership Agreement PT2020 (UID/QUI/50006/2013 –
Manios, S.G., Skandamis, P.N., 2015. Effect of frozen storage, different thawing methods
POCI/01/0145/FEDER/007265). Iva Fernandes gratefully acknowl­ and cooking processes on the survival of Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli O157:
edges the contract from FCT (SFRH/BPD/86173/2012). The authors H7 in commercially shaped beef patties. Meat Sci. 101, 25–32. https://doi.org/
declare no conflict of interest. 10.1016/j.meatsci.2014.10.031.
Martin, D.A., Bolling, B.W., 2015. A review of the efficacy of dietary polyphenols in
experimental models of inflammatory bowel diseases. Food Funct 6, 1773–1786.
References https://doi.org/10.1039/C5FO00202H.
Merve, T., Gamze, T., Dilek, B., HR, D., Jules, B., Esra, C., 2017. Processing black
Abdel-Aal, E.-S.M., Hucl, P., 2003. Composition and stability of anthocyanins in blue- mulberry into jam: effects on antioxidant potential and in vitro bioaccessibility.
grained wheat. J. Agric. Food Chem. 51, 2174–2180. https://doi.org/10.1021/ J. Sci. Food Agric. 97, 3106–3113. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.8152.
jf021043x. Metere, A., Giacomelli, L., 2017. Absorption, metabolism and protective role of fruits and
Bhagwat, S., Haytowitz, D.B., Wasswa-Kintu, S.I., Holden, J.M., 2013. USDA develops a vegetables polyphenols against gastric cancer. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci. 21,
database for flavonoids to assess dietary intakes. Procedia Food Sci. 2, 81–86. 5850–5858. https://doi.org/10.26355/eurrev_201712_14034.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.profoo.2013.04.013. Mourtzinos, I., Makris, D.P., Yannakopoulou, K., Kalogeropoulos, N., Michali, I.,
Blessington, T., Nzaramba, M.N., Scheuring, D.C., Hale, A.L., Reddivari, L., Miller, J.C., Karathanos, V.T., 2008. Thermal stability of anthocyanin extract of Hibiscus
2010. Cooking methods and storage treatments of potato: effects on carotenoids, sabdariffa L. In the presence of β-cyclodextrin. J. Agric. Food Chem. 56,
antioxidant activity, and phenolics. Am. J. Potato Res. 87, 479–491. https://doi.org/ 10303–10310. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf801389j.
10.1007/s12230-010-9150-7. Murador, D.C., da Cunha, D.T., de Rosso, V.V., 2014. Effects of cooking techniques on
Brouillard, R., Dubois, J.-E., 1977. Mechanism of the structural transformations of vegetable pigments: a meta-analytic approach to carotenoid and anthocyanin levels.
anthocyanins in acidic media. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 99, 1359–1364. https://doi.org/ Food Res. Int. 65, 177–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2014.06.015.
10.1021/ja00447a012. Murador, D., Braga, A.R., Da Cunha, D., De Rosso, V., 2018. Alterations in phenolic
Fang, J., 2015. Classification of fruits based on anthocyanin types and relevance to their compound levels and antioxidant activity in response to cooking technique effects: a
health effects. Nutrition 31, 1301–1306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. meta-analytic investigation. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 58, 169–177. https://doi.org/
nut.2015.04.015. 10.1080/104083.98.2016.1140121.
Fernandes, I., Nave, F., Goncalves, R., de Freitas, V., Mateus, N., 2012. On the Nacional de Estatística, Instituto, 2017. Estatísticas Agrícolas 2016, 2017. Statistics
bioavailability of flavanols and anthocyanins: flavanol-anthocyanin dimers. Food Portugal, Instituto Nacional de Estatística, I.P., Lisboa, Portugal.
Chem. 135, 812–818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.05.037. Nebeling, L., 2003. Phytochemicals in nutrition and health, 103. Academy of Nutrition
Fernandes, I., Faria, A., Calhau, C., de Freitas, V., Mateus, N., 2014a. Bioavailability of and Dietetics, p. 786.
anthocyanins and derivatives. J. Funct. Food. 7, 54–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Noratto, G.D., Chew, B.P., Atienza, L.M., 2017. Red raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) intake
jff.2013.05.010. decreases oxidative stress in obese diabetic (db/db) mice. Food Chem. 227, 305–314.
Fernandes, A., Ivanova, G., Brás, N.F., Mateus, N., Ramos, M.J., Rangel, M., de https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.01.097.
Freitas, V., 2014b. Structural characterization of inclusion complexes between Oliveira, C., Amaro, L.F., Pinho, O., Ferreira, I.M., 2010. Cooked blueberries:
cyanidin-3-O-glucoside and β-cyclodextrin. Carbohydr. Polym. 102, 269–277. anthocyanin and anthocyanidin degradation and their radical-scavenging activity.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.11.037. J. Agric. Food Chem. 58, 9006–9012. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf101923w.
Fiorentini, D., Zambonin, L., Dalla Sega, F.V., Hrelia, S., 2015. Polyphenols as Queiroz, F., Oliveira, C., Pinho, O., Ferreira, I.M., 2009. Degradation of anthocyanins and
modulators of aquaporin family in health and disease. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. anthocyanidins in blueberry jams/stuffed fish. J. Agric. Food Chem. 57,
2015, 196914. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/196914. 10712–10717. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf9021948.
