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PERSPECTIVES ON ARABIC LINGUISTICS XV
 AMSTERDAM STUDIES IN THE THEORY AND
HISTORY OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE
General Editor
E. F. KONRAD KOERNER
(Zentrum für Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft, Typologie
und Universalienforschung, Berlin)

Series IV – CURRENT ISSUES IN LINGUISTIC THEORY

Advisory Editorial Board

Lyle Campbell (Christchurch, N.Z.); Sheila Embleton (Toronto);

Brian D. Joseph (Columbus, Ohio); John E. Joseph (Edinburgh)
Manfred Krifka (Berlin); E. Wyn Roberts (Vancouver, B.C.);
Joseph C. Salmons (Madison, Wis.); Hans-Jürgen Sasse (Köln)

Volume 247

Dilworth B. Parkinson and Samira Farwaneh (eds.)

Perspectives on Arabic Linguistics XV

Papers from the Fifteenth Annual Symposium on Arabic Linguistics,
Salt Lake City 2001.
 PERSPECTIVES ON
ARABIC LINGUISTICS XV
PAPERS FROM THE FIFTEENTH ANNUAL
SYMPOSIUM ON ARABIC LINGUISTICS,
SALT LAKE CITY 2001

Edited by

DILWORTH B. PARKINSON
Brigham Young University

SAMIRA FARWANEH
University of Arizona

JOHN BENJAMINS PUBLISHING COMPANY

AMSTERDAM/PHILADELPHIA
 TM The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American
8

National Standard for Information Sciences — Permanence of Paper for Printed

Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984.

Dilworth B. Parkinson and Elabbas Benmamoun (eds.)

Perspectives on Arabic Linguistics XV
(Amsterdam studies in the theory and history of linguistic science. Series IV, Current issues in
linguistic theory, ISSN 0304-0763 ; v. 247)
ISBN 90 272 4759 5 (Eur.) / 1 58811 487 2 (US) (Hb; alk. paper)
© 2003 – John Benjamins B.V.
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other
means, without written permission from the publisher.
John Benjamins Publishing Co. • P.O.Box 36224 • 1020 ME Amsterdam • The Netherlands
John Benjamins North America • P.O.Box 27519 • Philadelphia PA 19118-0519 • USA
 CONTENTS

Editorial Note

Introduction
Dilworth B. Parkinson

I. Sociolinguistics

Discourse Particles Revisited: The Case of Wallahi in 3

Egyptian Arabic
Mustafa A. Mughazy

Theories of Code Switching in the Light of Empirical Data 19

from Egypt
Reem Bassiouney

Translating Arabic Speech Act Expressions 41

Rudolf Reinelt

II. Syntax

Relative Clauses in Syrian Arabic: Two Reconstruction 53

Problems
James Darrow

Interpretability, Feature Strength, and Impoverished 85

Agreement in Arabic
Mark S. LeTourneau

III. Corpus Linguistics

Evolution of MSA, the Case of Some Complementary 135

Particles
Mark Van Mol
 CONTENTS

NP Structure Types in Spoken and Written Modern 149

Standard Arabic (MSA) Corpora
Sameh Al-Ansary

Comparing Frequencies of Lexical Productions 181

in Arabic Words
Stephen Taylor

Future Variability: A Corpus Study of Arabic Future Particles 191

Dilworth B. Parkinson

Index of Subjects 213

 EDITORIAL NOTE

On March 2-3, 2001, the Fifteenth Annual Symposium on

Arabic Linguistics was held at the University of Utah in Salt Lake
City, Utah. The symposium was sponsored by the Arabic
Linguistics Society and the Univesity of Utah. Samira Farwaneh
was the local organizer of the symposium.
A total of twenty-four papers were presented at the symposium;
of these, nine are published in this volume. The papers presented at
the symposium were selected on the basis of an anonymous review
of abstracts submitted to the Program Committee. The papers
included in the volume were further reviewed by the editors before
their final acceptance for publication.
The transcription of all Arabic materials in the body of the
papers follows the International Phonetic Alphabet or standard
equivalents. The Arabic emphatics, however, are represented by a
dot underneath the symbol, and long vowels as sequences of two
vowels. The transliteration of Arabic names and titles follows
accepted formats, with some simplification in the use of diacritics.
The preparation and printing of the final manuscript was done
using facilities available at Brigham Young University. I am
indebted to Aaron Schofield, Spencer Penrod, and Tessa Hauglid,
who served as assistant editors for this volume.
 INTRODUCTION

Dilworth B. Parkinson

The papers in this volume deal with various topics in Arabic

Linguistics, and focus on three specific areas: sociolinguistics, syntax,
and corpus linguistics. The papers are data-oriented, and focus both on
new theoretic insights and new techniques of data analysis.
Section I includes three papers in the area of sociolinguistics.
Mughazy looks at a (less-typical) non-oath use of the oath phrase
wallaahi in Egyptian Arabic. He demonstrates several differences
between the oath and non-oath usages, and then shows how the non-
oath usage functions as a mitigating politeness or face-saving device.
Perhaps his most interesting result is that some of the usages that are
thus mitigated are surprising from a western, or even a ‘theoretical’
point of view, and can only be understood in a local Egyptian context
of what is and what is not face threatening and what needs to be
mitigated.
Bassiouney’s topic is diglossic code-switching. Using data from
Egypt, she looks at various theories of code-switching, concentrating
on the Matrix language model, and finds that her Egyptian data poses
problems for all current proposals. She wonders if diglossic and
bilingual code-switching are indeed examples of the same
phenomenon, and gives suggestions for modifying the theory to
account for her data.
Reinelt looks at ‘speech act expressions,’ words that refer to
specific speech acts (like ‘to say,’ ‘to declare’), in the Quran, and in
German and English translations of the same to demonstrate some
aspects of translation theory and efficacy. He finds a major difference
between what might be termed ‘academic’ and ‘informative’ translation
styles.
Section II contains two papers on syntax. Darrow looks at
reconstruction problems in Syrian Arabic relative clauses, contrasting
x INTRODUCTION

semantic interpretation with a copy-theoretic approach. Syrian Arabic

raises certain problems for any account, but ‘discomfort
notwithstanding,’ he shows that a copy-theoretic approach provides a
reasonable account of the data.
LeTourneau looks at what he calls ‘impoverished’ number
agreement in Standard Arabic, specifically in relation to Form VI
verbs, and tweaks a number of minimalist assumptions to account for
the data.
Section III is a set of four papers dealing with the general area of
corpus linguistics. Corpus linguistics in general includes two main
orientations: 1) scholars coming from the computer science area,
interested in using corpora to test computational models of the
language, and 2) scholars coming from a more traditional linguistics,
using corpora to analyze particular characteristics they have identified
as problems for whatever reason. The Taylor paper comes from the
first category. The author describes his attempt to build a lexical
analyzer for Arabic, which turns out to be several orders of magnitude
more complex than a similar program for English would be. He then
presents the results of a count of frequencies of various verbal forms,
involving the categories of person, tense, gender and number.
The other three papers come from the second orientation. Al-
Ansary uses a computational model in association with both a spoken
and written corpus to compare NP structures in Spoken and Written
Standard Arabic. There is a large body of interesting work comparing
spoken and written English, but I believe that this is the first look at
this topic for Arabic.
Van Mol utilizes a corpus of Spoken Standard Arabic from three
Arabic countries to investigate to what extent the language is uniform
on a syntactic level across the Arabic speaking world. Besides giving
an excellent discussion of the problems and pitfalls of developing such
a corpus, he arrives at some highly interesting results, showing that
although most of the items investigated were identical in the various
countries, there were differences.
Parkinson’s paper follows a similar tack, using a large corpus of
newspapers from various countries to look at the variability in future
particle use, both across countries and across genres.
 I

