Set Theory, Relation, Function, Theorem Proving Technigues 49

48 Discrete Structure
(K;, K2
are integer tseang such as "transformation, "map (or"mapping'), "correspondence
y-zk;m,
X-y km,
'oneration" are used as synonynms "Tunction". The notation f:XY
Tor
tkom
(y-z)= km and
(-y)+ m I as a tunction from X to Y. For a funedin
(N-2)= (k +k) k =k t
k 1S an integer orXY is used express
to

where, then x is caled an argument and the corresponding y

X-Z km, c Y if (x. y) E f,
under Instead of writing (x, y) e f it is customary
(x, 2) e R. called the image of x
z(mod n) 6 call y the value of the function fat x.
X=y (mod m), y
=
f(x) and
= to
Thus, fo write
y
X2(mod m) Ac an extension of this notation to the whole set X, are sometimes denote
xRy, yRz xRz.
the range of f viz. Rp by f(X). The range of fis defined as
relation.
Hence, R is transitive transitive relations, therefore R {y3xeXAY= f(x)}
Since, R is reflexive, symmetric, and
an equivalence relation. Prove It was mentioned that the domain of f is X, that is, D =X. The range of
that the relation a s fis denoted by to be the codomain off
Rp and RrC Y. The set Yis said
Prob.56. Define equivalence relation and prove
the set of all integers l is an equivalen Two functions f: A> B and g: A - B are
Equality of Functions
-

(mod m); ie, m divides (a-b) in

relation. (R.GPV, Dec. 201 defined to be equal, written f= g, if
fa) = gla), +asA.
Sol. Equivalence Relation- Refer to the matter given on page 38.
Proof- Refer to Prob.55.
The negation of f= g is written f g and is the statement. Thereexists an
aEA, for which f(a) #gla).
Prob.57. Whatis anequivalence relation ? Let R be the relation in Constant Function - The function fdefined on a set X suchthat fx)= a,
natural numbers N defined by (a b) is divisible by 8. Show that R is
-

equivalence relation. 28 (R.GPV, June 201 x EX, is called a constant function.

Sol. Equivalence Relation - Refer to the matter given on page 38 In other words, f: X >Y is a constant

Proof-Let a e N. Then a- a =0 and 0 is divisible by 8. function, if the range of f consists of only one
Therefore aRa for all a eN element. This can be represented by a diagram
Hence, R is reflexive. as in the adjoining fig. 1.16 as,
Again aRb(a -b) is divisible by 8 f) 2, fy) =2, f)=2.
Fig. 1.16
-(a-b) is divisible by 8 et eof Types of Mapping-
(b-a) is divisible by 8 bRa 2
Hence, R IS (i) Injective or One-to-one Mapping- A mapping, fof Xinto Y is
symmetrie said to be
aRb and aRc (a-b) is divisible by 8 and (b-c) Is divisible by injective or one-to-one mapping, if distinct elements of Xhave
distinct images in Y. It is called injective
[(a-b) + (b-c)] is divisible by 8
(a-c) is divisible by 8 > aRc The f: X->Y is a injective (one-to-one) mappingifand onlyif,
Hence, R is transitive f(x) f(x2)X1 X2
Thus, R is an equivalence relation. ln other
Prove words, f: X-Y is a one-to-one (or injective) mapping, if
whenever X #X2, then
FUNCTION- DEFINITION, TYPE OF FUNCTIONS, ONE TO fx) f(x2)
ONE, INTO AND ONTO FUNCTION, INVERSE where X, X2EX.
COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS, RECURSIVELYFUNCTION, Thus a
mapping from a set X into a set Y
FUNCTIONS, PIGEONHOLE PRINCIPLEDEFINED 1S one-to-one or injective, if each element
has at least one ot Y
element of X mapping into Y.
Function-Suppose X and Y are any two sets. A relation ffrom X to YSS
to be a
Ex.-If X
and f: X-Y is
=
fa, b, c, d}, Y= {1, 2, 3, 4
fiunction if, for every x e X there is a
unique ye Y such that (&, Y defined as, Fig. 1.17
 Set Theoy, Relation, Function, Theorem Proving Techniques 51
50 Discrete Structure
Composition of Function- Suppose f: X ->Y andg: Y-Z are two
1, fb)
=
2
fa) composite relation gof such that
=

3 functions. The
4. fd)
=

fc) as no
two distinct nents of
elements. gof {(x, 7)}|(x EX) n(z EZ) n(3y)
one-to-one mapping
It is injective or
(yeYAy= f(x) az=g(y))}
have the image of Y. or relative product of f.
pping ift, is called the composition of functions
same

f: A > B is said to De an
Into Mappings A mapping called the lett composition of g with f.
More precisely, gof
is
-

B.
that f nmaps A into .
In this case we say
IS a proper subset of B. In the above definition gof
be defined by f(x) 2x, xEZ. T
=

Ex.- Let f: z - > z (the set of integers) assumed that the range
is a proper subset of the codomain set, it is
f is an into mapping, because f\z) subset of the
of f is a
iRr
(1) Surjectve or Onto Mapping -Ifthe mapping f: X-Y
domain ofg, which is Y, that
^l
o
that every element ofY is the image of at least one element of X, then D otherwise, goi x2
mapping is called an onto or surjective mapping. In otner woras, tne mapi is empty. Assuming that gof
is R
f:X+Yis onto, if given ye Y, there exists an is not empty. We now show 13 0 3
clement xEX, such that y = fix). that gof is a function from
-o73
Ex. If X = {a, b. c}, Y {2,3) and f:
b
X to Z. For this purpose let *4 4
X Y is defined by - us assume that (x, Z) and
fa) = 2,f(b) = 3, f{c) = 2. (x, z2) are both in gof. This
assumption requires that Fig. 1.20 Composition of Functions
Then, f is onto as {fix)} = {2, 3} = y. Fig. 1.18 there is a y e Y such that y = f(x) and z = g(y), also z = gy) since g is a

i)
Bijective One-to-one onto Mapping
or -A mapping
whie function, we cannot have z beB(y)formed
and z gy), hence gof is afunction. Any =

one-to-one as well onto is called bijective

as one-to-one onto mappim function g for which gof
or is said to be lefi-composable with the
can

To follow the fallou function f. In such a case, (gof(x) = g(f{x), where x is in the domain of gof.
determine whether mapping is bijective, follow the
procedure
a we
follow The composition of functions is shown in fig. 1.20. Given f. X> Yand g:Y-
Z, we have the composite function gof. However the
(a) To show that f is one-to-one, we must show that composite function fog
may or may not exist. For the existence of fog, it is necessary that R,C Dp For
functions f: X-> X
and g: X-X, the composite functions such as fog, got,
(b) To show that f is onto, we must show that for each fof, gog, etc., can be formed.
Consider three functions f: X> Y, g:Y>Z and
there exists an xeX, such that yel
f(x) y. =
h:Z W. The composite function (gof): X>Z and (hog): ¥> W can be
Ex. If X= {a, b, c, d}, Y
- formed. Other composite functions such as ho(gof) and (hog)of can also be
fd) = 3.
{1,2, 3, 4} and fla) 1,f(b) 2, tic)
=
=

formed. Both of these functions are from X to W.

and
Assuming y f(x), z gU) = =

Then, h(z), we have (x, y)ef, (y, z)eg, (z, w)eh and (x, z)egof, (y,
w=
it is one-to-one onto
mapping. The sets X and Y have the sa Continuing the same argument, (x, w)
w)ehog
number of elements. (h o g) of
eho(gof). Similarly (x, w)E(hog)of.
Invertible Function-A This fact being true for
is said to be function f:X->Y any x and hos
invertible, if there exists a function coresponding w, we have (see also fig. 1.21).
g:Y->Xsuch that b ho(gof) = (hog)of
.()
Hence the
fog Iy and gof = Ix» 1s composition of functions
where, , and associative, and we may drop the paren-
Iy are the identity maps. theses in writing the
functions in equation
In such a case, the function ), so that h o(g o f)
g is called the Fig. 1.19
inverse offand is denoted hogof ho(gof) = (hog)of. Fig. 1.21
by f
 Set Theory, Relation, Function, Theorem Proving Techniques
52 Discrete Structure 53
is said to be rec
Functions-A
function
cursiv
lionm<n, therefore n m or more pigeon are left ithout having assigne
Recursively Defined to itself. In
order for the definitio
all pigeons aare to oe asSIgned pigeonholes, then at least
refers aeotnhole. Hence if all
definition two prOperti pigeonhole. Henceif
definedifthe function must have the fofiowIng contains two or more pigeons,
definition Proved
to becireular,the function certain arguments, called base values, for w one pigeonhole wh
()There must be
Theorem.8. (Generalized Pigeonhole Prineiple). Ifnpigeonsareassigned
refer to itself.
the function does not
to itselt, the argument of to m pigeonholes (n 1) then
some pigeonhole must contain at least
(i) Bach time the function does refer
function must be closer to a base value. 1)1 pigeons
(-+1
two properties is said to be well defin
A recursive function with these
from I ton
Facterial Function- The product of the positive ntegers
by nt, Proof-Suppose, if possible, every pigeonhole containsat the mostf(n
called n facterial and is denoted i.e.
n!1.2.3. .. (n- 2) (n-1)n m
It is alsoconvenienttodefine0t- 1, so that the tunction is defined
fon pigeons. Then the totalnumber of pigeons in m pigeonholes is at most
nonnegative integers. Thus,
01-1,1!=1,2!=1.2 2, 31= 1.2.3 =6 m (n- -n-1
m
and so on. Note that
But this is in contradiction to the assumption thatthe number of pigeons is
31-3.21-3.2 6
That is true for every positive integer n; that is n. Hence, our assumption is wrong and therefore, at least one pigeonhole
nl =n.(n-1)!
Accordingly, the factorial function may also be defined as follows must contain, more than (n- pigeons. Hence some pigeonholes must
m
)Ifn= 0, then n! =1
) 1fn> 0, then n!= n.(n - 1)! Contain at least
m pigeons. Proved
Ackermann Function The Ackermann function is a function w
two Q.5. Differentiate between a function and a relation.
arguments, each of which can be assigned any nonnegative integer, t
Is 0, 1, 2, -This function is
defined as follows -

(R.GPV, May/June 2006)

) Ifm=0, then A(m, n) =
n + 1. Ans. Suppose A and B are Let fbea function from Ato B. Then
two sets.
() Ifm #0 but n 0, the A(m, n) A(m -1, 1).
=
= from our definition of function f is a subset of A
xB in which each aeA
) Ifm #0 and n 0, then A(m, n) appears in one and only ordered pair belonging to f. In
other words fis a
The Pigeonhole Principle
=A(m-1, A (m, n -

