Alexander grab

Napoleon reforms
Introduction

A major reason for this huge interest is Napoleon’s meteoric rise to prominence from
relatively obscure origins in peripheral Corsica. Napoleon’s numerous military victories and
the important legacies that he left to France, including Code Napoleon and the lycées, also
explain the considerable interest in him.

There is a vast bibliography on Napoleon’s military campaigns, his diplomacy, and his
private life. Still, much less attention has been devoted to the economic, social,
administrative, and cultural aspects of the Napoleonic years. Although nobody doubts the
importance of Napoleon’s battles and military policy for understanding the Napoleonic
period, it is equally important to investigate the tax system that paid for these campaigns and
the policy that conscripted
the soldiers for his army.

A second shortcoming of the Napoleonic bibliography is its Franco-centric nature- devoting

relatively limited space to developments in his annexed and satellite states.

A critical component of Napoleon’s historical role was his effort to consolidate French
hegemony throughout Europe and establish himself as its dominant ruler.
To achieve these goals-
 Napoleon incessantly intervened in other countries and reshaped the map of Europe.
 He annexed foreign territories, created new satellite states, altered borders, toppled
dynasties, and imposed new governments.
 He also exploited the human and financial resources of occupied Europe by
conscripting young men into his Grande Armée and imposing taxes and war
contributions.
Since French resources were inadequate for his military campaigns, Napoleon would have
been unable to create his Grande Armée and wage his many campaigns without drafting
European conscripts and extracting financial support from other countries.

Napoleonic economic policies must also be studied within a European setting. “The
Continental
blockade”, his most significant policy after 1806, required the collaboration of the rest of
Europe. French economic domination in Europe meant that his satellite states had to grant
French industry and commerce favourable conditions without reciprocity.

Reform programs that transformed and modernised the internal structures of various
countries
constituted a highly significant component of Napoleon’s continental impact.
Indeed, the Napoleonic regime possessed a Janus face: reform and innovation combined
with subordination and exploitation.

An anunprecedented number of English-language works on Napoleon’s rule outside France

appeared in the 1990s; as the last decade has witnessed some efforts by historians to rectify
the Franco-centrism that has characterised much of the previous Napoleonic bibliography,
and to explore Napoleon within a European context. Important works such as Stuart Woolf’s
Napoleon’s Integration of Europe (1991) and Michael Broers’ Europe under Napoleon,
1799–1815 (1996) provide a wealth of information and analysis on the entire Continent, the
former topically and the latter chronologically.
Several excellent studies on the internal developments in single countries have also
appeared during this same period: John Davis, Michael Rowe, and Alexander Grab have
added important articles on the Kingdom of Naples, the left bank of the Rhine, and the
Republic and Kingdom of Italy, respectively. Finally, the many valuable articles on various
states published in The Proceedings of the Consortium on Revolutionary Europe, 1750–
1850 (hereafter abbreviated to CRE) also demonstrate the growing interest in Europe under
Napoleon.

This book is part of a growing collection of works about Napoleonic Europe. It doesn't try to
cover everything in detail but instead summarises information from other studies. What
makes it different is how it's organised—it compares the changes Napoleon brought to
different countries. The book looks at the main events and developments in ten countries
that were part of Napoleon's empire at some point: France, Belgium, Germany, the
Netherlands, the Illyrian Provinces, Italy, Portugal, Poland (Grand Duchy of Warsaw), Spain,
and Switzerland.

The primary objectives of this volume, however, are to describe and analyse the Napoleonic
reform programs in each country and to assess their success or failure, their impact on the
local populations, how the latter responded to the changes and the legacy of the Napoleonic
period.