SOCIOLINGUISTICS
 DISCOURSE PARTICLES REVISITED
1
THE CASE OF WALLAHI IN EGYPTIAN ARABIC

Mustafa A. Mughazy
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

1. Introduction
The Egyptian Arabic oath phrase wallaahi (by God) is often used in
utterances that do not have the illocutionary force of issuing vows or
threats -- the typical uses of wallaahi . When used in non-oath utterances,
it is often described as a ‘dummy word of hesitation’ or ‘speech filler’,
used to reserve one’s turn in a conversation or to give the speaker time
to organize his/her thoughts (Piamenta, 1979). Most studies on Arabic
politeness and religious formulas, such as Farghal & Borini (1997) and
El-Sayed (1989), have focused on sentential formulas rather than dis-
course particles. The arguments presented in this paper describe two dis-
tinct non-oath uses of wallaahi that have different distribution patterns
and trigger different implicata about the speaker’s beliefs with regard to
politeness and power relations, in particular the lack of power to effect
events in a given context by relegating that power to God.
The oath wallaahi is a prepositional phrase that is composed of the
prefix preposition wa (by), which is usually referred to as waaw al-
qasam (oath wa), the noun phrase allaah (God), and the genitive case
marking suffix i. In terms of pragmatic function wallaahi is a member of
a set of interchangeable oath phrases that includes winnabi (by the
Prophet), wi;ingiil (by the Bible), wil'adra (by the Virgin) and many
others that have the same morphological structure. In a given speech
event, the use of one of these phrases rather than any other is motivated
by the speaker’s religious beliefs and his/her view of whether declaring

1
I am very grateful for the invaluable comments and suggestions I have received
from Professor Devin Stewart and Rajeshwari Pandharipande. All errors and
inadequacies are soley mine.
4 MUSTAFA A. MUGHAZY

these beliefs and the degree to which they are observed2 help achieve
their goals. Otherwise, a more neutral oath phrase can be used such as
wiHyaatak (by your life) and wil'ii2 wilmalH (lit. by the bread and salt
‘by our friendship’), among several others.
Although wallaahi , when used in non-oath utterances, has the same
morphological structure, it has different functions and patterns of distri-
bution, and it cannot be substituted with any other oath phrase3. In addi-
tion, wallaahi always receives the main sentence stress in oath utterances
but is never stressed in non-oath ones. Oath utterances can be made
emphatic by modifying the noun phrase allaah (God) with the adjective
il-'a(iim (almighty), but such adjunction is not possible in non-oath uses.
Another difference is that the genitive case marking morpheme is op-
tional in oath structures (i.e., wallaah instead of wallaahi ), but it is obliga-
tory in non-oath uses. These differences prompt the claim that non-oath
wallaahi is a frozen or fixed expression best described as a discourse
particle.
Crystal (1980) asserts that discourse particles in general have been
ignored in descriptions of grammars partly because they were viewed as
meaningless interjections that lack interesting patterns of distribution and
because they occur mainly in face-to-face interactions. Schourup (1982)
and Carlson (1984) argue that the use and distribution of discourse par-
ticles are rule governed, and that they are used to convey social and
pragmatic meaning. Since particles typically do not change the truth
value or the propositional content of an utterance, speakers have the
choice whether or not to use a given particle depending on their percep-
tion of how using (or not using) that particle helps achieve their goals,
and how an addressee would interpret the motivation behind that use,
assuming that the use of linguistic forms is rational and goal-oriented be-
havior (Green, 1982).
Levinson (1997:162) describes discourse particles as hedges that
speakers use to communicate their beliefs about the extent to which they
adhere to the maxims of Grice’s Cooperative Principle. For example,
when responding to the question “Where are my glasses?” a speaker
2
Many devout Moslems would not use any oath phrase other than wallaahi, as
oath phrases that do not make direct mention of God are considered inappropriate
and against religious teaching.
3
Requests seem to be an exception to this generalization, since any oath phrase can
be used. However, in such instances the request is an extension of the oath use i.e.,
beseeching.
 DISCOURSE PARTICLES REVISITED: THE CASE OF WALLAAHI IN EGYPTIAN ARABIC 5

would say, “Well, they are not here”. Using the discourse particle ‘well’
indicates that the speaker does not fully adhere to the maxim of Quality:
‘agents will not say what they believe to be false or what they do not
have adequate evidence for’, which is a basic assumption that individuals
use to interpret others’ linguistic behavior rather than a moral rule of
felicity or politeness (Green, 1996). The same analysis applies to polite-
ness particles assuming that politeness is a universal phenomenon de-
rived from Grice’s maxims despite the differences in the cultural back-
grounds that define politeness in a given community (Green, 1996, and
Brown & Levinson, 1978). Therefore, failing to use discourse particles
appropriately, especially politeness particles, leads to the undesired con-
sequences of misinterpreting speakers’ intentions and actions (Svartvik,
1980).
2. The Distribution Patterns of Wallaahi
One of the difficulties encountered when analyzing the different uses
of wallaahi is its ambiguity, as illustrated in example (1), which can be
used to mean either (1a) or (1b). In these examples it is how wallaahi is
interpreted that determines the illocutionary force of the utterance i.e.,
whether it is an emphasized statement (1a) or a polite refusal, say to a
request for a loan (1b). However, such structures can be easily disam-
biguated by using the structural constraints on the occurrence of oath
wallaahi , which can occur in either the utterance initial or final position,
as in example (2). When used in non-oath utterances, wallaahi occurs
only initially, as in example (3), because otherwise it is uninterpretable, as
in (4).

(1) wallaahi ma'andii2 filuus

a. wallaahi (I swear) I do not have money.
b. wallaahi (I am afraid) I do not have money.

(2) wallaahi ma-;axatt-i2 Haaga (wallaahi)

I swear I did not take anything (I swear).

(3) wallaahi ana baqtariH inn iHna ni2tiki.

By God, I suggest that we complain.

(4) ana baqtariH in iHna ni2tiki wallaahi!

I suggest that we complain, by God.
6 MUSTAFA A. MUGHAZY

The function of wallaahi when used as an oath phrase is to signal the

speaker’s commitment to the propositional content of the utterance i.e.,
the speaker is emphasizing his/her strict adherence to Grice’s maxim of
Quality. Therefore, the oath phrase is used only with declarative sen-
tences that have the illocutionary force of stating or threatening. Only in
utterances where wallaahi cannot be used as an oath particle (e.g., direc-
tives and questions), can it occur in the utterance final position, as in ex-
ample (5) below.

(5) iftaH il-baab wallaahi

Open the door wallaahi. (polite directive)

Another distinction between the two uses of wallaahi is based on

their functional patterning with two structurally distinct types of nega-
tion in Arabic: descriptive or sentential negation, which is formed by at-
taching the prefix ma- and the suffix -i2 to the verb, and metalinguistic
negation, which is expressed by preceding the verb with the negative
operator mi2 . Descriptive negation is a truth functional type of negation
that is used to deny the propositional content of an utterance, as in ex-
ample (6) below, where wallaahi is used to emphasize the negation. The
other type of negation is not truth functional and is used to object to a
previous utterance on any ground including its form (phonology, mor-
phology, etc.) or to an implicature or presupposition triggered by that
utterance (Horn, 1985). Hence, it is usually followed by a rectification
that provides grounds for the objection (Horn, 1989). The non-oath
wallaahi can be used only with metalinguistic negation, as in example (7)
below, where wallaahi has a meaning similar to the English sentential
adverb ‘actually’. The function of metalinguistic negation is to deny
what the addressee said earlier (Geurts, 1998), which is a face-
threatening speech act that requires mitigation. Inappropriate use of
wallaahi with negation, which is detected by intonation patterns and the
morphological structure of the verb, results in the addressee’s inability to
recognize the mitigation or interpret the negation.