1)) subset of (A x B) satisfying the

following two conditions
Statement -

If the
number of pigeons (i.e., ) For each aEA, (a, b) ef, for some be B.
number object) is more than t
of pigeonholes (i.e., boxes), then some pigeonhole (i) If (a, b) ef and (a, b') ef then b b. On the
(i.e., box) must
=

other hand every

occupied by two or more than two pigeons (1.e., subset of Ax B is a relation from A to B.
Thus every function is a relation
The pigeonhole principle is also called objects). every relation is not a function. If R is a relation fromA to B but
box argument
Dirichlet Drawer Principle or s
may be a subset of A. But, if f is a function from
then domain of R
A to B, then domain of fis
Remark-The pigeonhole principle can also be stated as equal to A. In a relation from A to B an element of A
may be related to more
"fn pigeonholes are occupied by n + 1 or more follows then one element in
B. Also there may be some element
of Awhich may not be
pigeonhole is occupied by more than one pigeon". pigeons, then at leasto related to any element
in B. But in a function
from A to B each element of A
must be associated
to one and
Theorem. 7. Ifn pigeons are of B. only one element
then at least one assigned to m pigeonholes, where m Q.0. Briefly explain the
pigeonhole contain two or more pigeons. example. application of pigeonhole principle using an
Proof. Suppose each pigeonhole contains at most one (R.GPK, Dec. 2015, May 2019)
erelo
thetotal number of pigeons assigned to m pigeon. The s . Let 32
people are chosen in any
way from certain group, at leasSt
pigeonholes is at the most Stne or them
will have the same wo
birthday in the month of October (lt has 51 days),
 54 Discrete Structure
Set Theory, Relation, Function, Theorem Proving Techniques
to the day of the 55
pigeon) is assigned
2000 (note, here each people
on which is supposedtmo Sal, () The arrow indicates the image of an element, there
(called birthday : pigeonhole)
to h
(October 2002)
1) 3, f(2) 5,
been bron.
has 31 days, the..
month ofoctober f3) 5 , f4) = 2, f(5) = 3.
Now, there are 32 people and the
there must be at least two people
ere
according to the igeonhole principle, (ü) The image fA) of f consists of all the image values. Now only
day of the month.
must have been born on the same as the image of any elements of A.
2.3 and 5 appear
f(A) = {2, 3, 5}.
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS Thus Ans.
Prob.61. Consider the function f defined by fig. 1.23. Find
S S ) , where S = {1, 3, S}, (i) S ° ( ) , where T= {1, 2}, (ii) s ( 3 ) .
Prob.58. Consider a function f: A>B.
(i) Let S be a subset of A. Define the image of S under f, den Sol. ) We have
by fS). fS) f{(1, 3, 5)}= {f(1), f(3), f(5)} = (3, 5, 3)
ii) Let T be a subset of B. Define the inverse image or pre-ima f(S) (3, 5 Ans.
of T under f, denoted by fi(T). of

Sol. (i) Here, f(S) {f (ii) Only 4 has its image in T {1, 2}. Thus
(a): a eS} {beB:3 acS such that f(a)=
= =

(T)= {4 Ans.
In other words, f(S) consists of all
images of the elements in S. (i) The elements 1 and 5 have image 3, hence
(ii) Here f(T) ={aeA :f(a)eT}.
in other words,
f(T) consists of the element of A whose 3 ) {1, 5} Ans.
toT. images bel
Prob.62. Consider the sets where X =
{2, 3, 6}, Y= , y, z
2) x, f3) = », f6) = z Show that, it is bijectve mapping.
Prob.59. State whether or not each
diagram in fig. 1.22, define
function from A {a, b, c} into B {, y, z}
=
=
Sol. We have,
B B () Since every element of Y is the image
of at least one element of X, it is an onto mapping.

(i) Since no two diferent elements of X

b b
have the same image in Y, it is a one-to-one mapping
Hence, it is one-to-one onto or bijective mapping. Fig. 1.24
(a) (b) (c) Prob.63. Prove that f-(A UB) =
f(A)} U {f(B)}.
Fig. 1.22 Sol. Let x be an element of fl(AUB), then
Sol. (i) No, because there is no element in B, which is xef-(AUB) » f{x) EAUB » f{x) EA or f{x) eB
element beA. assigned to
(ii) No, because two elements, y and xef-(A) or x ef-(B) =xe{f-l(A)}U{f-(B)}
(ii) Yes, since each element of Ais
z, assigned to ceA.
are
f(AUB) c {f-(A)}U{f"(B)). ..(1)
assigned a unique element ot Again, let y be an element of {f-l(A)}U{f-l(B)), then
Prob.60. Consider the
and the function f: A -A,
set A {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}1.
=

ye{f-(A)}u{f-(B)}>yef-(A) or yef-(B) » f(y)EA or fy)eB

defined by fig. 1.23. f y ) EAUB yef (AUB)
Find
(i) The image of each element ofA
f(A)}U{f=l(B)}gf-l(AUB)
Hence by equations (i) and
...i)
(ii), we obtain
(i) The image fA) of the H(AUB) = {f-(A)}U{F(B)}. Proved
function f. Fig. 1.23
 Set Theory, Relation, Function, Theorem Proving Technicques 57
56 Discrete Structure then proy,
one-t0-0ne
and onto, ove
->l is positive integer
Prob.64. iff:
X
onto.
(R.GIV, Dec. 20 Since y is
and
- > l is also one-to-one
y is also positive integer
f Or one-One
onto. f(/y) y
(R.GP, June pro
N>YIs f(x) = =

¥he two sets. Ifa mapping f: Hence

LetXand 201
for each y e Z and x =/y eZ", such that
that f l is aiso one-one onto. Thus
such that
y f(x)
Sol. Let yi. Y2EY
y ) Nand fis onto Proved
(y)= X, X1, X, EX Prob.66. lfX >
Yand A, B are two subsets of X, prove that-
(i) AUB) = fMA)U B) (i) fAnB)E fHA)n SB).
f x ) y and fx) y2
=

Now, ' ) = f(y) (R.GPV, Dec. 2010)

X f is one-to-o
Sol. (i) Let x be an element of f{AUB), then
fx)= fx)
xef(A UB) f(x) eA UB
f(x) EA or f(x) eB
fis one-to-one mapping
Again, let x be an arbitrary element of X. x ef{A) or
x ef(B)
f:XY X e i{A) U f(B)
y f(x) Since, x ef{AUB)> xe f(A) Uf{B)
f(y)= x. f(AUB) C fA) U {B) ...i)
Then, it shows that f image of yeY is xeX i.e., every element off
Consequently,
fimage of some element n y.
Hence, f is one-to-one onto.
fA)u f(B) s f{AUB) .1)
Prow
From relations (i) and (i), we get
Prob.65. Show that the mapping f: Z >Z defined by fix) = f(AUB) = f(A)U f(B) Proved
XEZ where Z is a set of positive integers, is one to one and onto.
(R.GPV, Dec. 20 (i) Let x be an element of f{AnB), then
Sol. (i) fis one-to-one -
Let X, X2 E Z", so that xef(AnB) =f(x) eA nB
x)EA and f(x) EB
f(x) xf x ef{A) and x ef(B)
f(x2)= x x ef(A)n fB)
Now fx)= f(x2) xef(AnB) >x ef{A)nf(B)
Proved
So f(AnB)E f(A)nf(B)
X X2
fis one-to-one
Prob.67. Define
is primitive recursive.
recursive function. Show thatthe function fts,y) =r+y
(R.GPV, June 2012)
(i) fis onto -

Let y be any arbitrary element of Z" such that Sol. Recursive Function Refer to the matter given on page 52.
y= f(x), vx e Z* Notice that
yx2 x+(y+ 1)= (x +y) + 1, so that
f(x, y +1) = f(x, y) +1 = S({x, y))
y x
Also f(x, 0) = x
x= /y eZ
 Discrete Structure Set Theory, Relation, Function, Theorem Proving Techniques 59
formally define fx, y) as
We can now (gof)x g[f(x)]
fix, 0) x=Uj(x) also
glcos x)
fx, y +1) s(U(x.y,f(x. y)) (cos xP cos'x
=
= =

Here the base function is g(x) U{ (x), and the inductive-step fune
=

nctiom (fog)x (gof)x

h(x. y. 2) = S(Ux. y z). Hence fog gof Proved
the above definition to actually Prob.70. Let f: R -> R be definedby
In order to see how we can use

the value of f2. 4), for example, we have

com
Con

2x+1,x s0
f2.0) 2
f2. 4) S(t{2, 3))
f)=2 +1,x>0
Letg: R >R be defined by
S(S(2.2))) 3x-7, x s0
S(S(S(2. 1))))
= S(S(S(S(f(2, 0)))
g)= ,x>0
= S(S(S(S(2))) then find the composition gof (R.GPV, Dec. 2015)
= S(S(S(3))) Sol. When xS0
(gof)x= g[{x)] = g(2x +1) = 3(2x + 1) -7
S(S(4))
S(5) 6 = = 6x +3 -7 6x --4
Hence Pro
Hence given function is primitive recursive. When x >0
Prob.68. IfR is the set of (gof)x glf{x)] = g(x* +1) = (x2 +13
real numbers and mapping f: R R is gil
byfx) =r and mapping g : R ->R is given by g(x) x +3, then =
x + 1 +3x-(x + 1) =x +3x+ 3x 1
=

fog gof show

Sol Iff: RR is
(R.GPV, 20 Prob.71. Explain pigeonhole principle. Prove that among
100000people
given by thereare two who are born
sametime? (R.GPV, June 2004, 2007)
on

and g: RR is
fx)= x Or
given by Explain pigeonhole principle with an example. (R.GPk, Dec. 2017)
g(x) x +3 Sol. Pigeonhole Principle Refer to the matter
-

given on page 52.