Aside from being a brilliant military commander, diplomat, and harbinger of change in
France,
Napoleon was also a major reformer and a catalyst of modernity on a European scale. In
other words, the Napoleonic years marked a period of transition from the Old Regime to the
modern era.
Napoleonic rule paved the way for the modernisation of Europe:
 By building the central state,
 abolishing the privileges of the Church and nobility and weakening their grip on
power,
 advancing the interests of the bourgeoisie,
 proclaiming legal equality, and
 promoting economic unity

Napoleonic reform programs and their effects were uneven throughout Europe.
For example, their impact on the Kingdom of Italy, the Netherlands, and Belgium was greater
than on Spain, the Kingdom of Naples, or the Duchy of Warsaw.
This is not surprising, of course, given the wide diversity of conditions in the various
countries and the different durations of French rule.
Belgium and northern Italy, which were occupied by the French in the 1790s, had more time
to adopt the reforms than states that became subject to Napoleon after 1806. In Spain and
the Kingdom of Naples, popular revolts posed obstacles to the implementation of the
reforms, but in northern Italy and Belgium, violent popular protest was rare and short-lived.

To be learnt, of course, about the Napoleonic subject states and their societies, including
the;

 Peasantry,
 the urban middle and lower classes,
 the new tax systems,
 the administrative and
 judicial structures and
  their personnel (The people who work within these systems, such as government
officials, judges, clerks, and other staff.)
 public disorder and
 the police response, and
 the implementation of educational reforms.

Chapter 1 “ The Formation of Napoleonic Empire”

France had begun expanding its boundaries before Napoleon seized power in November
1799. Revolutionary France invaded and occupied neighboring countries as early as 1792,
soon after the outbreak of the First Coalition War. It ushed international conflicts between
France and European alliances consisting of Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and other less
powerful countries.

The revolutionary government’s justification the occupation of foreign lands, using the
theory of “natural frontiers” and declaring their intention of liberating oppressed people from
tyrannical regimes.
In reality, the French armies requisitioned provisions and imposed heavy war contributions
on occupied regions, thereby alienating their populations .

The French introduced in all of them, the satellite states, constitutions and legal and political
structures based on the French system, and compelled them to pay for the upkeep of the
French armies stationed on their soil.

Napoleon Bonaparte intensified French imperial expansion:

 He annexed Piedmont and the Rhineland to France
 transformed the Cisalpine Republic into the Republic of Italy, with himself as
President, and the Helvetic Republic into the Swiss Confederation, appointing himself
as its “Mediator.”
 “the pattern of subjugation changed (systematic way of dominating) and so did the
nomenclature,

In this context, "nomenclature" refers to the terminology or names used to describe

the structures, titles, or institutions within Napoleon's empire. Initially, under the
republican ideals of the French Revolution, terms like "citizen" or "consul" were used,
reflecting equality and democratic principles. As Napoleon's ambition grew and his
rule became more imperial and dynastic, the nomenclature shifted to reflect a
monarchy-style system, with titles like "Emperor," "King," "Prince," and "Duchy"
becoming prominent.

1805–10, Napoleon pursued his most aggressive imperial policy,

 launching numerous military campaigns,
 subjugating much of Europe, and creating his “Grand Empire.”
 established several satellite kingdoms, appointing mostly his relatives as their rulers.
The Napoleonic Empire, which constituted the most remarkable French hegemony in
Europe, reached the height of its territorial expansion at the end of 1810.

Napoleon’s victories
Apart from his ambitions and military and diplomatic talents; As Martyn Lyons points out,
“They reflected the powerful energies released by the French Revolution, and they were
made possible by France’s superior resources, both of manpower and agricultural wealth.”
 He inherited from the Revolution a conscription system ( the mandatory military service
introduced during the French Revolution and later improved by Napoleon) that he improved
and that was instrumental in building the Grande Armée, his principal tool for gaining control
over a good part of Europe.

The “Grand Empire” encompassed all three groups of lands.

 Annexed countries - form the formal french empire
 Conquered countries
 Allied countries

Thus book is an an overview of how the French Empire was formed, focusing on its role in
international relations and the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars from 1792 to 1810. It
explains the main military battles and diplomatic actions, along with their effects on territories
and politics.