(6) wallaahi ana ma-a-xatt-i2 ik-kitaab (wallaahi is stressed)

(I swear) I did not take the book.

(7) wallaahi, ana mi2 a-xatt ik-kitaab; ana istalaftuh (wallaahi is not stressed)
wallaahi (actually) I did not ‘TAKE’ the book, I borrowed it.
 DISCOURSE PARTICLES REVISITED: THE CASE OF WALLAAHI IN EGYPTIAN ARABIC 7

3. Wallaahi and Politeness

Having distinguished between the oath use of wallaahi and the non-
oath ones in terms of distribution, this section describes the function of
wallaahi as a politeness marker. The claim that wallaahi can be used as a
politeness marker is motivated by the observation that it is used preced-
ing potentially face-threatening speech acts such as those in examples
(8)-(13) below that occurred in conversations between individuals of
equal social status and power differential. A speaker would calculate the
potential effects of his/her up-coming utterance on the addressee and de-
cide whether these effects aid achieving his/her goals or not. If the utter-
ance is viewed as likely to offend the addressee, and consequently hinder
achieving these goals, wallaahi is used as a forewarning that is intended
to be interpreted as to mitigate the undesired effects.

(8) wallaahi inta laazim ti2tiki (suggestion )

wallaahi you must complain.

(9) wallaahi inta Hurr ti'mil illi inta 'awzu (offering options)
wallaahi it is up to you to do whatever you want.

(10) wallaahi rudd 'a-t-t-ilifoon (directive)

wallaahi answer the phone.

The lack of wallaahi makes the utterances in examples (8)-(10) on-

record face-threatening acts i.e., intended to make the addressee uncom-
fortable. For example, the utterance in (10) is a command, which is
toned down by the use of wallaahi to a polite directive or a request. In
the examples in (11)-(13), the use of wallaahi not only makes these ut-
terances less face-threatening, but also it changes the speech act. For ex-
ample, without wallaahi the utterance is (11) would be interpreted as an
accusation, and the one in (12) as a threat or a demand4. Example (13) is
particularly interesting because the use of wallaahi changes the implica-
ture of the utterance, as it indicates that the speaker disagrees with the
addressee, yet the issue is still negotiable, whereas the same utterance

4
The categorization of the speech act is dependent on the addressee’s interpretation
of the speaker’s intentions. For example, whether the utterance in (12), without
wallaahi, is a threat or a demand is determined by the addressee. In either case, the
use of wallaahi blocks against such interpretations.
8 MUSTAFA A. MUGHAZY

without wallaahi would be interpreted as a final rejection rather than a

disagreement.

(11) wallaahi inta kunt 0alTaan (criticizing )

wallaahi, you were wrong.

(12) wallaahi ana 'aawiz filuusi bukra (request)

wallaahi I want my money back tomorrow.

(13) wallaahi ana mi2 muwaafi; 'a-l-iqtiraaH da (disagreeing )

wallaahi I disagree to that suggestion.

Lakoff (1973) describes three rules that speakers follow to achieve

politeness in discourse. The first of these rules is ‘do not impose’, where
imposition is characterized as impeding others’ actions or acting in a
manner that violates their autonomy and desires, provided that the social
statuses and power relations between the interlocutors are unequal. For
an individual to be polite, according to this rule, is to ‘avoid, mitigate, or
ask permission or apologize for making the addressee A do anything
which A does not want to do”, (Green, 1996:148). The second rule is to
offer options, and it applies in contexts where the speakers are of similar
social status yet not intimates or close friends. According to this rule, a
speaker would execute his/her speech acts in a way that reflects respect
for others’ autonomy and at the same time give leeway for having one’s
opinions or requests denied without risking anyone’s face being threat-
ened or lost. Lakoff’s third rule is to promote feelings of camaraderie in
close relationships. Here, formal politeness is avoided because it presup-
poses a distance between the interlocutors, a consequence that is unde-
sired in such contexts.
Assuming that these rules are generalizations based on observations
of natural language behavior rather than prescriptive rules of etiquette,
they are expected to account for the uses of wallaahi in the examples
listed above. Following Lakoff’s characterization of politeness, wallaahi
is a formal politeness marker, as it rarely occurs in interactions between
family members or intimates, where using it would be a violation of po-
liteness Rule 3. Lakoff’s rule 1 accounts for the use of wallaahi in the
speech acts that involve varying degrees of imposition such as those il-
lustrated earlier.
 DISCOURSE PARTICLES REVISITED: THE CASE OF WALLAAHI IN EGYPTIAN ARABIC 9

The speech act illustrated in (9), repeated below as (14) is particu-

larly problematic for Lakoff’s characterization of politeness, especially to
Rule 2: ‘offer options’. This particular speech event took place in a con-
text where the social distance between the interlocutors was small, yet
they were not intimates. However, the speaker chose to mitigate offering
options (or avoiding imposition) by using the formal politeness marker
wallaahi indicating that he assumed that offering options is an act of im-
position.

(14) wallaahi inta Hurr ti'mil illi inta 'awzu (offering options)
wallaahi it is up to you to do whatever you want

The contradiction between offering options and not imposing them

stems from the inadequacy of Lakoff’s model to account for the
speaker’s belief that offering options can, in itself, be interpreted as an
act of imposition. Many speakers of Egyptian Arabic would interpret of-
fering options as an indication that the speaker is not keen on the ad-
dressee’s well being and would place the burden of making a decision
on the addressee; therefore, offering options requires mitigation. Another
problem with Lakoff’s view is that asymmetrical power relations are a
prerequisite for Rule 1, while all the utterances in examples (8) - (13) oc-
curred in contexts of equal status and power. Therefore, using politeness
markers is not a consequence of having power or the lack of it, but is a
rational behavior that achieves speaker’s objectives.
Another view of politeness, introduced by Brown and Levinson
(1987), is based on Grice’s universal account of the rationality of com-
municative acts and the universal notion of face. Face is defined as the
individual’s claimed public self-image, which consists of two complemen-
tary aspects: negative face, which is “the basic claim to territories, per-
sonal preserves, rights to non-distraction—i.e., to freedom of action and
freedom from imposition”, and positive face, which consists of “the
self-image or ‘personality’ (crucially including the desire that this self-
image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants”,
(Brown and Levinson, 1987:61). According to this view, politeness is the
outcome of individuals’ mutual awareness of each other’s face needs
and their ability to calculate the effects of their actions, including speech
acts, on others’ face.
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Labial Deficiency
{ Unilateral.
{ Lower Lip { Median.
{ Bilateral.
{ Unilateral.
Nasolabial Furrow
{ Bilateral.
{ Unilateral.
Oral Angular Furrow
{ Bilateral.

Deformities About the Cheeks

{ Unilateral.
{ Total
{ Bilateral.
Deficiency of Cheek
{ Unilateral.
{ Partial
{ Bilateral.

Deformities About the Orbit

 Deficiency of Lid Contour { Upper Lid { Unilateral.
{ Bilateral.
{ Unilateral.
{ Lower Lid
{ Bilateral.
{ Unilateral.
Furrow About Canthus
{ Bilateral.
{ Unilateral.
Deficiency of Ocular Stump
{ Bilateral.

Deformities About the Chin

{ Partial.
Anterior Mental Deficiency
{ Total.
{ Unilateral.
Lateral Mental or Angular Deficiency
{ Bilateral.

Deformities About the Ear

{ Unilateral.
Pro-auricular Deficiency
{ Bilateral.
{ Unilateral.
Post-auricular Deficiency
{ Bilateral.

SPECIFIC CLASSIFICATION FOR THE EMPLOYMENT AND

INDICATION OF HYDROCARBON PROTHESES ABOUT THE
SHOULDERS, ETC.