Now, (fog)x = f{g(x)}= fix + 3) Let P= {P1, P2,
P10000 be the set of people.
...,

also,
(x +3) =x2+6x +9 Let H= {H, H2, H24} be set of all hours in a day.
...,

(gof)x= g{fx)} = g(x*)=x* +3 A function 'f' exists such that f:P>H

(fog)x (gof)x
Hence, By extended pegeonhole principle, there least
fog # gof
Prob.69. Ilf the function f: R >R is
Prov during the same hour
are at
leastH persons borm

function g: R->Ris defined by g(x) defined by flx) cos x and =

1000001
that they are not x*, find =

(gof)x and (fog)x and pri 24 4167

equal. (R.GPK, Dec. 20
Sol. If f R> R is Suppose Q= [q1, 92, q4167]
given by f(x): and same hours.
..., is the set of all persons born during the
B(x) = x. cOS X g: R> R is given
ouppose M {m1, m2, ... mga} is the set of all
=

Now born on same

(fog)x fg(x)] nour and same minute and S = {S1, S2... Ssa is thepersons
set of all second n a
minute. Then h: R S .
=

f(x) =
cos x3
 Set Theory, Relation, Function, Theorem Proving Techniques61
60 Discrete Structure born.
principle, the
number of persons
pigeonhole
By extending real number.
is also a non-zero
seconds
hour, minute and
Pro 1
LisIJ 60 Hence for every y # 0 there exists its pre-imagey #0 in R as shown
assigned to m pigeonhole and m
n sh <}
Prob. 72. 1fn pigeons
are
also show that amo
contain atleast two pigeon below
that some pigeonholes 1
the sam born in
people, there are atleast two people, who
were
month.
(R.GPV, Dec. 20
solution of first part.
Sol. (i) Refer to the Theorem 7 for Itshows that every 0# y e R has its pre-image in domain R.
() Let P= {P, Pz, Pj..P13) be the set of peoples fis onto
Let M = {M, M..M2} be the set of all months in a year Hence the given mapping is one-one onto. Proved
A function fexists such that f: P<M Prob.75. Letf: R > R be defined by fir) = 3x +4, show that fis one-

one and onto. Give a formula that defines f-, (R.GPK, Dec. 2016)
By extended pigeonhole principle, there are at least LPI persons b
M Sol. (i) fis one-to-one -

Let X, X2 E R, so that
during the same month-
Pro f(x)= 3x + 4
Prob.73. State and prove pigeonhole principle with and fx)= 3x2 +4
an
example.
(R.GPK, Nov. 2 Now,
Sol. Refer to the matter given on page 52 and Theorem 7. 3x + 4 3x2 + 4

Prob.74. Show that the mapping f: R-> R, flx) 3x 3x2

=
x
*0 X X2
XER is one-one onto, where R is the set f is one-to-one.
of non-zero real numbers.
Sol. Let X1, X2
(R.GPV, May 20 (ii) fis onto -

Let y be any arbitrary element of R such that

e R be any two non-zero real numbers, then y= f(x) = 3x + 4
x)= x)
X=
y-4
3
f) Since y is rational number
X 2 X is also
rational number.

Ihus any
f(x)= f{x)X X2 arbitrary element y in R, is the f-image of the element y4 in R.
fis one-one mapping. fis onto.
Let y 0 be any real number Hence, the given
such that f{x) =y mapping is one-to-one and onto. Proved
(ii) Find f -
i.C. y Ince f: R>R is one-to-one and
Let y be the onto the inverse function fexists.
y0 image of x under f. Then,
 Set Theory, Relation, Function, Theorem Proving Techniques 63
Discrete Structure
To prove that (gof)l
=fog--
ytx)
Since gof is one-to-one onto mapping.
3 x+4
under the
imvVerse function (gof exists.
into an x
will be sent
ence, every y f f:XY be given by f(x) = y, where xeX and yeY
X =(y). where
y 3x 4t 4 g:Y-Z be given by f(y) =z, where yeY and z eZ
gof: X->Z be given by (gof)x where xeX and zeZ.
y-4 =

and z,
or X
3
By the definition of inverse mapping, we have
Thus
y)=x, g )
y and (gof) (z)
=
=
x

Prob. 76.
iff: X>Y and g Y>Z be two one-to-one onto
: mam Now, (og )z= f"lg7)
onto and
X Z is also one-to-one
Then prove that gof: =
f(y) =
x =

(gof) (z), vz eZ.

(gof= fog". ogl (gof)-1
Or
Hence
or (gof)= fog-l Proved
ff:A > B andg: B-Cbe one to one onto functions, then prove
sof is also one to one onto and (gof)l = f o g r .
(R.GPV, June 20 Prob.77. Let function f and g defined by flr) 2x+ 1, and glv) x*-2 =
=

ectively
Sol. Iff: X-Y and g: Y-Z be two mappings, then fx) =
y and g(u epect Find-
where, xEX, yeY and zeZ.
Given that f and g are both one-to-one onto and
(i) (go)4) (i) Gog)(4) (ii) (gof(a + 2) (iv) (fog)(a + 2)
therefore, f (v) fofísometimes denoted by f) (vi) (gog).
gboth exists and both are one-to-one onto.
To prove that gof is one-to-one (R.GPV, June 2015)
Sol
Let Xj, X2EX, then we have (i) We have, (gof) (4) =
g[f4)1 =g(9)t(x)=2x +1
(gof )x (gof )x2 f(4) =24+1 =9
=
92- 2 =
79 Ans.
gfx)]= glf{x2)] (ii) We have,
sy)= g(y)
(fog 4) f[g(4)] f(14)
= = =
2 (14) + 1 =
29
Ans.
( g is one-to- (ii) We have, f(a + 2) =
2 (a +2) + 1 =2a + 4+1 2a +5
fix)= fx) Then
(gofa+2) =glf(a +2)
(:f is one-to- g(2a+5) (2a +5-2 =

Thus, gof is
one-to-one mapping. = 4a+20a +23
To prove that gof is onto - Ans.
(iv) We have, g(a+ 2)=(a+ 2-2 a + 4a +2
Let z be any arbitrary element
of Z. Sinceg is onto, hence there exists Then (fog) (a + 2) 1g(a + 2)1 =

element y eY, such that g(y) = z.

Again, fis onto, hence there exists
=
f(a + 4a + 2)
an element xeX such that =
2 (a +4a + 2)+ 1
f(x)= y =
2a +8a
(gof(x)= glfix)] = g(y) = z. + 5 Ans.
(v) We have (fofx)= f[fx)]= f{2x + 1)
Hence, v zeZ, 3 an element xeX such that (gof)x = z
is onto.
2 (2x + 1) +1
= 4x + 3
Hence, gof is one-to-one onto. Pro Ans.
 Set Theory, Relatio, Function, Theoren Proving Techniques 65
64 Discrete Stnucture

(gogMx)= glg(x)|
(vi) We have g(x-2)=(x-2)2- 2

-4x2+ 2

=
3x + 4 and h(v)
=

4x for x ER
w
Let flv) 2x +3, g(x)fog. foh and goh.
=

Prob. 78. (K. GE1, Noy

R is set of real numbers. Find gef Fig. 1.26
Sol. We have. f(x) =2x
(got)x g(fix))=g(2x
+ 3) So, r {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c)} Ans.
3(2x + 3) + 4 : gx)= 3x Ci) The r' is fofof i.c. fof (see fig. 1.27)
= 6x +9 +4 fof(a) = f[fMa)] = fla) = b

=6x + 13
fof(b) = f[fb)] = f(b) = a
fof 2(c) fffc)] = f(c)
fog)x tg(x) =
f(3x + 4)
= 2(3x +4) +3

= óx +8 +3
= 6x +11

foh)x h(x)) = f(4x)

= 2(4x) +3 Fig.. .27
8x +3 So, f {(a, b), (b, a), (c, c)} Ans.
(goh)x= gh(x) = g(4x)
and Giv) The f is fofofof i.e. fofs (see fig. 1.28).
fof(a) = fff*(a)] = f(b) = a
3(4x) + 4
= 12x +4
fof *(b) f[f6)= fa) b
=

fofS(c) = f[f"©)] = f{c) = c

=

Prob.79. Let X = {a, b, c}. Define f : X > X such that

S {(a, b), (b, a), (c, c} f

Find ) f- (i)f2 (i) fs (iv) f4. (R.GPK, Dec. 2 b
Sol. (i) The function fis shown in fig. 1.25.
Fig. 1.28
So, f4 {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c)} Ans.
f Prob.80. Let A =
{1, 2, 3. Define f: A ->A such that f {1, 2), (2, 1),
Fig. 1.25
(3, 3)). Find f, f2 and fs. (R.GPV, June 2017)
Sol. (i) The function fis shown in
The inverse function f =
{(b, a), (a, b), (c, c)} fig. 1.29.
(i) The f2 is fof as shown in fig. 1.26.
fofa) = f[fa)] = f{b) = a

fof(b)= [fb)] =
f(a) =b Fig. 1.29
fofc)= ff(c)] = f(c) = c The inverse function f=
{(2, 1), (1, 2), (3, 3)} Ans.
66 Discrete Structure
I.30.
shown in fig.
(i) The f2 is fof as 1
fof1) fNf1)] f{2)
=
=

f) =
=
2
fof[2)=f[N2))
fof3)= N3))
=
A3) =
3 UNIT
ALGEBRAIC
STRUCTURES
Fig. 1.30

So f-i(1, 1), (2, 2)%.(3, 3)}

ii) The f is fofof i.e. fof (see fig. 1.31).
ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES- DEFINITION, PROPERTIES
for1)= ff1)] = R1)=2
TYPES SEMI GROUPS, MONOID, GROUPS, ABELIAN
fof(2)-f(2)] =
f{2) =1 GROUP, PROPERTIES OF GROUPS
fof (3) {r3)] =
f{3) =
3
Binary Operations on a Set

Suppose G is a non-empty set. The G G {(a, b):a Gb G}. If

x e
=
E

f:GxG>G,then fis called a binary operation on a set G. The image of the

ordered pair (a, b) under the function f is denoted by afb. Often we use
Fig. 1.31
symbols +t, X, ', 0, etc., to denote binary operations on a set. Thus, will be
+

So f= {(1, 2), (2. 1), (3, 3)} a binary operation on G iff

A
a+be G va, b eG and a + b is unique.
*
Similarly*' will be a binary operation on G iff a
b e Gva, b e G and
a*bis unique.
A binary operation on a set G is sometimes also said to be binary
composition in the set G . If* is a binary composition in G then a * b e G

va,b e G Therefore,G is closed with respect to the composition denoted by *.