The first coalition war

The First Coalition War began in April 1792 when revolutionary France declared war on
Austria, which soon allied with Prussia. Tensions had been building because Austria and
Prussia supported the French monarchy, and exiled French nobles (émigrés) in nearby
countries were seen as a threat to the Revolution. When Austria refused France's demand to
expel the émigrés, France declared war.

At first, France’s attempt to invade Belgium failed, and the Prussian army invaded France.
The Duke of Brunswick, the Prussian commander, issued a warning (the Brunswick
Manifesto), threatening to destroy Paris if the French royal family was harmed. This angered
the French revolutionaries and led to the overthrow of the monarchy on August 10, 1792,
marking the start of the Second Revolution and the creation of the French Republic.

In September 1792, the French army won a major victory at Valmy, forcing the Prussians to
retreat and saving Paris. With renewed confidence, France launched military campaigns into
neighboring territories:

 General Custine advanced into parts of Germany along the Rhine River.
 General Montesquiou invaded Savoy and Nice (modern-day France and Italy),
annexing them into the Republic.
 The biggest success came in November 1792 when General Dumouriez defeated the
Austrians at Jemappes and took control of Belgium.

In November, the French government declared itself a protector of "liberated nations,"

spreading revolutionary ideals across Europe. However, France’s actions, including
occupying Belgium, threatening the Netherlands, and opening the River Scheldt for trade,
alarmed other countries, particularly Britain.

After King Louis XVI was executed in early 1793, Britain, the Netherlands, and Spain broke
off diplomatic relations with France. In response, France declared war on them, and several
other Italian states, including Naples, joined the coalition against France. By mid-1793,
France was at war with much of Europe.

In 1793, the Revolutionary government of France faced serious challenges. It ordered the
conscription of 300,000 men to fight the war, which sparked revolts in areas like the Vendée.
France also suffered military defeats, including:
  Belgium: General Dumouriez was defeated at Neerwinden and switched sides to
join the Austrians. Belgium was reoccupied by Austria.
 The Rhineland: Prussian forces defeated General Custine and took control of Mainz.
 Southern France: Spain invaded across the Pyrenees, while counter-revolutionaries
took over key cities like Lyon, Marseille, and Toulon.

France seemed on the brink of collapse.

To respond, the government issued the levée en masse in August 1793, a national draft
that mobilized all of France’s people and resources for the war. This effort helped turn the
tide.

Key French victories:

1. October 1793: General Jourdan defeated the Austrians at Wattignies, weakening
their hold on Belgium.
2. Eastern Front: Generals Hoche and Pichegru defeated Prussia in the Palatinate
(western Germany).
3. December 1793: The British were forced out of Toulon in southern France.
4. June 1794: At the Battle of Fleurus, Jourdan defeated the Austrians, forcing them to
retreat and give up Belgium.
5. 1795: General Pichegru crossed into the Netherlands, captured Amsterdam in
January, and helped Dutch revolutionaries establish the Batavian Republic, allied
with France.

Peace Treaties:
 April 1795: Prussia signed the Treaty of Basel, giving France control over the left
bank of the Rhine in exchange for territory elsewhere.
 July 1795: Spain also signed a peace treaty, leaving Austria as France’s main
opponent in Europe.

Further Developments:
France annexed Belgium and consolidated its control over the left bank of the Rhine.
However, when French armies under Generals Jourdan and Moreau tried to advance toward
Vienna, they were defeated by Archduke Charles of Austria and had to retreat to France.

By this point, France had gained significant territory and weakened its enemies, but Austria
remained a strong adversary.

In 1796, Napoleon Bonaparte, then just 26 years old, was put in charge of the French Army
of Italy. His original task was to distract Austrian forces while France’s main campaign
focused on Germany. However, Napoleon turned the Italian campaign into the main front
with a series of rapid and decisive victories.