{ Unilateral.
Supraclavicular Deficiency
{ Bilateral.
{ Unilateral.
Infraclavicular Deficiency
{ Bilateral.
Interclavicular (Notch) Deficiency.
{ Unilateral.
Supra-acromion Deficiency
{ Bilateral.
{ Unilateral.
Infra-acromion
{ Bilateral.
{ Unilateral.
Supramammary Deficiency
{ Bilateral.
 Mammary Deficiency { Partial { Unilateral.
{ Bilateral.
{ Unilateral.
{ Total
{ Bilateral.
{ Unilateral.
Supraspinous Deficiency
{ Bilateral.
{ Unilateral.
Infraspinous Deficiency
{ Bilateral.
Interscapular Deficiency.

SPECIFIC TECHNIQUE FOR THE CORRECTION OF REGIONAL

DEFORMITIES ABOUT THE FACE

Transverse Depressions

Punctate Form.—Such deficiencies are either of sharply defined depressions in a part

of the frontal bone due to congenital malformation or of traumatic origin.
In the first instance they are usually unilateral or median and rarely ever bilateral. In
those of the second class the deformity may be median, but is more often found to be
unilateral.
Linear depressions of the forehead are usually found to be congenital, although
traumatism in the form of direct violence may be the cause, as, for instance, the kick from
a horse or a severe blow or fall.
The acquired linear form of lack of contour is found in people of middle life given to
undue use or corrugation of the forehead, as in frowning.
The correction of this class of deformities may be accomplished by carefully raising the
depressed area by repeated injections of small quantities, always avoiding the frontal and
supra-orbital vessels.
At no time should such a deformity be corrected in one sitting, unless when the defect
is a congenital one of small moment.
The reaction following these injections, owing to the close attachment of the integument
to the bone, is usually found to be more severe than where the skin is more loosely
attached.
In traumatic cases the scar attachments should be freely liberated, under eucain
anesthesia, by the aid of a fine probe-pointed tenotome, before the cold paraffin mixture
is introduced.
In such event only one opening should be made and just enough of the mixture be
injected to raise the skin to its normal contour, if this be possible. Generally, later
injections are required, and these may be made without further dissection. They should
not be undertaken until the incised wound made with the tenotome has healed thoroughly,
otherwise the pressure of the injection is liable to burst through the delicately healed
wound, and thus delay if not endanger the success of the first operation.
When the reaction following such injections be severe, associated with considerable
edema, cold pack or ice cloths should be applied or resort may be had to hot applications
of antiphlogistin. The patient should be kept on his feet during the day and sleep with the
head high at night. The bowels should be kept open, and general tonics be given if
indicated. The patient usually returns to the normal, except for a little tenderness about
the forehead, in three or four days under the treatment outlined.

Deficient or Receding Forehead

In this condition there is usually a transverse lack of contour across the forehead above
the superciliary ridges, giving the patient a degenerate appearance. The defect is
congenital and is to be corrected, as described in the foregoing division, although the
injections may be at either outer or temporal end of the forehead, gradually being brought
nearer to the median line until the contour of the whole forehead has been raised by
subsequent injections.

Unilateral Deficiency

This defect may be traumatic—the result of direct violence, but is more commonly due
to a frontal sinus operation.
In both events it will be found necessary to detach the cicatrices that bind the skin
down to the injured bone, before a prothetic injection may be undertaken.
In some cases where the cause of the deformity has been moderate and the scar is
linear and of long standing the injection may be undertaken without subcutaneous
dissection.
Several injections are necessary, as the tissue about such parts is usually much
thickened, apart from the firmness added by the scar tissue.
A short stout needle should be employed, the puncture being preferably made under
ethyl-chlorid anesthesia, as the pressure necessary to raise the tissue causes
considerable pain.
To further facilitate the injection the operator should raise the skin with the needle
introduced subcutaneously.
Only one injection of small amount (10 to 15 drops) should be done at a sitting. The
injected mass, unless too easily introduced, and thus forming a tumefaction, need not be
molded out, since the pressure of the skin overlying it will accomplish it more
satisfactorily, while the pressure required in molding tends only to press out more or less
of the mass, thus lessening the benefit of the operation.
A second sitting must be undertaken in not less than one week, or even later, if a
subcutaneous dissection has been done.
The secondary treatment should be followed as heretofore described. The reaction, for
even a small injection in these cases, is usually considerable.
 Interciliary Furrow

This deformity is usually spoken of as a frown. It may be said to be congenital, when it

appears in early life, but is commonly acquired through the habit of frowning.
The furrow may be a simple linear one or made up of a number of furrows. The author
has been called upon to correct one made up of six distinct furrows.
The furrows or creases radiate upward and outward, conelike from a point beginning at
the root of the nose.
In the correction of this common deformity the operator is tempted to overdo the fault
by hyperinjection. A single furrow is readily corrected by a few drops of the injection,
which should be neatly smoothed out. A little of the mass at this part of the face seems to
accomplish considerable; in fact, the part seems overcorrected for some time after a
judicious and carefully done operation, which is undoubtedly due to the active reaction
that follows such cosmetic procedure, owing to the close proximity of the frontal veins and
those of the venous arch at the root of the nose, which undergo more or less phlebitis of a
mild type, the resultant edema depending upon the pressure caused by the mass on
these vessels. The intimate relation and anastomoses of the latter is clearly shown in the
carefully prepared dissection represented in the frontispiece.
In injecting, the needle should be introduced at a point directly at the root of the furrow
or furrows—that is, at the junction of the forehead with the nose.
A needle one inch long should be used, taking care not to puncture any of the veins
which are found to be very differently placed in various patients. If blood flows from the
needle puncture, no injection should be made at that point, but another be chosen which
does not give such result, preferably at a later sitting.
The needle should be introduced well upward under the skin so that its point
corresponds to the point of greatest depression.
The injection should be made slowly and continued until a tumor, judged to be sufficient
to overcome the major deformity when molded out has been formed.
This knowledge can only be gained by experience, and the operator must be cautioned
to underinject rather than cause undue prominence of that part of the face.
If, however, his judgment has not been accurate enough, the operator can immediately
thereafter squeeze out enough of the filling to give him the desired correction.
If more than a single furrow is to be corrected, he may inject the two center ones,
leaving the outer for later operation.
In multiple furrows the injections must be made in conelike form, to give a normal
contour to the forehead. The apex of such cone corresponding to a point at the root of the
nose, and the base to an arc with its greatest convexity near the median hair line of the
scalp, depending upon the length of the furrows.
The injections in such cases should be made at least three days apart, two being made
at each sitting, after the central or two inner depressions have been raised by the first
operations. These later injections should be made to relieve the furrows lying next to the
median, gradually working out to each slant side of the cone until the contour of the
middle forehead has been made normal.
 Never superimpose an injection about the median line until the major defect in general
has been overcome, and only then when the first injections have become settled and
organized, as such untimely disturbance is liable to set up considerable reaction, with
enough induration and resultant new connective-tissue formation to cause a decided
lumpy or protuberant appearance of the part.
The mixtures of low melting points should be preferred to the harder variety in frown
corrections. They lend themselves to better molding, and seem to undergo organization
with less pathological change than those of the latter class.
When the injections must be made over the inner third or half of the eyebrows, as is
often the case, they should be made well above the hair line and molded out in an
upward direction, to avoid the dropping down of the mass into the upper lids or to prevent
the resultant displacing connective tissue from involving them.
If the upper lids do become involved, as shown by fullness, hardness, and partial
ptosis, the connective tissue causing the same must be carefully cut out from the lid by a
transverse semicircular incision made in the upper lid along the line of its backward fold
or hinge. If need be, an elliptical strip of the skin of the lid may be removed at the same
time to give better scope to the extirpation under consideration.
The author has recently corrected two such cases where a surgeon had hyperinjected
the entire forehead with a combination of oils at one or two sittings. The resultant
involvement and later discoloration of the lids at the end of a year’s time might have been
expected.
Such wounds, when neatly sutured with No. 1 twisted silk, leave surprisingly little scars;
in fact, the cicatrices are rarely ever detected a few days after healing has been
established.
The treatment post-injectio for all furrow protheses should be as already laid down.
Apart from general surgical cleanliness and an antiseptic powder, the blepharoplastic
operation mentioned required no special attention. The sutures may be removed in forty-
eight hours.