For example, addition is a binary operation on the set N of natural numbers.
The sum of two natural numbers is also a natural number. Therefore N is
closed with respect to addition i.e., a + b e N, va, b e N.
Subtraction is not a binary operation on N. We have 4 7 -3 £N =

4 N.
whereas Thus N
1S binary operation
is not closed with respect to subtraction, But subtraction
on the ofinteger.
set We have a -be
l,va,beL
Algebraic Structure - A non-empty set G equipped with one or more
binary operations is said to be an algebraic structure. Suppose * is a binary
operation on G Then (G, *) is an algebraic structure. (N, +), (1, +). (, ),
(R, t, )are all algebraic structure. Here (R, +, .) is an algebraic structure
equipped with two operations.
Properties of an Algebraic System -

By a property of an algebraic
system, we mean a
property possessed by any of its operations. Important
properties of an algebraic system are -
 ete StrJcture
Laws- An operation n
n as
Algebraic Structures 69
and Commutative for any elen anle -Consider an algebraic system (1, *) where the set I {0,1.2.
) 4sociative
to satisfy the
assoc1ative
law tf,
menta the set of natural numibers and is +
an addition oneratia
=

is sa t he SsoCiatin t or
4
. cnS, we noVe asre Property The operation+ -

15 cosed stnce sum of two natural

or Satis. number.
Operation
*
on a set S is said to be
commuiattve

isfy t numbers is a natural

Aesaciative Property- T he operation t 1S an assCatIve property since
A
commutative law if
swe have
a b h *a (a b ) +c =a + (b + c) a, b, c e I
elements, B. in.
a Identity There exists an identity element in set I with respect to the
- Inverses Consideran operation *on
(i) identit lemeni and operation. The element 0 is an identity element with respect to the operation
elenment for it, for any clement a i
*

S. An element c in Sis called an identity

Since the operation + i s a closed, assoc1ative and there exists an identity
ace*a-a
Gcnerally, an clement c is called a lefi identity or a right rdentity accord
rdin Hence, the algcbraic system (1,+) is a monoid.
in S. Theorem 1. Ifa semigroup has an identity element, the identity element
e =a where a is any clement
*
asca =a or a
Suppose an operation on a set S does have
* an identity clement e.T is unique.
iverse of an clement in S is an clement b such that Proof. Suppose a semigroup (S, *) has two identity elements e and e.
ab b *a =e Since e is an identity element, we have e * a = a ' e =a for all a = S. Since
( i i ) C a n c e l a t i o n L a w - An o p e r a t i o n * on a set S is s a i d to s a t i
e'E S, this implies that
the left cancelation law if e *e'=e' * e = e'

a *b a *cimplies b=c Similarly, since e' is an identity element and e e S, we find that
and is said to satisfy the right cancelation law if e'*e=e * e'=e
...11)
ba=c* a implies b =c From (1) and (11), we get

Semigroup e' = e'* e =e *e' =e

An Thus, e' and e are not different. It means that if (S, *) has
algebraic structure (G *) is said to be a
semigroup,
bina if the an identity
operation is associated in element, it must be unique.
*
G i.e., if (a * b) * c a =
(b c), va, b, c, el
* *
For example, the set N of all natural
the operation of addition of
numbers is a semigroup with respect Group
natural numbers. A system consisting of a non-empty set G of elements
a, b, c etc., with
Obviously, addition is an associative operation on N. an operation is said to be agroup provided the following postulates are satisfied-
Similarly, the algebraic structure (N, ,) (1, +) and (R, +) are also (i) Closure Property- Forall a, beG~a.beG
semigrou
Example The algebraic structure (1, -) is not a semigroup,
-

i.e., G is closed under the operation'.'.

subtraction -' does beca (i) Associativity - (a.b).c = a.(b.c), v a, b, ceG
not satisfy the associative law, i.e.,
(a b) c#a- (b c), va, i.e., the binary operation .' over G is associative.
b, c e I
-

It is obvious that I is closed

under subtraction-", and (ii) Existence
groupoid but not a
so (1, -) is of Identity There exists an unique element in G
semigroup. Such that, e.a =
for every a e G This element e is called the
a =
a.e,
identity.
Monoid A semigroup (m, *) with an
identity element with respect tot (iv) Existence of Inverse For each a e G there exists an element
-

operation is called a monoid. In other words, an

*
ae G such that a.a
called a monoid iff x, y, z e M, algebraic system (M, " e a, a. = =

The element al is called the

inverse of a.
(x*y) * z=x * (y *z) Abelian or Commutative
and there exists Group A group G is said to be abelian or -

an elemente e M such that for M commutative if in addition to the above four

any x E
is also satisfied. the postulates following postulate
e*x =x *e = x
where e is called identity element. (v) Commutativity -

a.b =
b.a, for every a, b e G
 iscrete Stnucture Aigebrsid ructures 71
of roup a ac
Some Genersl Properties The identiiy
element in a
ag Now.
ldentity)- a(ab)=a(ac)
hearem 2. (UiiquenesK of
is
i
unign.
(by multiplying both stdes on the left by a
identity
elemenis 01
4 group G (w
Wehe (aa) b (a 'a) c fby assoctative law
ande' are fwo
FFooj. Suppose e
eb e c
c'e'e. ife'isidentit C
eec'. ileis identity ba ca
ut ee' is auniqve clement ol(.
Also.
c'. (ba)a =(ca) a
c*e e and ee' = c' b (a a ) = c (a a ) (by assoCatrve law
Hence, the identity element iS unique.
Pro
Fheorem 3. (niqueness of Iverse)- The inverse of each elemea
be
b
ce
nt of Proved
group is unique. Theorem 6. Ifa, h are any two elements
of a group G then the equution
Proof. Let a be any arbitrary cicment of a grOuN G and let e be the iden ax h and ya = b have unique solution in G

element. Proof. Let a be any element of Gi, then there exists an elemnent a
Suppose b and c are twe inverse of a i.e., such that
hha- e a * b and c*a = e = a*c
aa=e =a a
Now. b ( a t c ) = b*e = b where, e is the identity element
( a*c=
also. (b*a)*c= e*c = c
( b*a =e and e*c aeG,beG a'eG, beG a beG
But b*(ac) = (b*a)*c
(by closure property
Now putting x = a- 'b in the equation ax = b, we have
Thus. b=
iHence, the inverse element iS
a (a 'b) = (a a- )b = eb = b
unique. Pro
Theorem 4. Thus, x =a-'b is a solution in G of the equation ax b. To show that the
i.
If the inverse of a is a, then the inverse ofa-i solution is unique, let
us suppose that
=

X, and
=
x solutions of
(a)- =a.
=
x are two
the equation ax = b. Then,
X,
Proof. Let e be the identity element, we have ax,=b and ax, =b
a ae (by the definition of invers ax ax, X X (by left cancellation law)
(a-*(a- l*a) = (a-l-l*e Hence, the solution is unique.
(Multiplying both sides on the left by (a- ) , which is necessarilya Now, to prove the equation ya b has a unique solution in G We have
=

element of G. because is
a- an element of G.) aeG, bEG5a-leG, beG » ba e G (by closure property?
f(a-*a- lj'a = (a -l)-1 Now (b a-)a = b(a- a) = be = b
(by associative la (by associative law)
ea = (a- l)-1 ba- is
( (a-)-' is a
inverse of a y solution in G of the equation ya =b
a

a (a-) -1 Suppose y and y, are two solutions of this

equation.
(a--1 =a Then, y,a -b and y,a b, therefore y,a ya
=
=

Prove
Theorem 5. Cuncellation laws hold
good in YY2 (by right eancellation law)
three elenents of G then
a
group. 1f a, b, e are an Hence, the solution is unique. Proved
ab =ac 2b=c Composition Table for Finite Sets
and
(Lefi cancellationlon ne composition (or operation or multiplication) table is the tabular form
ba = ca 6=c (Right cancellation la which a binary composition in a finite set can be exhibited. This table can be
Proof. Let a be any formed as follows
arbitrary element of G, then there exists an
ekm
aeG, such that 1) Write the elements of the set
row as well
(which are finite in number) ir
a.a=e =a 'a, where, e is the identity element as in a column.
 Algebraic Structyres 73
Discrete Structure ordered pair(a,
associatcd
to the ultiplieation Modulo p - Here we define a new type of muitipieation
the
element column ow am
below
and the
( ) Write
headed by a (5, +),
ltipiication modulo p and wiitien as
y XY, where x
ntersection ofthe row

The composition
table for
the group
where add v are itntegers and p is a prime numiher.
1 hia means xy = r, r <
below
+0 2
-

For example
elements 0, 1, 2, 3,
given
4 is T e r dcnotes the least non-negative integer obtained on diividing the proditct
of the tirst00
consists

the firstelement of the f ad y by p i.e., we find the product ol x and y in the ordinary way anc!
boveexanmple, obtained by adding TT
table viz..0is the integral muitipics ot p Irom this product such that the
row in the body the of
and the first
element 0 2 then remove
ihe tirst elcment 0 of head positive integer less thanp.
row
remainder is cither 0 or a
ofthe the head column. Similarly the third element ot 44 561
element Order of an Element of a CGroup - Suppose G is a group and the
4th row (viz. 5) is obtained by adding the third
2 of the head row and the fourth clement 3 of the hcad column and and sso on, composition has been denoted multiplicatively. By the order of an eiement
Residue Classes Modulo m acG is meant the least positive integer, if one exists.
-

lfa. a, e I. the set of all imtegers, then a =

a (mod m) ie. Such that a= e (the identity of G).
divisible by m. If there exists no positive integer n such that a" = e, then we say that a is
Here a, =
a, (mod m) is read
asa, congurent to a, modulo of infinite order or of zero order. The order of a is denoted by ofa).
The congurence relation (mod m)
Is an m"
cquivalence relation in the
Theorem 7. The order of every element of a finite group is finite and is
integers and seperates the inteLer mo dsjont classes, such that setl
than or equal to the order of the group.
same class. all
integers which are congurent nmoaulo m are put in the tho
know that by any integer a is congurent (mod
Alan
lso Proof. Suppose G is a finite group, the composition being denoted
m) to its remainder w
divided by m and as there are m possible remainders multiplicatively. Suppose a e G, consider all positive integral powers of a i.e.,
0, 1,2.3, 4. (m.
there will be m disjoint classes, known as residue a, a, a, .. All these are elements
classes modulo m and th
of G, by closure axiom. Since G has a
set is denoted by I (m). These classes are finite number of elements, therefore all these integral powers ofa cannot be
denoted by {0},
Sum of Residue Classes If {1},.(m- distinct elements of G. Suppose
of G. SupPpose a'a ' a
a* r
(r > s). =

modulo m, their sum is defined by {r} and {r,} be two residue

clas Now a a a as = as.ars > a as = a
ir}+
negative remainder when (r t r,) divided{r} {k}, where k is the least n
=

by m. a.as =ea" =e, where m= r-s

Since r>s, therefore m is a
positive integer. Hence there exists a positive
+ =

+Ta}, if r+r<km integer m such that a = e.

ifrtr2 m {k}, Now we know that every set of positive

where k is the least integers has a least member.
non-negative remainder whenr+r, is divided by m. Therefore the set of all those
Product of Residue Classes I f positive integers m such that am e has least =

modulo m, their product is defined

{r} and {r,} be two residue clas members, say n. Thus there exists a least positive
integer n such that a" =e.
by, Therefore o(a) is finite.
r}.{rk, where k is the least non-negative remaind Now to prove that
o(a) < o(G).
i.e., Suppose o(a) where n > o(G). Since a e G therefore
=
n,
=k 1f . T2 m property a, a*, a are elements of G. No two of by closure
these are equal. For if
...

where k is the least non-negative remainder when

r, I, is divided by m.
possible, let a aa, 1<s<r<n. Then a-s e, since
=

0<r-s<n, therefore
=

Addition Modulo m- Here we define a new a-s=e implies that the order
type of addition known ofa is less than n. This is a contradiction. Hence
a, a*..a are n distinct
addition modulo m and written as x +my, where x and are and elements of G. Since n> o(G), therefore this is not
y integers m possible. Hence we must have o(a) 2
a positive integer. This means x +Y I;0<r< m, where r denotes the a o(G). Proved
non-negative remainder obtained on dividing the ordinary sum of x andy Theorem 8. If the element a
is a
divisor of m. of a group G is order n, then a" =
e ifn
m, i.e., we find the sum of x and y in the ordinary way and then remove
integral multiples of m from this sum such that the remainder is either Proof. Suppose n is a divisor of m. Then there exists
that nq =
m.
an integer a such
positive integer less then m.
 lgebraic Structure 75
74 Discrete Structure
= ef ( o(a)=n
a = an=
(a)9 o4. Define thefollowing algebraic structure with an example-
Now Monoid.
(i) Semigroup (ii) (R.GPV, June 2017)
that a= e. Or
Conversely suppose integer theretore bu
and n is a positive
divis Define senmigroups and monoids. (R.GPV, Now. 2019)
m is an integer nqtI, where =

Since that m
algorithm there exists integers q and r such Ans. (i) Semigroup Kerer to the matter given on page 68.
a*
a = ang
t+r aln9 a> (a")"
=
=
i Monoid - Refer to the matter given on page 68.
Now
=e a = ea' = a"

.5. Explain
abelian group. (R.GPV, June 2015)
a=e a ' =e
must be equal to zero Ans. Refer to the
matter given on page 69
Since 0 Sr <n, therefore a = e r
otherwise o(a) will not equal to n. If o(a)
=
n, then there will existno beca Q.6. Define semigroup. Write is properties. (R.GPV, Dec. 2015)

integer r <n such that a e.