Górnaś, P., Juhņeviča-Radenkova, K., Radenkovs, V., Mišina, I., Pugajeva, I., Soliven, A., Rocha, D., Caldas, A., da Silva, B., Hermsdorff, H., Alfenas, R., 2019. Effects of blueberry
Segliņa, D., 2016. The impact of different baking conditions on the stability of the and cranberry consumption on type 2 diabetes glycemic control: a systematic
extractable polyphenols in muffins enriched by strawberry, sour cherry, raspberry or review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 59, 1816–1828. https://doi.org/10.1080/
black currant pomace. Food Sci. Technol. 65, 946–953. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 10408398.2018.1430019.
lwt.2015.09.029. Rodriguez-Mateos, A., Cifuentes-Gomez, T., George, T.W., Spencer, J.P.E., 2014. Impact
Hotz, C., Gibson, R.S., 2007. Traditional food-processing and preparation practices to of cooking, proving, and baking on the (Poly)phenol content of wild blueberry.
enhance the bioavailability of micronutrients in plant-based diets. J. Nutr. 137, J. Agric. Food Chem. 62, 3979–3986. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf403366q.
1097–1100. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/137.4.1097. Rosales-Soto, M.U., Powers, J.R., Alldredge, J.R., 2012. Effect of mixing time, freeze-
Ishwarya, M., Narendhirakannan, R.T., 2016. Adv. Neurobiol. 12, 293–306. https://doi. drying and baking on phenolics, anthocyanins and antioxidant capacity of raspberry
org/10.1007/978-3-319-28383-8_15. juice during processing of muffins. J. Sci. Food Agric. 92, 1511–1518. https://doi.
Jian, L., E, W.C., FJ, M., 2011. Acidulant and oven type affect total anthocyanin content org/10.1002/jsfa.4735.
of blue corn cookies. J. Sci. Food Agric. 91, 38–43. https://doi.org/10.1002/ Rupasinghe, H.P.V., Wang, L., Huber, G.M., Pitts, N.L., 2008. Effect of baking on dietary
jsfa.4173. fibre and phenolics of muffins incorporated with apple skin powder. Food Chem.
Jiménez, N., Bohuon, P., Dornier, M., Bonazzi, C., Pérez, A.M., Vaillant, F., 2012. Effect 107, 1217–1224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.09.057.
of water activity on anthocyanin degradation and browning kinetics at high Stahl, L., Miller, K.B., Apgar, J., Sweigart, D.S., Stuart, D.A., McHale, N., Ou, B.,
temperatures (100–140◦ C). Food Res. Int. 47, 106–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Kondo, M., Hurst, W.J., 2009. Preservation of cocoa antioxidant activity, total
foodres.2012.02.004. polyphenols, flavan-3-ols, and procyanidin content in foods prepared with cocoa
Karakaya, S., Simsek, S., Eker, A.T., Pineda-Vadillo, C., Dupont, D., Perez, B., Viadel, B., powder. J. Food Sci. 74, C456–C461. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-
Sanz-Buenhombre, M., Rodriguez, A.G., Kertesz, Z., Hegyi, A., Bordoni, A., El, S.N., 3841.2009.01226.x.
2016. Stability and bioaccessibility of anthocyanins in bakery products enriched Stavric, B., 1994. Biological significance of trace levels of mutagenic heterocyclic
with anthocyanins. Food Funct 7, 3488–3496. https://doi.org/10.1039/c6fo00567e. aromatic amines in human diet: a critical review. Food Chem. Toxicol. 32, 977–994.
Lee, J., Finn, C.E., 2007. Anthocyanins and other polyphenolics in American elderberry https://doi.org/10.1016/0278-6915(94)90093-0.
(Sambucus canadensis) and European elderberry (S. nigra) cultivars. J. Sci. Food Vinha, A.F., Alves, R.C., Barreira, S.V., Costa, A.S., Oliveira, M.B., 2015. Impact of
Agric. 87, 2665–2675. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.3029. boiling on phytochemicals and antioxidant activity of green vegetables consumed in
Li, W., Pickard, M.D., Beta, T., 2007. Effect of thermal processing on antioxidant the Mediterranean diet. Food Funct 6, 1157–1163. https://doi.org/10.1039/
properties of purple wheat bran. Food Chem. 104, 1080–1086. https://doi.org/ c4fo01209g.
10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.01.024. Xu, B., Chang, S.K., 2008. Total phenolics, phenolic acids, isoflavones, and anthocyanins
Li, J., Walker, C.E., Faubion, J.M., 2011. Acidulant and oven type affect total and antioxidant properties of yellow and black soybeans as affected by thermal
anthocyanin content of blue corn cookies. J. Sci. Food Agric. 91, 38–43. https://doi. processing. J. Agric. Food Chem. 56, 7165–7175. https://doi.org/10.1021/
org/10.1002/jsfa.4173. jf8012234.
Liao, M., Zou, B., Chen, J., Yao, Z., Huang, L., Luo, Z., Wang, Z., 2019. Effect of domestic Xu, B., Chang, S.K., 2009. Total phenolic, phenolic acid, anthocyanin, flavan-3-ol, and
cooking methods on the anthocyanins and antioxidant activity of deeply purple- flavonol profiles and antioxidant properties of pinto and black beans (Phaseolus
fleshed sweetpotato GZ9. Heliyon 5, e01515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. vulgaris L.) as affected by thermal processing. J. Agric. Food Chem. 57, 4754–4764.
heliyon.2019.e01515. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf900695s.
Määttä-Riihinen, K.R., Kamal-Eldin, A., Törrönen, A.R., 2004. Identification and
quantification of phenolic compounds in berries of fragaria and Rubus species