Napoleon’s Campaign in Italy:

1. Early Successes (April-May 1796):
 oNapoleon’s poorly equipped army defeated the Austro-Piedmontese forces at
battles like Montenotte, Millesimo, Dego, and Mondovi.
o To avoid further losses, King Victor Amadeus III of Piedmont signed the
Truce of Cherasco, saving his capital, Turin.
o Napoleon crossed the Po River into Lombardy (part of the Austrian Empire),
defeated the Austrians at Lodi, and entered Milan.
2. Conquering Territories:

o In Milan, Napoleon set up a new administration and imposed taxes.

o He captured cities like Verona, Peschiera, and Legnano (part of the
Venetian Republic).
o Nearby rulers (e.g., Naples, Modena, Parma) signed peace deals with
Napoleon to avoid invasion.
o Napoleon occupied parts of the Papal State, forcing Pope Pius VI to sign the
Treaty of Tolentino in February 1797. The Pope surrendered territories and
paid 21 million francs.
3. Siege of Mantua (July 1796 - February 1797):

oMantua, a key Austrian fortress, became the center of the war for seven
months.
o Austria sent several armies to free Mantua, but Napoleon defeated them in
battles like Lonato, Castiglione, Bassano, Arcole, and Rivoli.
o Finally, in February 1797, Austrian General Würmser surrendered Mantua.
4. Advance Toward Vienna (1797):

o After taking Mantua, Napoleon’s army marched toward Vienna. When he

reached Leoben, just 100 miles from the city, Austria asked for a truce.

The Treaty of Campo Formio (October 1797):

 Napoleon negotiated peace with Austria, ending the War of the First Coalition. Key
terms included:
o Austria recognized French control over Belgium, the left bank of the Rhine,
and the creation of the pro-French Cisalpine Republic (northern Italy).
o Austria received Venice and the Dalmatian coast as compensation.
o France gained the Ionian Islands (strategically important in the
Mediterranean).
o Austria agreed to support France’s territorial claims in Germany at an
upcoming peace congress.

Impacts of Campo Formio:

1. For France:

o France became the dominant power in Italy and secured territorial gains in
Germany.
o It established a foothold in the eastern Mediterranean, strengthening its
strategic position.
 2. For Austria:

oAustria lost its influence in Italy and much of its position in Europe. This
defeat made Austria a bitter enemy of France.
3. For Napoleon:

o The Italian campaign was a major personal victory for Napoleon. It made him
a hero in France and boosted his reputation across Europe.
o He showed not only his military genius but also his diplomatic and political
skills by creating the Cisalpine Republic and negotiating treaties.

Napoleon’s success in Italy marked the beginning of his rise to power and set the stage for
France’s dominance in Europe under his leadership.

Second coliation war

The peace established at Campo Formio was short-lived. Just 14 months later, a second
coalition formed against France, including Britain, Austria, Russia, the Ottoman Empire,
Portugal, and Naples. By the end of 1798, war broke out again.

Britain, which had never made peace with France, believed defeating France required
fighting on the Continent. The other nations joined the coalition due to France's aggressive
actions, such as dominating Italy, interfering in Switzerland, and Napoleon Bonaparte's
invasion of Egypt.

French Aggression in Europe:

1. In Italy: In 1798, France used the killing of a French general in a riot in Rome as an
excuse to invade the Papal States. French General Louis Berthier entered Rome,
declared it the Roman Republic, deported Pope Pius VI, and took control. Later that
year, France also occupied Piedmont, forcing its king to flee to Sardinia.
2. In Switzerland: Switzerland became strategically important to France after Napoleon
conquered northern Italy, as it connected Germany and Italy. In early 1798, French
forces invaded Switzerland, seized the treasury of Berne to fund Napoleon's Egyptian
campaign, and supported the creation of the Helvetic Republic (a pro-French
government). French troops stayed in Switzerland, and the Swiss had to pay for their
upkeep.