= posith Ans. Refer to the matter given on page 68 and 70.
m= nq>nis a divisor of m. 0.7. Define group. Distinguish between abelian andnon-abelian group.
Theorem.9. The orders ofthe elements a andxax are the sa Prov Explain with the help of example. (R.GPV,June2013)
a, x are any two elements of a group. whe Ans. Group Refer to the matter given on page 69.
-

Proof Suppose n
and m are the orders of a and x Abelian Group Refer to the matter given on page 69.
-

Now (xl ax) = (xl ax) (x*l ax)

ax
respectively Example-(Z, +). (Q. +), (R, +) are all infinite abelian groups (0 is the
xa (xxl) ax identity and-a is the inverse of a in each case), + being the binary operation.
Non-abelian Group-A group which is not abelian is called non-abelian.
=x (ae) ax xl =

aax =x-l a2x

In general, we get Example
(xax)" =x a" x =xl ex
=
xx =
e
( o(a) =n a
3-3-3-
is a quaternian group.
o(x ax) sn >m n. It can easily be seen that it is non-abelian group with respect to
Again o(x ax) =m> (x- axm = e multiplication operation.
x a x = x x = a" x =x
a x = ex a"m = e
(by left cancellation lav NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
(by right cancellation l
o(a) m>nam Prob.1. Show that the set I
of all integers
Finally m <n, n &m>n=m Prove 4 , -3, -2, -11,0, 1, 2, 3, 4,.
Q.1. What do you mean by algebraic structures ? Explain its diferm is a group with respect to the operation of addition of integers.
properties. (R.GPV, Now. 201 Sol. (i) Closure Property - We know that the sum of two integers is
Ans. Refer to the matter given on page 67. also integers 1.e.,
an
a +b el a, bel.
Q.2. Define semigroup. (R.GPV, Dec. 2013, 201 Hence, I is closed under given operation.
Ans. Refer to the matter given on page 68. (i) Associativity-We know that addition ofintegers is an associative
composition. Thus, a+(b + c) =(a + b) + c, va, b, cEl
Q.3. Define monoid. (R.GPV, June 2010, Dec. 2013, 20 (ii) Existence of Identity - Let 0 eI, we have 0 + a =a =at0,
Or ael. Therefore 0 is the additive
identity.
Write short note on mnonoid. (R.GPV, Dec. 2010, 20 (iv) Existence of Inverse - Let aeI, then (-a) e I is the additive
Or inverse of a, since, a+(-a) =0= (-a) +a, ael.
Define monoid with an example. (R.GPV, Dec. 20 Thus, every integer possesses additive inverse. Hence I is a group with
respect to addition. Proved
Ans. Refer to the matter given on page 68.
 76 Discrete Structure Algebraic Structures 77
1,2, 3,...,
Proh.2.Istheset ofintegers, =..
I -,-2,-,0,
...)a grou ab=ba
Jor the binary operation defined as- (i) Since ({a, b}, *) is a semigroup
*b =a-bfor all a,
a
bel? (R.GPV, June 201 bb b a, b (by closure property)
Sol. I denotes the set of all integers that
be a semigroup. Show for a, b, cEA ifatc=c*
Proh.5. Let (A, )
(i) Closure Property -Let a, b el, then we have then (a"b)*c =c"(a"b). (R.GPV, June 2009, Dec. 2010)
a*b el= a -b el d be c*b,=

is a semigroup, and
I i s closed with respect to the operation Sol. (A, *)
ac= c*a
(i) Associatve Property Let a, b, c, el, then we
- have b*c= c*b va, b, ceA
a * (b * c)= a * (b - c) = a - (b - c) = a - b+c and
show that,
and b) -b- c We have to
(a b) *c= (a a
=
(a b)*c = -
-
-

c
11 (a*b)*c= c*(a*b)
From equations (i) and (ii)
a * (b * c + (a * b) * c Taking L.H.S.

IIS not associative with respect to the operation ***.

= (a*b)*c (a, b, ceA)
I is not = a*(b*c) (by associative law)
a
group. Ans, = a*(c*b) (given)
Prob.3. Determine whether semigroup with than (by associative law)
idempotent element can be group.
a more
one = (a*c)*b
(R.GPV, Dec. 2014 = (c*a)*b (given)
Or = c*(a*b) (by associative law)
Show that a
be a group.
semigroup with more than one idempotent element canno = R.H.S. Proved
(R.GPK, June 2015
Sol Let (A, *) be a
Prob.6. What is a semigroup
? Prove that (A, tissemigroup, whereA
a

Then we have
semigroup with two idempotent elements a and b (a
+b)| addition operation.
even integers and +"bethe ordinary
be the set ofallpositive
a*a=a (R.GPV, May/June 2006)
b*b b under same heading.
Sol. Semigroup- Refer the matter given page 68,
on
Now assume that A is ...) is a semigroup, where A is the
a
group with identity element structure (A, +)
Then, a*e=a
e, To prove, the given algebraic
and set of all positive even integers.
b*e=b then
From equations (i) and (ii) Let, a, b,cEA,a+ (b t c) = (a + b) + c
a e a =a za e =a
(by left cancellation law For example, 2, 4, 6 E A, then
b*e b= b*b >e =b ..1)
a =e=b
(by left cancellation law) 2+(4 +6) =12 EA
which is a contradiction to a # and (2+4) +6 12 EA .1i)
b.
Hence (A, *) cannot be a From (i) and (ii), we have
group.
Prob.4. Let ({a, b}, *) be a
Ans. 2+(4+6) =(2 +4)+6
semigroup where Hence, given algebraic structure (A, +) satisfies associative law, then
(i) a*b =b*a a»a =
b show that- Proved
(i) b»b =b.
(R.GPV, June 2005, Dec. 2006, June 2007 (A, +) is a semigroup.
(R.GPV, June 2005, 2007 is a group with
Prob.7. Show thatthe set G= fa +b2:a, b Q}
Sol. Given that e

({a, b}, *) is respect to addition.

a
semigroup and a* a =
b. Or
ab a*(a »a) a a =b(given)) Show that the algebraic structure a +bW2:a,b el+) forms agroup
(a* a) *a Nov. 2018)
= b*a (by associative law) (R.GPV, Dec. 2016,
(:aa =b)
 Algebraic Structures 79
Discrete Structure two clements ofc
Let x, y be any
G have
(1) and (ii),
-
we
Closure Property equations
Sol. (i) =c+dv2, here, b, v a, e From
a*(bc)= (a"b)*c, * a, b, ceQ.
atb2 and y
Then, (bt+ d),5""
(b d)2 and e be the identity element, then
= (a+b2)+(c+dv2) =(a t c)+ ii) Existence ldentity-Let aeQ
a*e a, y aEQ
Now, +y
the elements of QQ
Since (a + c) and (b+ d)
are
a +e ae =
a e - ea =0 e (l - a) =0
Gi X, y E G
G x+ye a l . e =OeQ
(a+c)+(b +d)v2
e
Since, element.
Gis closed with respectto addition. So, 0 is
the identity
elements of Gare
all real numbers:and Let aeQ and a- 'be the inverse of a, then
(ti) Associativity The
-

th iv) Existence of Tnverse-

addition of real numbers is associative. > a +a-l
aa-=e a a-l 0 a-=
- =
Q,
Let a + bv2 EG, where v a be0
Ciüi)Existence ofIdentity
- ,

a 1. Also
Then we have, because a-1
a+bv2)+(0+0/2) =
(a +0) + (b +
0)V2 =
a + b2 a
is the inverse of 'a'.
a-1
0+0v2 is the additive identity ofa +bv2 .

Commutative -

Let a, beQ, then we have

(iv) Existence of Inverse - Let a +bV2 EG,where, v a,bEQ. Thel (v) beQ a*b=b*a
ab a+ b- ab =
b + a - ba =b*a +a,
Proved
we have. a+ by2 eG = (-a)+(-b)W2 EG abelian group with respect to given operation.
Thus, Q is an

Since a, bEQ - a, - beQ rational numbers other than-1

Prob.9. Prove that
the set Q1 of all
Now, fa) +(-b)2]+(a +by2 )= [(-a) + a] +[(-b) +b]v2 with the operation defined
by -

(R.GPV, June 2016)

0+0 2 identity = =
a*b a+b-ab is an abelian group.
a ) +-b) 2 is the additive inverse of a + by2 Sol. Refer to Prob.8. which exists
element and the inverse of a is
-

Hence, G is a group with respect to addition. Here 0 is the identity a +1

Proved
Prob.8. Show that the set Q of all rational numbers other than 1,
form sincea +l#0 and a+1
ab
an infinite abelian group with the operation *'
defined by the rule *
b=
numbers and let a
of the non-zero real
a*b = a + b - ab.
(R.GRV, June 2009) Prob.10. Let G be the set
Sol. i) Closure Property -Let a, bEQ. Then a and b are rational numbers abelian group. (R.GPK, Dec 2009, June 2011)
then show that (G *) s an
such that a 1, b 1. non-zero real numbers-
Sol. Let G denote the set of all
Now ab a+b- ab b e G, we have
(i) Closure Property For every a,
-

which is also a rational number and it cannot be

equal to 1, because ab
a
+b- ab =
1 (a -1) (b- 1) =0 a =
l or b =
1 abeG G.
which is not so.
a*beQ,va, beQ given operation.
G is closed with respect to
Hence, Q is closed with respect to c e G, then we have
given operation. (i) Associativity Property Let a, b,
-