Temporal Muscular Deficiency

Unilateral and Bilateral

This facial defect while possibly unilateral, as in hemiatrophy, is generally met with in
the bilateral form due to either hereditary causes or a lack of nourishment of the parts, the
latter usually involving the greater part of the face. Chronic diseases and the cachexia
dependent upon disease may be the origin, in which the deformity is rarely ever
overcome entirely by internal treatment and massage of the parts; if anything, massage
tends to elongate the skin about the temples, causing a worse disfigurement in the form
of numerous fine furrows.
The correction of the defect under consideration may be readily overcome by repeated
and careful injections of a hydrocarbon of low melting point.
The author prefers the use of sterilized vaselin injected in its cold state. The use of
paraffin of high melting points or its compounds is not advisable, and if employed leaves
the temples uneven or lumpy, due to the unequal organization or new tissue formation
caused thereby, at the same time causing sagging of the skin of the adjacent parts,
particularly the upper eyelids, owing to the added weight of the new tissue growth
occasioned by such preparations.
Contrary to general expectation, this part of the face is readily injected and corrected.
The skin should be pinched up with the thumb and forefinger of the left hand and the
needle introduced with the right hand in such way as to exclude the puncturing of blood
vessels.
To assure the operator against such difficulty the needle may be withdrawn after
insertion, and if blood does not trickle from the wound it may be reintroduced without pain
to the patient and the injection begun.
It is not advisable to correct the defect at one sitting. One third or one half of the
depressed area may be overcome by one injection. The resultant tumefaction must then
be thoroughly molded out, until little seems to have been accomplished by the injection.
The operator trusts in these particular cases more to the development of new
connective tissue than in any other part of the face, except perhaps in the correction of an
interciliary furrow. It is surprising how much is attained by the most conservative injections
in and about the temples.
The molding of the injected mass must be done in a superio-posterior direction to avoid
forcing it into the upper eyelids, resulting in the same overdevelopment previously
referred to.
Both temples should be injected as advised at one sitting. The use of the ethyl-chlorid
spray makes the operation less fearful to the patient.
Subsequent injections should not be done earlier than three weeks or until any
discoloration of the skin of the parts has disappeared. The latter is not an unusual
occurrence, and is undoubtedly due to the pressure of the injected mass upon the
numerous blood vessels found there.
The post-operative treatment should be followed as heretofore advocated.

Deformities of the Nose

The use of hydrocarbon protheses for the correction of nasal deformities has
revolutionized, to a great extent, the rhinoplasty of many centuries. Through their
employment many unsatisfactory cutting operations have been entirely displaced, and it
is quite right to hold that the introduction of other subcutaneous protheses and like
apparatuses of amber, celluloid, caoutchouc, silver, gold, aluminium, ivory, or other nature
have been supplanted by this method of operation, when these were needed to correct a
partial deformity of the nose.
When a total rhinoplasty has to be undertaken the paraffin group of protheses of course
cannot be resorted to, owing to a lack of the necessary retentive walls of tissue, except
perhaps in such cases where the so-called double flap, or French method, is employed,
and there only after the parts have become thoroughly organized.
 A somewhat complete tabulation of nasal defects has been given heretofore which
gives an excellent idea of the extensive use these hydrocarbon injections may be put to.
Such nasal deformities as are amenable to this method of correction may be due to
either congenital causes, lack of development, direct violence, ulcerative changes
following catarrh, syphilis, and tubercular disease. In some cases, however, the defects
are purely of a cosmetic nature, and not considered as abnormalities except by the critical
eye of the patient. This is true particularly with lobular and supra-alar deficiencies, as well
as a slight lack of contour about the anterior line.
In some instances the defect may be an acquired one, as in the lateral deviation known
as handkerchief bend.
A specific and somewhat elaborate classification has been given to the more important
and distinctive deformities of the nose, principally to facilitate the proper citation and
recording of cases.
It may be readily understood that each one of these classifications may be further
subdivided, but such subdivision can be only of the degree or extent of the deformity, and
must be left to the individual operator and his thoroughness of observation and nicety of
recording.
The author prefers making a plaster cast of the entire nose which is to be corrected,
and a second cast after the operation has been completed, or at the time of his
discharge. A record sheet, or a direct photograph, can be made before and after
operation for the same purpose, which is not so desirable, however, because it has been
found quite impossible to procure the desired accurate pictures of a nasal deformity, the
photographer not being given to bringing out imperfections as the surgeon wishes them,
even under the most explicit instructions, unless the surgeon accompanies the patient to
the studio to supervise the posing. This requires a waste of valuable time; not to speak of
the expense of making pictures of a pathological nature. The better way would be to have
an apparatus in the operating room. The surgeon can then pose his patient against a
screen background in the position and to the size of picture he may desire. Plate cameras
and time exposures are best for this purpose. For recording and half-tone reproduction
silver prints are found best.
For all deformities of the anterior nasal line a hydrocarbon compound of the higher
melting points should be used. This should be injected in the cold form. The mixture given
on page 39, with perhaps an added half dram or dram of paraffin, has been found
excellent, the addition of paraffin being made to assure a suitable fineness of contour and
width. The softer mixtures are more liable to cause a lack of contour and a consequent
widening of the part injected, even after molding, because of the contractility of the skin
overlying the injected mass, which tends to flatten it out, giving the nose a less artistic
and delicate appearance.
Furthermore, a soft mixture will be found to be inefficient in overcoming the tension of
the skin in most cases, especially those about the middle third of the nose.
In some cases of lateral deformity, and where otherwise mentioned, it is advisable to
use only a mixture of the lower melting points, as in the case in the correction of
interciliary furrows and temporal muscular deficiency.
 Superior Third Deficiency.—The degree of depression about the superior third or root
of the nose varies considerably. The most extensive form may be commonly found in the
negro nose, where there is almost an absence of a rise in that part of the nasal bones.
Such noses are also found in the Chinese and Japanese. The condition ofttimes may be
associated with epicanthus.
Epicanthus, formerly corrected by an elliptical excision done anteriorly, can be entirely
overcome by the subcutaneous injection method, thus not only avoiding the resultant
linear cicatrix, but building up the depressed nose to its normal contour.
The skin overlying most of the defects of the superior third is usually found to be loose,
hence injection is readily accomplished.

Fig. 292. Fig. 293.

Anterior Superior Third Nasal Deficiency and Correction Thereof.