Other European powers were alarmed by France's growing influence, particularly the creation
of "sister republics" (puppet states) in violation of the Campo Formio agreement.

Napoleon's Egyptian Expedition:

Napoleon proposed an expedition to Egypt to hurt British trade and block their route to India.
In May 1798, he sailed with a large fleet of ships, soldiers, and scholars. He defeated the
local rulers, the Mamelukes, in the Battle of the Pyramids and occupied Cairo.

However, things turned against him. In August 1798, British Admiral Horatio Nelson
destroyed most of Napoleon's fleet at the Battle of Aboukir, stranding him in Egypt.
Napoleon stayed for about a year but failed to achieve his goals. In August 1799, he returned
to France, abandoning his army in Egypt.

Provoking the Ottoman Empire and Russia:

The expedition angered the Ottoman Empire, which controlled Egypt, and Russia, which had
its own interests in the region. Tsar Paul I of Russia was particularly upset by Napoleon's
seizure of Malta (controlled by the Knights of St. John) during his journey to Egypt in June
1798. This added to the tensions that led to the second coalition against France.

The War of the Second Coalition was fought mainly in Italy, Switzerland, and Germany,
starting in late 1798. Here's what happened, explained simply:

Fighting in Italy:

 The war began when the Neapolitan army occupied Rome in November 1798. The
French quickly pushed them out, invaded Naples, and forced King Ferdinand IV to
flee to Sicily. They set up a pro-French government called the Parthenopean
Republic (January 1799).
 However, a combined Austrian and Russian army, led by General Suvorov,
defeated the French in northern Italy. They ended the Cisalpine Republic, restored
the king of Piedmont, and captured key cities like Mantua by July 1799.
 Popular revolts against the French broke out in many areas because of their harsh rule
and heavy taxes. By September 1799, the French had lost almost all their Italian
puppet states except for the Ligurian Republic.

Fighting in Switzerland and Germany:

 In Germany, the French were defeated in early 1799 by Austria's Archduke Charles,
who then invaded Switzerland. He won a battle near Zurich in June and occupied the
city.
 However, French General Masséna regrouped, defeated a Russian army, and forced
Suvorov to retreat from Switzerland. This allowed the pro-French Helvetic Republic
to survive.
 Meanwhile, an Anglo-Russian army tried to invade Holland but was defeated and
forced to withdraw by late 1799.

Collapse of the Coalition:

 The defeats in Switzerland and Holland weakened the coalition. Russia, unhappy
with Austria, left the alliance. This allowed France to recover.
 Napoleon returned from Egypt in October 1799, took power as First Consul, and
focused on ending the war.
  In Germany, French General Moreau defeated Austria at Stockach in May 1800.
 Napoleon led his army over the Alps into Italy, retook Milan, and defeated Austria at
the Battle of Marengo (June 1800). Moreau’s victory at Hohenlinden (December
1800) forced Austria to negotiate peace.

Peace Agreements:

1. Treaty of Lunéville (February 1801): Austria recognized French control over

Belgium, the left bank of the Rhine, and its satellite republics (like the Cisalpine and
Helvetic Republics). Austria kept Venice and its Adriatic territories.
2. Treaty of Amiens (March 1802): Britain, France, Holland, and Spain signed a peace
treaty. Britain gave back most of its captured territories (except Ceylon and Trinidad)
and agreed to leave Malta. France promised to withdraw troops from Italy and
Naples.

Aftermath:

 The peace of Amiens ended the Second Coalition War and brought temporary relief
after years of fighting. It was the only time between 1792 and 1814 that Britain and
France were not at war.
 France's dominance in western Europe, especially in Italy and Germany, was
recognized, while Britain kept its supremacy at sea.
 In France, the victories strengthened Napoleon’s power. In August 1802, he was
declared Consul for Life, marking a key step toward his eventual rule as emperor.