(i) Associativity Let a, b, ceQ, then we

-

abc
have 1
a*(b*c) a*(b + =
c -

bc) a
*
(b *
c) =a 4
a+ (b +c -

bc) -

a (b + c-
bc) (a * b) * c
abc .i)
a+b +c ab -

bc ca t abc
and
Also
-

4
-

(ab)*c (a +b ab)*c
=
-

From relations (i) and (i), we have

(a+b- ab) + (a +b- ab) c -

c a* (b * c ) = ( a * b) * c
=a+btc -ab - bc -ca + abc ) Gis associative with respect to given operation.
 80 Discrete Structure
G and e e dI
be Algebraic Structures 81
Existece of
ldentit-
Let a E
the ides it) Existence ofIuverse - Let acZ and aleZ be the inverse ofa
(ii)
then we
have a -s cc2 eG h e n we have
element,
t¥a E G a*a e = al*a, vY aEZ
aa *e =e *a.
identity clemeni a +a + | = - 1a 2 aEZ
2 is a n Gand ae Gha
Inverse -Let ae
he inverse 2 a is the inverse
of a
(iv)Existemceof Let a, bEZ, then have
()Comnmutative- we

a. then we have * + a e G a*b a + b + l =b +a + i = b*a y a, beZ

e
= al a.
a *al =

-1 Hence Z is an abelian group. Proved

group, show that (A, *) is

2 a ' =

Prob.12. Suppose (A, *)

be a an abelian
a b (a = *
b)* for all a and b in A.
eroup if and only if
*

a because
1S the inverse ot (R.GPV, June 2005, 2007)

a-
4
ax-2 Sol. Let a, b any two elements of A, suppose 3, 4, 5 are three consecutive
2a numbers, such that
4a
(a b = a' *
b', (a b
*
=a b
also b5
a 2a
and (a b5=as *

Let a, b E G, then we have

(v) Commutattve We have
-

ab (a b (a b (a b)
a*b= a b=at * b* (a * b)
2
a b *b = a * a° * b * b * a * b
=b*a, v a, b e G
a b = a' b* b *a
Hence G is an abelian group. Prove [by left and right cancellation laws]
Prob.11. Prove that the set Z of all integers with binary operaton (a b (a * b)" * (b * a)
defined by = (a b) * (a * b)
(a * b * (b * a)
a*h =a +b+1 a , bEZ a * b b* a [by left cancellation law]
is an abelian group. (R.GPV, June 201 > (A, *) is abelian Proved
Sol Let Z denotes the set of all integers Prob.13. Let be a commutative
(A, *) semigroup. Show that if a *a =

(i) Closure Property - v a, beZ, we have a and b * b =b, then (a * b) * (a * b) = a * b. (R.GPV, Nov/Dec. 2007)

abeZ a+b+ 1 eZ Sol. Give (A, *) is a commutative semigroup, and a * a = a, b * b = b.

Z is closed with
respect to given operation. To show that (a * b) * (a * b) =a *b

(i) Associative Property Let a, b, Taking L.H.S.

-

ceZ, then we have

a*(b#c a* (b +c + 1) a + b + c+l+1 a + b +c*2. =
=
=
(a * b) * (a * b), v a, b e A
and {(a * b) * a} *b
(ab)*c(a +b + 1) c =a +b+1+c+1 a + b +c+2. * =
=

From relations (i) and (ii), (since (A, *) is commutative semigroup)

we have
a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c
=
{a * (b *a)} *
b =fa * *(a ** b)} **b
Z is
associative with respect to
=
{(a * a) * b} *
b {(a a) (b b)}
=

given operation. =
a *b =
R.H.S. Proved
n) Existence ofldentity-Let aeZ, and eeZ be the
then we have. emens
identity eleu Prob.14. Let (A, ) be monoid such
a ihat for every x in A, x** =
e,

-1 is -1
where is the
e
identity element. Show that (A, ) is an abelian grouP
an aa*e=e*a,va¬Za+e+
identity element. 1 =
ae (R.GPK, Dec. 2012)
 82 Discrete Structure Algebraic Structures 83

Sol Let x and y be any two elements of the the eelements of the composition table are
group A. Th
Property-All

with respect to addition modulo 6.

element ofA. nxy Ch
Closure

ofsetG
G Hence, G is closed
is associative. if a, b, c
(xy) (xy) =e the
e

(i) AssociativeLaw-- The

l e m e n t s

composition +
lso
Now, xy)* (xy) =e (xy)l = xy
o f G,
then

ts b) tc,v a, b,
e l e m e n t s

ceG
yx xy arc any
threc

t (b
) a
(a
xx =e = x-l = x elements of G,then we have
But, Let a be any -

Existence of Idetity
Similarly, y*y =e=yl =y til
t 0 = 0 + a =a, ¥
aeG
a
Hence, from (1), we get element.
identity the inverse of
yx xy 0 is the From the table we
see that

of Inverserespectively.
-

Thus, we have Gv) Existence

I
5 are 0, 5, 4, 3, 2,
xy yx, X, y E A 0.1.2, 3, 4,
(A, *) isabelian group.
an For example,
0=2 +, 4
4 +2
Prob.15. Show that the set G of 2.
{I, a
multiplication, ø being an imaginary cube rootaf}of unit.group with respel
=
is a 4 is the
inverse
is commutative.
Commutative Law
-

The composition +
v) of G then
two elements
(R.GPK, Dec. 2008, June If a, b'are any
Sol Here. G {1,a, =

o}. Now we form the composition a tb

=
b +, a, v a, beG
table - G is
commutative.
..
set G is 6.
The number of elements in the Proved
(G,is a finite abelian group of order 6.
(ro' abelian group under
1
Prob.17. set, Prove that G={1, 2, 3, 4} is a finite(R.GPV, June 2017)
modulo 5.
) All the elements of the the operation multiplication
table
of G. Hence, G is closed with composition table also the ele Sol. First prepare the composition
(ii) The elements
respect to multiplication.
are we

402 4x2=8 =5(1) +3=3

2
1
3
2
44
3
are all of G
complex numbers
multiplication of complex numbers is associative. and we know
4 1 3
c It is the element written at the intersection of the 2 2
because coposition
1.a a.l
table we see that 1
= is the identitv elemte row headed by 4 and the column headed by Simula 2.
3 3 1 42
a, va eG
=

(iv) Elements 1 404 4x4 =16 = 5(3) +1=1| 4 4 (3) 2 (1)

Inverse 0
5 402 404
Hence, G has inverse of each elements 5oth these are within brackets in the table.
Gis a group with respect to conclude thatv a,
multiplication. Btnary Composition From above table we -

Prob.16. Prove thatthe set G= D Is again a number of the set and hence the composition is Dinary.
{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
of order 6 with respect to addition modulo 6 is afinite abelian
a gr remainder
Sol. First we prepare the composition table (R.GPV, Dec. 20as when Associativity- (aob)oc and ao(boc) will give the same
the
t
ordinary ary product abc is divided by 5.
u) ldentity-Clearly the identity element is
0 2 (iv) element say 4 look
2 4
4 to t
row Inverse- In order to find the inverse of anyin that
headed 4 then the
element at the headby and com the identity element row

44 of this lumn, i.e. 4 is the inverse

4 16 5(3) + Similarly inverse of3 is 2 and that ot 2
is 3and of 1
Sot=l=identity.
is 1.
 84 Discrete Structure Algebraic Structures 85

Thus the inverse of each element exists and

bele
Again since a.b=
5
b.ava,
5
be set and as
belong to the y
such i)Wefindthat *a) * a
commutative. Hence an abelian group. =a=(a
com b
N o w ,

*b *

(a
a) =a *a
=b= (a * a)
Prob.18. Prove that the set G= {1, 2, a
b) *
(a b) *
=
a * *a
3, 4, 5, 6
6} isis aa *(a b *a =b=
of order 6 with respect to muliiplication modulo finite ah
a
(b * a) *b
(a b)
=a

*a
=a
=
*

7. a
=a a)
(b b) b *b= b = ( b** * b
*
Sol First we the
prepare composition table a
-

b*(aa) = a =(b
a)
* =a

i) Closure Property-From the table b

(b b)
= a *
*

we see that all the elements T b (a

* *b)
b a
*
b) *b
* =a
=

of the composition
=

2 b ( b *a) * b =b=(b
table elements of the set G
are 4 *
b) =b a s s o c i a t i v e .

6 b*(b that
*
is
4 show

Hence, G is closed with respect to relations

cation modulo 7. multipli- 6

above
The ( i )
*b = b
a, b
Since
* *
=b also.
(ii) Associative Law- The a
*b =a element
in A
under

that it is
c o m m u t a t i v e

are any three

elements of G, then composition X, is associative Thus, b is
the
identity
under *. We
observe

namely (1, ,
-

1, - ) s
an

Dec. 2008)
monoid

ax, (b x c) (a x, b) x, c, va,b, Hence

A is a roois
of unity number (R. GPV,
thatfourth
=

(ii) Existence of ceG, Prob.21. of compler

Prove
multiplication

Tdentity- Let a be any element of G pbeliangroupunder

theanhelian i). To
show that -1
a
x, l =1 x, 4 ¥aEG
gro =(1, 1, i, form the
-
-

I-1
i
Sol Let G
a =
a, E
a G in G we

l is the
identity element. is a
composition

1
multiplication -1
(iv) Existence of Inverse composition table - c o n c l u s i o n s - - 1 -

that the inverses of 1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6From the above

-

-i-1
see
are 1, 4, 5, 2,
composition t Now we make
the following
Since all
entries i
i 1-H
3, 6
For example, 5
x 33
x, 5 =1 (by the respectively
0Tespectiveh )Closure
Property-
elements ofthe
set G
3 is the inverse of
5. composition table) composition
table a r e Therefore

in the with respect

to
multiplication.
and
(v) Commutative Law Gis closed is a binary operation on
G
all complex
numbers

The
corresponding rows and columns in the composition is commutative
-

n multiplication
The
elements of G are

set G has 6 elements. composition table are

1den (i)
Associativity-
numbers is
associative.
table w e see
of complex the composition
Hence, (G x,) is a finite abelian the multiplication
ldentity-
From row of the
with the top
group of order 6. Pro Existence

)headed by the of Left

element 1, just
coincides
Prob.19. Find the
multiplication modulo multiplication
7. table for G ={1, 2, ,3, 4, 5,5, 6 a
that the row
have
Sol Refer to Prob.18. (.GPV, June20
0composition tabie = 1, 1-1)=- 1,
composition table.
Thus we