The needle should be introduced laterally and anterior to the angular vessels to prevent
their occlusion and injection. The point of selection is made at about the middle of the
deformity. The needle is introduced until its point lies in the center of the depression, or at
the median line from the anterior view.
The mass is injected slowly as the skin of the nose is pinched up between the
forefinger and thumb of an assistant.
The part is injected until a tumefaction, equal in body to the extent of the deformity, is
attained.
The needle is allowed to remain in place for a moment, to permit of a stoppage of the
threadlike mass, usually following the pressure applied to the piston, after the operator
has stopped turning the screw. This will prevent the mass from following into the channel
made by the needle, or the backing up of the mass, as it were. Should this occur the
paraffin mixture should be squeezed from the skin opening to prevent the formation of an
intercutaneous encystment.
Immediately the needle is withdrawn the operator places a finger tip over the opening
and proceeds with the thumb and forefinger of the right hand to mold the mass into the
desired shape.
The post-operative treatment should be as previously given, and is the same with all
injections about the nose, so that it will not be referred to again under this heading.
While a fairly large defect can be corrected at one sitting, it is advisable to rather
reinject one or two weeks later to secure the exact shape.
It is to be impressed upon the operator that there is always a slight broadening of this
part of the nose following the development of the connective tissue which takes the place
of the injected mass, hence the injection should not be overcrowded nor the parts
overcorrected.
The mass should be molded out as narrow as possible and be pinched between the
fingers by the patient two or three times a day after the reaction has subsided, which is
usually about the third day. This procedure will keep the mass from being flattened during
the time tissue replacement takes place.
Middle Third Deficiency.—This defect is commonly seen in football players and
pugilists as the result of a breaking of the inferior extremities of the nasal bones and the
displacement of the articulating cartilages, although the defect is often seen as a result of
an injury to the nose early in life, causing a lack of development in the superior or
articulating extremities of the cartilages. Nondevelopment from catarrh, syphilis, and
intranasal disease are other causes. This type of deformity is generally designated as the
saddle nose.
In the latter cases the skin is usually bound down to the cartilaginous structure by
cicatricial bands, and needs to be liberated. This is accomplished subcutaneously with a
fine tenotome introduced laterally.
To assure the operator of a thorough dissection he may inject the site with sterile water
through the opening made with the knife, squeezing it out before injecting the nose.
If the skin has had to be freed by surgical means the mass injected should be sufficient
to overcome the defect almost entirely, to prevent the reformation of the bands of
connective tissue which have been severed. Their re-establishment would mean an
unequal development of the new connective tissue springing up from the injected mass,
thus defeating the object of the operation.
If no dissection has been done the defect should be corrected about two thirds and
added to by a subsequent injection.
The mass in either case should be well molded out, especially at both sides, to keep
the nose as narrow as possible. There will be more or less widening ultimately following
the organization of the mass.
 Fig. 294. Fig. 295.
Anterior Median Third Nasal Deficiency and Correction Thereof.

It is not uncommon to find a dividing wall of subcutaneous tissue about the articulation
of the nasal bones and cartilages, as evidenced by a rising up or down of the injected
mass above or below this line. If this be found, rather than break down this wall with the
injection, it is deemed advisable to inject each chamber separately and mold the two
masses after injection, as in the ordinary type of cases.
Inferior Third Deficiency.—This deformity of the nose is due purely to a lack of
development or a luxation of the cartilage of the septum and the upper lateral cartilages.
The point or lobule of the nose is usually tilted upward and the subseptum curved upward
at its middle third.
The cause of this deformity is usually due to direct violence at some time in life, with
improper replacement at the time of injury. Syphilis and intranasal catarrh, lupus and
ulcerative diseases, are also causes.
The skin overlying the defect may or may not be closely adherent, but is in most cases
rather thickened and inelastic. It is therefore necessary, in most cases, to loosen the skin
by subcutaneous dissection, done as already described before the injection is made.
To rebuild such a nasal defect without dissection, except in such instances where the
skin is quite elastic, is not to be advised, since the injected mass would be flattened, more
or less, antero-posteriorly, giving the nose a broad and ugly appearance after the
connective-tissue formation has been attained.
It is with cases of this kind that paraffin injections introduced in the liquid form and of
high melting points are usually expelled in a week or ten days, or even later, subsequent
to a breaking down of the surrounding tissues and the resultant abscess.
 The best preparation to employ is the form of paraffin mixture advocated in the
preceding operation used in its cold state and injected slowly, after the integument has
been rendered mobile enough to permit the desirable correction.

Fig. 296. Fig. 297.

Anterior Inferior Third Nasal Deficiency and Correction Thereof.

