OPERATING SYSTEMS
CS F22- LAB 06
Pre-Requisite
chmod command:
The chmod command in Unix-like operating systems (Linux, macOS, etc.) is used to change the permissions
of a file or directory. Permissions determine who can read, write, or execute a file. Here's a breakdown of
how chmod works, including different types of commands:
Basic Structure:
chmod [options] mode file
mode: Specifies the new permissions.
file: The name of the file or directory whose permissions are being changed.
Permission Types
There are three basic types of permissions:
1. r (read): Permission to read the file.
2. w (write): Permission to modify or write to the file.
3. x (execute): Permission to execute the file (for scripts or programs).
User Classes
Permissions are set for three classes of users:
1. u (user): The file owner (or creator).
2. g (group): Users who are in the same group as the file.
3. o (others): All other users (not the owner or group members).
4. a (all): A shorthand for all three classes (user, group, and others).
Numeric Mode (Octal Notation)
Each permission is assigned a number:
r=4
w=2
x=1
Permissions are represented as a three-digit number, with each digit specifying the permissions for user,
group, and others.
Read (r) + Write (w) = 4 + 2 = 6
Read (r) + Execute (x) = 4 + 1 = 5
Write (w) + Execute (x) = 2 + 1 = 3
Read (r) = 4
Write (w) = 2
Execute (x) = 1
No permission = 0
For example:
chmod 755 myscript.sh gives:
o User (owner) permissions: rwx (7 = 4 + 2 + 1)
o Group permissions: rx (5 = 4 + 1)
o Others permissions: rx (5 = 4 + 1)
Symbolic Mode
In symbolic mode, you use letters to specify permissions.
+: Adds permissions.
-: Removes permissions.
=: Sets exact permissions, overwriting existing ones.
Common Commands:
1. Add execute permission to the owner:
chmod u+x myscript.sh
This gives the user (owner) execute permission.
2. Remove write permission from group:
chmod g-w myscript.sh
This removes write permission for the group.
3. Give read, write, and execute permissions to all users:
chmod a+rwx myscript.sh
This adds read, write, and execute permissions to all users (user, group, and others).
4. Remove execute permission from others:
chmod o-x myscript.sh
This removes execute permission for others.
5. Set permissions exactly (overwrites any previous permissions):
chmod u+x,g-w,o=r myscript.sh
This command:
o Adds execute permission for the owner.
o Removes write permission for the group.
o Sets read-only permission for others.
Example:
1. Granting Execute Permission for Everyone
Command:
chmod +x myscript.sh
Explanation: This command adds execute (x) permission for everyone (user, group, and others).
2. Granting Read, Write, and Execute Permissions to the Owner, and Read-Only to Group and Others
Command:
chmod 755 myscript.sh
Explanation: This command sets the file permissions to:
Owner: read, write, and execute (rwx = 7)
Group: read and execute (rx = 5)
Others: read and execute (rx = 5)
3. Setting Exact Permissions for User, Group, and Others
Command:
chmod u+x,g-w,o=r myscript.sh
Explanation: This command:
Owner (user): Adds execute permission (+x).
Group: Removes write permission (-w).
Others: Sets only read permission (=r).
4. Granting Read, Write Permissions for Owner and Group, and No Permission for Others
Command:
chmod 660 myscript.sh
Explanation: This command sets the file permissions to:
Owner: read and write (rw- = 6)
Group: read and write (rw- = 6)
Others: no permissions (--- = 0)
5. Removing Write Permission from the Group
Command:
chmod g-w myscript.sh
Explanation: This command removes the write (w) permission for the group.
6. Adding Execute Permission Only for the Owner
Command:
chmod u+x myscript.sh
Explanation: This command adds execute (x) permission only for the owner.
7. Using Symbolic Mode to Set Permissions Explicitly
Command:
chmod u=rwx,g=rx,o=r myscript.sh
Explanation: This command sets:
Owner: rwx (read, write, execute).
Group: rx (read, execute).
Others: r (read).