1(1)
Prob.20. Let (A, *) be an algebraic () =i, 1 (-i)=-iGand 1
I
a
=
a, va e G
its
such thata *b=afor system where *
is we have 1
e element is
any a and b in
A. binary oper eraa
In
Inverse-We
other words table we
know that the
identity
(i) Show that is an associative
*
(ir) Existence ofLeft the composition
operation inverse of 1 is 1. From headed
ii) Can ever be a commulative
*
Therefore the left
1 occurs in
the row

operation ? inverse. -1, the lef identity w e see

that
column headed by of- 1. Also
ee that in the r e - 1, is the
left inverse 1.
Sol. IfA is a finite set, then an RRK, Dec. by-1, 20 The i.e.,(-1)-1)=1. row headed
by- Inus
operation can be "

headed by i the left identity 1

occurs in the
by
byits operation multiplication table as follows- represented ne column the column headed

is the left inverse of 1. Finally in Therefore, 1

where 1Therefore - i,
headed by i. Thus i (-i)= 1.
a, be A. ab identity I occurs in the row
ba isne
left
the left inverse of- i. Thus each element of G posses
86 Discrete Structure
Algebraic Structures 87

Hence G is a group with

in the set G is 4. Also respect to
the
Therefore G is a abelian group or multiplicationmultiplication.1
of complex mumbe nurte
complex mim g r v e n
set,
then

D}
order4 with
ith
the
B, C, 1 0}
Prob.22. Let S {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, to respect
respect mulfiplica Let
G
be
G
{A,
1+0 0+0
6, 7}
that is x®y =
(xy)
modulo 8 and multipiecaton
(i) Prove that ({0, 1}, ®) is D.D =A
not a C.C=A,

(ii) W'rite three group. B.B

=A,
o -1+0 0+0
elements. distinct groups (G, ) where ere GcS un
Similarly
0+1 o 1=B
gcsa 0+0
Ako A.B0 10
(R.GRV, Da Aso =D
form D
Sol. (i) (a) Closure A.D products we
O A BC
operation ®.
Property -

The set {0, 1} is closed Similarly

A.C=C,
all the
possible
C D
imd ining
S i m i l a r l yo b t a i n i n g

table is as
f o l l o w s -

all entries in the

A A B
DC
&0 1I B B AD
-Since
closed
he
composition

)
Closure
Property
ofthe G,
set G is C C DA B
0 0 0 are
composition table: le
elements

matrices.
of
A
10 1 to
m u l t i p l i c a t i o n

nultiplication
that mult D D CB
with respect We know
(b) Associativity Associativity-
law, i.e., for A, B,
-

The operation is i) associative

e G, then we have associative. Lat matrices obeys

( A.B B)
of(2x 2)
(a®b)® c a® (b® c) =
(A.B).C B . C (: B.C D)
e.g., (0®1)®1 =(0)81E
Similarly, 08(181)=0® () 0 = =D ( B.C=D)
c) Existence of Identity -The element 1 is the A.D =
D)
identity e
A.(B.C)A.D
(:
as for every a
e(0,1), we have and = D

1 a =a =a®1 Therefore (A.B).C =A.(B.C) table we find

From the composition
(d) Existence of Inverse ofLeft ldentity of the
-

There must exist an inverse or (i) Existernce coincides with

the top r o w
element a e {0,1}, such that element A just
that the row headed by the element,
because

therefore matrix A
is left identity
a a=1 composition table,
A.D D
But the inverse
of element 0 does not exist, Hence ({0,1}.9) A.A =A,A.B B, A.C=C,
=

table, it is
group. Prod Inverse From the composition
of Left
-

(iv) Existence
(11) The three distinct
groups (G,®) where GcS and
elements is as foliows - clear that the left inverse of A 1s A, 1.3
and D- D =

A=A, B-l B, C-l C

=
=

(a) ({1,3},®) (b) (L,5).®) in the

(c) ({1,7},®) that left identity A occurs
in the column headed by C we find and also
Prob.23. Provethat- ience inverse of C is C
by C, i.e., C.C =A. Therefore the left
haed
the left inverse of D is D.
herefore G is a group with respect to multiplication.
Iird and IVth
forms an abelian group under matrix multiplication. (R.GRK, No. 201 (v) Commutative Law The entries in the It, I1nd,
entries of the
ot the composition table coincide with the corresponding
", nd, ird and Therefore composition in
G is commutative.
Sot Let
A= B Clo - Since the nucolumns.
of elements in the set G is 4,
therefore G is a finite

D mber
aDelian group of order 4.
 Aigebraic Structures89
Discrete Structure
where, e
is thei
is the identity element of G and G itself is a
-H= {e. G whose order is greater than one. These H and G are
SUBGROUP, CYCLIC GROUP, CoSETS, FACTOR GD G whe
PERMUTATION GROUPS, N O R M A L S U B G R O U D eN
uopt eo fa
group
ofany and other subgroup of G if any, are called
ubgro
up
vper
or rivial subgroup
HOMOMORPHISM AND ISOMORPHISM OF GROUPE alled inp mon rivial.
trivial

Group- IfH and K are

EXAMPLEAND STANDARD RESULTS two complexes of
or
proper Complexes
of a
bra of
Alge productis defined by
thentheir
Cyclic Group A group G is called cyolic.
- some aeG,
iffor everva la up
G
HK {xEG:x=hk, heH, keK}
XEG is of the form a", where n is some integer. Symbolically we of HK
are obtained on multiplying each element of H
wr the
elements

a":ne ). The single element a is then called a generator of G andl i.c.,

clement
of K.
Cyclhe group is generated by a single element, so the cyclic group Sis alsowith
alsnwith each
eu" heH >heG
monogenic. Since
keK k eG
Ex. -The multiplicative Hence HKcG i.e.,
group G= {1,-1, 1, -1 Iscyclic. We can d
hk e G
G= i. i, i, i*}. Thus G is a cyclic group and find that
i is a
generator. Also we We a complex of G
HK is 1s present in KH and vice-versa.
G=-i.-i)},(-iP.-i"} then each element of
the set HK
So, - i is also IFHK KH, define
a
generator of G Let H be any complex of G Then we
of a Complex
-

Inverse
Coset Suppose G is a group and H is any H-l = {h-: heH}
subgroup of G. Let a be
element of G. Then the set Ha {ha: elements
heH} is called a right coset of H of G consisting of the inverses of the
=

generated by a. Similarly the set aH {ah: heH} is called a left

= ie, H- is the complex
G generated by a. coset of of H.
Theorem 10. 1fH and K are any two complexes of group G then
Obviously, Ha and aH are both subsets of G. Ife is the identity elemen IH-!
K-
G then (HK)- =

He H= eH. be any arbitrary element of (HK)-.

Proof. Let x
So, H itself is (hk)- , heH, keK
right well Then
=
x
a as left coset.
as a
=k-'h-eK-1 H-1 (::k-le K-,h-le H)
If the group G is abelian, then we have
ah = ha h e H . (HK)-CK-lH-1 1)
H*
Therefore, the right coset Ha will be equal to the corresponding left zain, let y be any arbitrary element of K-
aH. However if the group G is not abelian, then we
may have aH # Ha. Then, y =k-lh-1, keK, heH
(since, hk e HK)
Complex of a Group Any nonempty subset H of a group G is (hk)e (HK)-1|
kno
-

as a compex of the group G K-H-I (HK)-1

IfH be any complex of group (G, *) and ifaeH, beH => a*beH, va,b From equations (i) and (ii), we get
Proved
then we say that the complex H is stable for the composition * in G Hence, (HK)-1=K-1 H-1
composition in G has induced a composition in H which is called the inda subgroup JG
and onlyorem
iff
1. A non-empty subset H ofa group G is a
composition.
subset H of a group G 1s said to be a subgro
Subgroup A non-empty
-

of G, if H is stable for the composition * and (H, *) is a group.

() asH, beH > ab EH
im G.
where a - I is the inverse of a
Proof. (i)a sHa-leH,
u)
For example - (i) The additive group of even integers is a subgroup The Conditions are Necessary - Suppose H is a subgroup of
the additive group of all integers. G. Then H
{1,-1; is a subgroup otthe multiplicati
must be closed withrespect to multiplication,
(i) The multiplicative group
aeH, beH>ab eH
group {1,- 1, i, - i}.
 Discrete Structure

be the inverse of aeG. Algebraic Str ures 91

Let aeH. and let
a

of G (HK) HK
Since. H is subgroup
Then. K i -HK
H itself is a group.
inverse of a in H.
KH HK (K is subyroup = K K
Then a' is also the
acHa 'eH andsimilarly H- H)
Hence.
Proved
The Conditions are Sufficier Since
(i)
Then H is closed with respect fo muitiplication
aeH, bEH1 !3
Theorem 13., A
A necessary und sufficientconditionfor a non-empty subset

(a)Associative Law The elements

G to he ausubgroup isthat a el, heH > ah- EH where b
of H l ofagroup in &
ofGG is associative.
are
alsohe eie the inverse of h
Necessary Condition - Suppose H is a subgroup of G
Therefore the same composition must also be Proof. (i)
(b) Existence of ldentity The
associativein H Let a e
H, b e H.
identity of the must possess inverse because H itself is a
-

aw each element otH group.

same as the identity of the group. subgrou beHb-'EH
NOW. aeHa'eH, (by the given Hmust be closed with respect
to
multiplication, i.e., the composition in G
aeH, aeH >a
a"eH, (by the given condi conditio acH, b eH > ab-'eH
eeH Condition Given that,
i) Sufficient
-

e is the identity element of H. aeH, beHabrl ¬H

(c) Existence of Inverse we have to prove that H 1s a subgroup of G.
Then
Since Existence of Identity Let aeH, have
aeHaeH, (a)
-

we

Each element a ofH possesses inverse. aeH,aeH a aeH, (by the given condition)
Then H itself is a group. eeH
Hence H is a subgroup of G e i s an identity element of H.
Theorem 12. fH, K are
Pro (b) Existence of Inverse- Let a be any element of Hand e be
two
subgroup of G iff HK = KH. subgroups of a groun G then Hr the identity element. Then we nave
eeH, aeH ea-'eH>aleH
Proof. Let H and K be
any two
Let
subgroup ofa group G Thus, each element of H possesses inverse.
HK=KH (c) Closure Property - Let a, b are any two elements of H
In order to
prove that HK is a
subgroups of G, it is sufficient to Then, bEH=b'eH, we have
(HK)(HK)- =HK prove aeH,bleH >a (b-l'eH (by the given condition)
Now, we have abeH ( (b-- b)
=

(HK)(HK)-1= (HK) (K-'H-) (: (HK)= =K-H d) Associative Law The elements of H are also the elements
-

& The
= H (KK-1) H-1 OTin H. composition inG is associative. Therefore, it must also be associative
(HK)H-1 ( K is a subgroup KK-
Hence, H itself is a group for the composition in G.
(KH) H-1 ( HK=K
Therefore H is a subgroup of G. Proved
K (HH)
14. fH, and are two subgroups ofa grop G then H,n#;
= KH
( H is a subgroup = HH
( KH=HK eorem
also a subgroup of G. H,
= HK

HK =
KH = HK is a FroOf. Let H, and H, be any two subgroups of G Then
subgroup of G.
Conversely, suppose that HK is a subgroup. ICast the
HoH#
identity element e is common to both Hj and
n
 Algebraic Structures 93
Discrete Structure
integers r and s such that
In order to prove that H,nH, is a
ab'eH,OH
ficient "to pr
subgroup it is sufficien
If x, yE
then
there

x
exists

=a,y a*
=

aEH,H beH,nlH, a". as =

a"*s =
a *r=a5. a =yx
aeH,nHaeH, and aeH,. xy
=

Now, and beH,. Now, Y K, yeG

beH,oH = beH, xy y x ,
Therefore Thus, abelian group. Proved
Since H, H, are subgroups. Hence,
G is an

acH,beHab eH, subgroup ofa cyclic group is cyclic.