The defect should not be corrected in one sitting, for the very reason that some
widening of the nose may take place, owing to the contractility of the skin, post-operatio.
The mass injected should correct the major part of the defect and be molded out
carefully, especially from both sides of the nose, and the patient be instructed to pinch the
nose laterally several times a day after the reactive inflammation has subsided with the
object of keeping the nose as narrow as possible.
After the mass has been thoroughly replaced with connective tissue and the anterior
line is found to be too depressed, a fine line of the mass about the thickness of the needle
may be injected over it in a vertical direction, the point of a fairly large needle being
introduced just above the anterior aspect of the lobule and thrust upward to the superior
border of the now existing deformity, and be slowly withdrawn as the mass is injected.
This will leave a rounded cylindrical-like mass along the anterior nasal line, which must
not be molded at all, except to soften or shade off the superior and inferior extremities.
The author advocates making two such injections, at the same sitting, when the
deformity has persisted. These injections are made parallel to each other with a distance
of about one eighth inch between them.
The subseptal deficiency will also have to be corrected. This will be referred to later
under its separate division.
 The reaction in cases of this type is usually more severe than those just mentioned.
There may be considerable swelling and discoloration, but by following the methods of
treatment laid down heretofore the symptoms usually subside in two or three days.
Superior Half Deficiency.—In this type of deformity there is found a nondevelopment
of the bridge of the nose, while the greater part of the cartilage of the septum and the
lower lateral cartilages seem to be quite normal in contour. The nose has a dished
appearance, with an undue prominence of the nasal base or lower half.
Various causes may be given to this condition, but heredity is responsible in a great
majority of the cases.
The deformity in the type under consideration rarely takes in an accurate half of the
nose, there being an involvement more or less of the lower anterior half, yet it is
sufficiently distinctive to give it specific classification.
For the correction of the defect in such cases the injection is made laterally, the same
mass being employed as in the preceding cases.
In this type of case the mass injected should quite correct the defect and be molded
with great care to a desired contour, keeping in mind always the condition and elasticity of
the skin overlying it.
An inflexible skin should be rendered mobile by digital massage, practiced for a few
days prior to operation, or in tense conditions be loosened by subcutaneous dissection.
The great fault in injecting so large a quantity as is necessary in these cases is to make
the nose too wide from the very beginning, which, added to the widening following the
replacement by new tissue, makes the shape of the nose unsatisfactory.
For this reason it will be found of some benefit to apply an anterior nasal splint of
aluminium, covered interiorly with a fold of white flannel or gauze and pressed into such
shape that when applied to the nose it will keep the latter pinched up laterally to the
desired width. This splint will hardly ever be borne by a patient and causes great
discomfort until after the post-operative reaction has subsided. It may then be bandaged
or held in place by strips of Z. O. Adhesive plaster for an hour or two in the day and
during the entire night.
After the first few days’ wearing the patient soon becomes accustomed to the splint. It
should be worn as mentioned for about three weeks, when the patient may be permitted
to pinch the nose laterally with his fingers two or three times a week or more.
The secondary injection may be made in the ordinary way or as advocated by the
author in the manner described in correcting defects of the inferior third of the nose.
Inferior Half Deficiency.—In this type of deformity the greater point of
nondevelopment or deficiency is found at the upper extremity of the cartilage of the
septum, below its articulation with the inferior border of the nasal bones, and involving to
a greater extent the area over the upper lateral cartilages.
This deformity, due to whatever cause, rarely affects the base or inferior part of the
nose, owing undoubtedly to the greater protection and stability offered by the lower lateral
and sesamoid cartilages and the dense cellular tissue making up the alæ. Except in such
cases where violence of an extreme nature has been exerted in early life, or where
ulcerative disease has broken down most of the cartilage of the septum, the point of the
nose is usually normal in size and shape. In the latter cases there is an upper tilt of the
lobule and a shortening of the columna upon itself with a convexity in an upward
direction.
The cause of this type of deformity is usually a direct blow upon the point of the nose,
syphilitic ulceration internally, catarrh, or other ulcerative disease.
When due to violence the point of the nose may or may not present a normal
appearance, there may be a normal base tilted upward (retroussé or snout nose) or a
dropping forward and downward (hook or beak nose).
The shape of the nasal base depends much upon the time of life the injury was
received—that is, before or long after puberty, also upon the extent of injury inflicted and
where applied.
From injuries received early in life we may look to a lack of development in the cartilage
of the septum alone, or associated with deficiency in one or both lateral cartilages.
The deformity is usually symmetrical, but where the nasal bones have been injured as
well, particularly where one bone is injured more than its fellow, there is a possibility of
the disfigurement being unilateral. This is rarely the case except when due to punctured
wounds; generally in such cases the anterior nasal line assumes a twisted form.
Some operators have included noses of undue lobular prominence (à la Cyrano de
Bergerac) under this type of deformity, and while it is to be admitted such a nose might be
built up by subcutaneous prothesis the result is anything but harmonious or normal. Such
a nose should be reduced by cutting operations instead of being added to. The seeming
depression above the lobule is only comparative to the overdeveloped form of the lobule.
The face values of every patient should be studied, and the surgeon should never attempt
to break up the harmony of facial form by simplifying an operation and rendering the
patient’s appearance even more ridiculous than before his attempt to correct a fault.
The correction of the deficiencies of the lower half of the nose is associated with
difficulties in various directions. Either the skin over the defect is too dense to render
injection an easy matter, or the nose is so broadened horizontally from the original injury
that the injection, no matter how artistically done, leaves the nose bulky and ugly in
appearance.
When the nasal processes of the superior maxillary bones have not been widened
unduly by an injury and the skin is dense, simple subcutaneous dissection before
injection will overcome the difficulty easily enough.
In that case the needle is inserted laterally in a line with the maximum depth of the
depression and the point shoved up to the median line anteriorly.
Enough of the cold mixture of paraffin and vaselin, as heretofore advised, is injected to
reduce the deformity nearly to the normal.
The mass is molded to give the nose as near a normal contour as possible, always
keeping in mind the later broadening of the nose when the new connective tissue has
taken the place of the injected mass. A later injection made, as advised heretofore, will
restore the anterior line to better form.
If the nasal processes of the superior maxillary bones have been thrown outward
considerably a surgical operation is necessary to reduce them.
 No injection should be made until the wounds from such operation are thoroughly
healed and contracted.
In all cases of this type the skin will be found to be rather dense and likely to be tied
down by past inflammations to the anterior aspects of the lower lateral cartilages at their
juncture with the upper lateral cartilages. If the adhesions are not too dense the harder
form of the cold mixture should be used. This will not only permit of raising the skin more
readily than with a softer kind of mixture, but will be more likely to retain its form under the
contractile pressure brought to bear down upon it.
When the skin is closely adherent it should be loosened subcutaneously, as already
advised. The injection may be done at the same sitting, and be of greater quantity than in
the cases where this had not been done, for the reasons mentioned.
Pressure splints and manual compression should be employed as in the preceding
deformity.
The reaction following the first injection is likely to be severe. Cold applications, as
previously referred to, are indicated, and should be continued for at least two days.
Care should be taken not to inject into the lateral vessels, which usually lie on a line
with the juncture between the lateral and lower lateral cartilages. If this should happen,
the point of the nose at once assumes a bluish hue, and there is more or less pain felt at
once, with considerable swelling a few hours after the injection. Later, every symptom of
gangrene of the lobule is liable to be noticed, yet with faithful attention to furthering the
circulation of the parts by either cold or hot applications, the active inflammatory
symptoms usually subside in ten to fourteen days, leaving the patient with a whole nose,
more or less colored at the lobule, according to the state of the circulation and the
exposure of the parts to the various temperatures. This may be overcome in time, yet it
may persist for years, depending entirely upon the ability of the anastomosing vessels to
overcome the artificial thrombus or occlusion offered by the mass injected.
That a reaction quite similar in character, but of milder degree, is likely to be seen when
one of these vessels has not been injected, can be readily understood when we consider
that a hard and somewhat ungiving mass is made to overlie the vessels themselves. The
symptoms just described in such case are apt to be noted much later, even several hours
after the injection, because the swelling has then begun to add its pressure to that of the
mass in obstructing the flow of blood to the lobule. Such condition may be termed
pressure occlusion in contradistinction to thrombotic obstruction.
These symptoms usually subside in a day or two, or with the swelling caused by the
reaction.
If the symptoms appear at once after the injection, it is best to force out as much of the
injected mass as is possible through the needle hole through which it has been
introduced.
 Fig. 298a. Fig. 298b.
Anterior, Superior and Inferior Third Nasal Deficiency and Correction Thereof.

The author was called to attend a case several hours after the operator had injected a
nose. The acute symptoms pointed to a direct occlusion of the vessels, yet the surgeon
who had performed the operation assured me he had not injected until he found that
blood did not flow from the needle after its insertion. To relieve the patient of immediate
fright and some pain, a dull pointed needle of larger caliber than the one used in
operation was pushed through the needle wound previously made, taking the place of a
cannula, and a greater part of the injected mass was squeezed out. Ice cloth applications
were followed through the night and the nose recovered in three days without showing
the discoloration of the skin usually observed following such cases. The nose was never
injected again, on account of the dread of the patient, but peculiarly the anterior line
showed almost a normal contour after four weeks had elapsed. This only goes to prove
that very much less of the mass to be injected is required than is commonly supposed by
operators.
Total Anterior Deficiency.—In this condition there is a scooped-out or general curved-
in appearance of the entire anterior nasal line. The lobule of the nose is usually normal in
size.
This defect should be corrected by two injections of the paraffin compound previously
referred to. The points of injection should be lateral and anterior to the angular vessel on
the side of the nose preferred by the operator—one about the center or major curvature
and the other about the inferior third.
Care should be taken to mold the injected mass as narrow as possible, or as much as
the skin will permit. If the latter is bound down it should be mobilized by subcutaneous
dissection or levation. A subsequent injection should not be undertaken until the entire
mass has become settled or fairly organized, which is about the end of three weeks.
The mass should be injected well up to the root of the nose to give it the appearance of
the normal bridge. If this is found impossible owing to a dividing skin attachment, a third
needle puncture should be made at a point on a level with the internal canthus.

Fig. 299. Fig. 300.

Anterior Total Nasal Deficiency and Correction Thereof.