Theorem18 Every Or
aeH,.beH,ab"eH,
abeH, and ab "elH, ab eHnH G is cyclic.
Thus. subgroup of a cyclic group
Deave that every (R.GPV, Dec. 2015)
Hence, H,nH, is a subgroup of G
generated by a. If H =G or
Theorem 15. if H is any subgroup of G and h EH, then
Praof Suppose
G is a cycic group
{aj
So let H be a proper subgroup of G. The
Hh H hH. obviously
( e ) , then o b v i o u s H is cyclic.
integral powers of a. If aeH, then the inverse of a* i.e.,
Proof. Let heH. Then to prove that Hh
=
H. of H are
eleme ments aSeH
Suppose h'is any arbitrary element ofH. Then h'h is an arbitrare
which are positive as well as negative integral powers
of Hh. Since H is a subgroup of G then we have . Hcontains elements
h'eH, heHhh'eH. of a.
least positive integer
such that
Thus, every element of Hh is also an element of H Let m be the
aeH
HhH.
Again, we have,h' = h' (h 'h) = (h' h-l) h Then we shall prove that
( h H {a"} i.e., H is cyclic and is generated by a
eHh( heH>h'eH and h'eH, hleH>Hk
element ofH. By division algorithm, there exists
Hence, every element h' of H is also an element of Hh. Let a be any arbitrary
such that
HHh. integers q and r,
From equations (1) and (i), we obtain t mq + r, 0 Sr< m.
aeH(am)EH= ameH= (am)eH>a-mdEH.
Hh H Now,
Similarly, we can prove that Also, a'eH, a mqeH>a'ameHa-meH>a'eH.
hH H.
(r=t-mq)
Now is the least positive integer, such that
Then, Hh H hH. Prom
m

aEH, 0 sr<m.
Theorem 16. Ifa, b are any two elements ofa group G and H s Therefore r must be equal to 0.
subgroup of G then Hence t mq .. a'= amq= (am)9
Ha =
Hb ab-l eHand all blH er'b eH.
=
Hence, every element a'eH is of the form (am)9
Proof. Since a is an element of Ha, Proved
Therefore, H is cyclic and a is a generate of H.
Ha =Hb >aeHb ab'e(Hb) b-1> ab- leH (bb -) and b belong to
D COsets Let H be a subgroup of G
0T -
and a
ab"'eHe ab'eH. (:: bbz G The
Conversely, ab'eH () a e aH
Hab=H (: heH Hh=
() aH H if and only if a eH
Hab-b=Hb Hae = Hb » Ha= Hb.
Similarly we can prove that (i) aH bH or aH n bH= ¢
Prov (v) aH = bH if and only if al be H.
aH= bH a b e H .
(R.GPK, June 204 roof. (0) a = ae e aH, e is the identity element of G.
Theorem 17. Every cyclic group is abelian.
l t e be the identity in G and so is in H, then
Proof. Let G
={a} be a cyclic group generaled D
 Algebraic Structures 95
94 Discrete Structure
H cosets in Gis equal to the number
aH H= ac e
19.The
Theorem19
number ofTeft of H
aH H ae H
H in G
cosets of
i.e.. H then right eelements of
the same right cosets of H in G.
Hand h e r e the
If a, bh
1fa are
a
Again, ifa H
e
H vh e
aeHah e Proof
able H,
of tthe same left coset ofH in G, then
aHcH
the elements of
elements

H being a subgroup of the group G satie hnd if a, b

arre
e

lHa' H b-l a eH
Aiso a e

Hab-l==H abl e H
H> ab-l,
axIoms. Hb =
a h e H h E H by closure law in t
hecause Ha function f:G>G
=

is given by fa) =a , where a e G

a(a 'h) e HheH by closure law in Nowsuppose
a
into itself as inverse of each element
one-to-one mapping of G
h eaHvh e H Then fis
if a, b are the elements of the
Now suppose beG then
is unique.
a elH, i.e., b
and
HcaH exists ofH in G, wehave
b' (a)' e H. i.e., a and
H aH>aH =H left
coset

SoaH cH and c same elements of the same right coset of H in G

a EH5 aH =H b- are the
left coset of H in G then their
Next
eH ifa, b are the elements of the same

Hence aH H a by ) and (i),. So

fare the elements of the same right-coset of H in G
aes under the function
(i) Let H be a subgroup of a group G and let aH and f we have a one-to-one correspondence
its left cosets. Assume that aH n bH # Ù and let c be the comman eleaHa
Hence between function
H for the
the sets of left and right cosets of H in G Proved
the two cosets.
Then we write c = ah and c = bh', for h, h' e H. Normal Subgroup-
group G, then H is said to be
the
Therefore ah = bh, giving a = bh' h
Definition 1-IfH be a subgroup ofthe harl e H, +he
or invariant) subgroup of Giffa
Since H is a subgroup, we have h'hrl e HI normal (or self conjugate
Let hh = h" so that a = bh". Hand aeG
evident that H is normal subgroup of G iff
Hence aH= (bh") H = b(h"H) = bH, since h"'H = H. From this definition, it is
aeu
Hence the two left cosets aH and bH
either aH n bH = 0 or aH = bH.
are identical ifaHn bH=4ailaeH, *

Definition 2- A subgroup H ofa group G

is a normal subgroup of G itf
(iv) We have, aH Ha, v
=
aeG
two
aH bHa aH =
a-l bH Improper Normal Subgroup Every group G possesses at least
-

element in G
normal subgroup viz. G itself and {e}, where e is the identity
(aa) H=(a"'b)H These two normal subgroups are known as improper normal subgroup.
eH =
(a- b)H, e being the identityinGs0
ofa group G is defined
H= (al b) H Proper Normal Subgroup A normal subgroup H -

where e is the identity

aH bH a'b e H saproper normal subgroup of G iff H # G, H= {e},
clement in G
Also, if a- b e H, then
are the
normal subgroups
bH e(bH) = (a arl) (bH) = a(a'b)H = aH
opre Group A group for which improper
nly normal subgroups is called a simple group.
From (i) and (i)
=H, vx¬G
aH bH e ab e H
ofG
then EOrem 20. A subgroup Hofa group Gis normaliffxHx
IfH is
group
roof. Let H be a subgroup of a group G such that
Index of a Subgroup of a Group a

the inder y
H inGan

DC O left or right coset of H in G is known

as xHx= H, ¥ xeG
denoted by [G: H] that of
Then xHx H
or by ig (H). G and af
o

His
lf a be the generator
of an infinite cyclic group G : H =r a normal subgroup of .
cychic) subgroup H, where r is a positive integer then
 Disci Siuctire Algebraic tructures 97
normal subgroup of G and alos
uotient Group - If H is a normal subgroup of a group G
iet i be
a
of G then
Factor or Quotient
Comerse.
normal subgroup
ifH is cosets ofG form a group with respect to the multiplication
ten ' eGNow Hx H. vxEG
the s e tof
all left
then defined as
and
H (x)-'cH coset
of left (aH) (bH) (ab)H
=

xHxH or quotient group ofG by N and is denoted by GN, ie.

A(NHx) x xHx', v NEG alledthe.factor group
:ge G}
HCNHx NEG GH {gH Group- Let X be a nonempty set. A permutation of X is a
ermutation

From equations (1) and (1),

we get on from X onto X. A group (G *) is calied a permutati
Per

xHx= H. vNEG onc-one fun of G are permutations of X and the

set X if the elements
nonempty
on a
the composition
of two functions.
Theorem 21. A suhgrop H ofa group G is a normal suher operation *is
n-symbols, then a is completely determined by
coset of H in G is a right coset of H in G permutation on
each lef Ifo is a
o(2), on).
normal subgroup of G. values o ) ,
. ,

Proof. Let H be a
its
notation is used to denote g-

Then. xHx=H xEG The following

( x H x ) x = Hx, v xEG , 2,
xH = Hx, +xEG o(1), o(2), o(3) , G{n}
each left coset xH is the right coset Hx
2 3 4) the four
= denotes the permutation on
Forinstance a
Conversely, suppose H is a subgroup of G such that
Hx = xH, ¥ xEG

Hx = xH v a e G which maps 1 on 2, 2 on 1, 3 on 4 and 4 on 3. This is the

Now symbols {1, 2, 3, 4} reflection
(Hx) xl= (xH)x-, v xeG to the symmetry of the square which is a
permutation corresponding
H (x x)=x Hx-lx e G along the vertical
bisector.

H xHxl ¥xEG in the symbol is immaterial so long as the

Clearly, the order of the column
and below in that column remain unchanged.
Since xxl =e, theidentity element and He H. corresponding elements above
the degree of the permutations.
Hx xH, xEG » H is a normal subgroup Pro The number of elements of a finite set is
of G f and g be two permutations on a
Equality of Two Permutations Let
-

Theorem 22. The intersection ofany two normal subgroups ofag for all x in X.
is
set X. Then only if fix) g(x)
f=g if and
=

a normal subgroup.
Ex. Let fand g be given by
Proof Let H and H, be two normal subgroups of a group G
Since H and H, are subgroups of G. 4s-1
H,H is also a subgroup of G Evidently f(1) = 2 =g(1), f{2) = 3 g(2)
Let x be any element of G andh be any element of H, nH We
f3)= 4 g(3). f4)= l =g(4)
heH, nH, =heH, and heH, Thus fx) = g(x) for all xe {1, 2, 3, 4} which implies f= g
Since H, is a normal subgroup of G otal Number of Permutations - Let X be a set consisting of n distnct

xEG, heH, xhx-eH different ways. it dn

nents. Then the elements of X can be permuted in n! the set will have
Similarly, xhxeH nsisting of all permutations of degree
n, then S,
Now, xhx'EH,, xhx leH,
-

> xhx 'eH, n erent permutations of

symmetric set
gree n. This set S, is called
the
of
Thus we have xEG, heEH, n H, = xhx eH, nH; Pro permutations of degree n.
fG
Hence, , H is a normal subgroup OT