Care must be exercised to keep the mass from creeping into the loose tissue about the
internal canthi by having an assistant press the sides of the nose at that point with the
thumb and forefinger.
This undesirable condition is much more liable to occur when a hot liquid paraffin is
employed, since the operator can observe quite accurately the extent and direction taken
by the mass injected when the cold product is used.
Some authorities have injected noses of this type from the point of the nose, but it will
be found that the position of the puncture at this point allows a considerable portion of the
mass to work out during molding and also to permit of the readier oozing out of the mass
during the pressure exerted by what reactive inflammation follows the operation. This is
accounted for by the fact that the needle creates a tubelike canal in the tightly bound
down tissue overlying the lower lateral cartilages, whereas in the lateral punctures the
short canal is easily displaced by the swelling, thus causing its obliteration and preventing
the free oozing.
On the other hand, it will be found to be more difficult to inject from the point of the nose
alone and that a very long needle has to be used which must be withdrawn as the parts
above the point are filled. Furthermore, it will be found necessary to thrust the point of the
needle in different directions to overcome vertical attachments of the skin which are more
readily lifted up than thrust aside by the mass, hence necessitating a greater amount of
injury to the tissues, not to speak of the possibility of injecting transverse blood vessels
higher up in the nose of which the operator would not be aware at the time; showing only
in the resultant phlebitis and unexpected reactive symptoms, associated with a
discoloration more or less lasting according to the extent of obliteration of the vessels.
The post-operative treatment should be as heretofore advised.
Lateral Insufficiency (Unilateral and Bilateral).—Depressions about the sides of the
nose are usually due to hereditary causes, when they are likely to be bilateral, yet
intranasal ulcerations may cause a falling-in, as it were, of either one or both nasal walls,
involving in such instances the entire side or part of it. In the partial cases the depression
may be in any of the division of thirds used by the author—that is, it may lie laterally over
the region of the nasal bone and such of the nasal process of the superior maxillary bone
as goes to make up that part of the nose, or in the middle third below the bone structure
and above the superior limitation of the lower lateral cartilages, or within the lower third
over the inferior border of the cellular tissue making up the nasal rim.
Traumatism may be found to be the cause of such depressions, especially in the
middle third, after fracture or luxation of the nose. In such cases the defect is usually
unilateral or at the seat of the former injury, a convexity usually being exhibited on the
opposite side.
Since the skin is rather firmly adherent at the sides of the nose, except in the major part
of the superior third, it will be found best to raise the skin of such defect into normal
contour by a series of very small injections instead of following the method heretofore
advised in connection with tense or adherent areas of skin, for the reason that such
dissection would render the skin too mobile over an area usually beyond the defect itself
and inviting the surgeon to an annoying hyperinjection which renders the part more
unsightly than prior to the operation. This is true in most cases unless the depression is of
traumatic origin and beyond the size of deformity usually corrected.
The author advocates the employment of a hypodermic needle attached to the syringe
in place of the regular needle and that the injection be of sterile white vaselin without
additions of any kind.
Such injections may be made very readily, one or more at the first sitting, being
introduced below the deepest part of the defect. It is surprising how much four or five
drops of such an injection will accomplish. Furthermore, it is to be remembered that the
injections about the side of the nose are readily replaced by new connective tissue, equal
to, if not commonly greater in amount, than the mass injected, such growth being
completed in about two months after the time of injection. This may be explained by a
more or less active perichondritis when the injection is made over the cartilage, the
inflammation, thus set up, being of longer duration than where the skin and bone or
areolar tissue are involved. Any subsequent injection should not be undertaken until at
the end of two weeks or more for the reasons above stated.
The injected mass at all times should be introduced under normal pressure, never to
the extent of rendering the skin above it white in color. The mass should also be molded
out with the tip of the finger or the rounded, dull handle end of a scalpel. If necessary, the
small finger may be introduced into the nostril to facilitate this molding. Should the
reactive inflammation be severe such remedial agents as have been referred to should be
used to reduce it.
Phlebitis following injections at the side of the nose is due entirely to the injection of a
blood vessel and must be avoided. When a fine needle is used there is less likelihood of
free bleeding from an injured vessel, therefore a thorough knowledge of the usual position
of the vessels about the sides of the nose is absolutely essential. Bleeding of greater
extent than that which would follow the thrust of the needle through the skin should put
the surgeon on his guard. Experience is the better teacher and conservatism in these
ofttimes delicate, subcutaneous operations will save the surgeon much annoyance and
eventually the need of having the patient submit to a cutting operation to reduce an
overcorrected area.
Should a hyperplasia of connective tissue result from such an operation, a small linear
incision, under four per cent eucain anesthesia, should be made directly over the greatest
prominence, through which the offending mass can be removed by the aid of a small
hooked knife or a fine pair of curved scissors.
The mass should be removed beyond the plane of the skin; in fact, it should be rather
removed in conelike form, apex inward, and the peripheral attachment completely
obliterated, in order to obtain the desired result, as it is not unusual to have the
prominence reappear after imperfect extirpation and improper dissection.
Moist pressure dressings may be applied over the small wound thus made, for several
days, or until the inflammation following the operation has subsided. Suturing such a
wound is hardly necessary, but if the incision be over one fourth of an inch long, two fine
silk sutures, deeply placed, may be utilized, their tension adding to the compression
needed to bring the mobilized skin into position in reference to the base of the wound.
The author has used contractile collodion in place of compress dressings with very
good result. This should be renewed within forty-eight hours.
After eight or ten days silk isinglass adhesive plaster is applied over the wound until it
falls off.
Lobular Insufficiency.—This defect of the nose is usually of hereditary origin, although
it may be occasioned by the retraction of the inferior half of the organ in tubercular or
syphilitic ulceration in which the lobule falls inward and upward by the loss of the retaining
cartilages.
Owing to the close adhesion of the skin to the lower lateral cartilages and the cellular
tissue about the rim of the alæ it is found difficult to restore the contour or elongate the
organ at that site by subcutaneous injection.
Even after thorough mobilization of the integument the subsequent injected mass is
liable to be thrown off by an overactive inflammatory reaction, due undoubtedly to the
adhesions formed between the divided surfaces from the periphery inward which has a
tendency to crowd the injected mass forward and downward before a new connective
tissue has had time to be formed, causing a breaking down of the skin at some point
overlying the mass and allowing it to escape.
The author has attempted to replace the injection by small solid paraffin plates
introduced through a small lateral incision made for the subcutaneous dissection, and
while the wound healed readily enough and the nose appeared normal, the plates were in
every case thrown off by a later inflammatory process before the end of the third week.
The author then attempted to replace the solid plates with granular paraffin, gently
packing the latter into the wound until the desired elevation had been obtained with the
idea that such mass would accommodate itself much better under the pressure caused
by reactive inflammation, but even this procedure proved unsuccessful.
The best results are obtained with sterilized white vaselin injections when there is
considerable mobility of the skin. A single needle opening should be made, preferably
about the center of the side of the lobule, or slightly anterior to this point, carrying the
point of the needle forward to the anterior median line and a little above the actual point of
the nose.
The injection should be made slowly, closely watching the size of the elevation caused
by the mass and the state of the circulation about the entire lobule.
Usually ten drops of the mass suffice to give the desired result. The mass may be
molded out if found desirable, but if the skin appears normal after the operation and the
tumefaction thus made does not make the nose look grotesque, it may be allowed to
remain as injected, depending upon the subsequent reactive pressure to force it into
shape. In this way a greater part of the mass is retained at the wanted site and is not
crowded to the sides of the lobule by the customary post-operative molding.
Even with this method great care must be exercised in not injecting too much at each
sitting. A failure is sure to result in hyperinjection about the lobule. When it be
remembered that only a very small quantity of the mass will make a decided difference,
the surgeon and patient should be satisfied with the slightest gain.
If, however, the mass be retained and further elongation of the lobule is desired, a
subsequent injection can be undertaken, but not until a full month after the primary
operation.
Here, as with lateral nasal injections, there seems to be an overproduction of new
connective tissue following such an injection; a decided factor in eventually pleasing the
patient.
It is needless to say that the operator must avoid injecting one of the blood vessels of
the lobule, as this will cause considerable inflammation from which the lobule does not
recover readily, owing to the dense tissue the surgeon has to deal with, leaving the tip of
the nose discolored and bluish for some time after the operation.
If the injected mass causes an immediate venous stasis of the lobule, hot applications
should be applied at once, or as soon as the operator discovers that the proper massage
and pressure to remove the offending mass does not improve the circulation.
The author advocates the judicious use of antiphlogistin, faithfully applied hot every six
hours and continued until the acute inflammatory symptoms subside, when the surgeon
may resort to ice cloths or cold pack until the danger of pressure and resultant gangrene
have subsided.
Despite the very grave symptoms associated with such inflammation, the operator may
assure the patient against permanent disfigurement, although the three or four weeks’