Introduction to Shell and Shell Scripting
What is a Shell? A shell is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the operating system. It
accepts user commands in a readable format and translates them into machine code for execution.
Types of Shells:
1. Bourne Shell (sh)
2. C Shell (csh)
3. Korn Shell (ksh)
4. Bash Shell (bash)
5. Tcsh Shell
Environment Preparation
Ensure Shell Access:
Use a terminal or command-line interface.
Confirm a shell (like Bash) is available by typing:
echo $SHELL
or
echo $0
This displays your current shell.
How to Check Your available Shell:
To find available shells on your system, use the command:
$ cat /etc/shells
How to Change Your Default Shell:
To change the default shell:
$ chsh username new_default_shell
The administrator can change your
default shell.
What is Shell Scripting?
A shell script is a series of commands stored in a plain text file. It is used to automate tasks that can be
performed manually in a shell.
Why Use Shell Scripting?
Automate repetitive tasks.
System monitoring and management.
Efficient data processing.
Steps to Create and Run a Shell Script:
1. Create the Script:
o Use a text editor to write the script, e.g., nano myscript.sh.
o Save the file with a .sh extension.
2. Make the Script Executable:
o Provide executable permissions:
$ chmod +x myscript.sh
3. Run the Script:
o Execute using one of the following commands:
$ ./myscript.sh
$ bash myscript.sh
Example Script:
#!/bin/bash:
This is called the shebang or hashbang.
It specifies the interpreter to be used for executing the script. In this case, the script uses the Bash
shell (/bin/bash) as the interpreter.
The presence of this line ensures the script will be executed using Bash regardless of the default shell
on your system.
#!/bin/bash
echo "Hello, World!"
Steps to Create and Run the Script Using vi
1. Open vi to Create the Script
Open the terminal and type the following command to create a new file:
nano hello_world.sh
2. Enter Insert Mode
Press i to switch to Insert Mode in the nano editor.
3. Write the Script
Type the following code:
4. Save and Exit
To save and exit the file in nano:
1. Press Esc to exit Insert Mode.
2. Type :wq and press Enter (this saves and quits the editor).
Make the Script Executable
Provide executable permissions for the script:
chmod +x hello_world.sh
Run the Script
Execute the script:
./hello_world.sh
Operators in Shell Scripting:
Number Comparison:
Steps to Run the Script:
Save the script as compare_numbers.sh.
Make the script executable:
chmod +x compare_numbers.sh
Run the script:
./compare_numbers.sh
Variables in Shell Scripting:
System Variables: Predefined variables by the OS (e.g., PATH, HOME, USER).
User-Defined Variables: Created by users.
Syntax:
variable_name=value
Example:
name="John"
echo $name
Arithmetic Operations:
Syntax:
expr operand1 operator operand2
Examples:
$ expr 5 + 3
$ expr 10 \* 2
Save and Exit
To save and exit:
1. Press Esc to exit Insert Mode.
2. Type :wq and press Enter.
Make the Script Executable
Provide executable permissions for the script:
chmod +x variables_and_arithmetic.sh
Run the Script
Execute the script:
./variables_and_arithmetic.sh
Control Statements
If-Else Statements:
Syntax:
if [ condition ]
then
commands
else
commands
fi
Example:
Loops:
1. For Loop: Syntax:
for var in list
do
commands
done
Example:
2. While Loop: Syntax:
while [ condition ]
do
commands
done
Example:
Case Statement:
Syntax:
case variable in
pattern1) commands ;;
pattern2) commands ;;
*) default commands ;;
esac
Example:
Practice Questions
1. Write a script to print "Hello, World!" on the screen.
2. Write a script to calculate the sum of two numbers provided by the user.
3. Write a script to check if a given number is even or odd.
4. Create a script to display the first 10 natural numbers using a loop.
5. Write a script to print a multiplication table for a given number.
6. Write a script to display all logged-in users.
7. Create a script to back up a directory.
Using Exit Codes:
Every command returns an exit code. 0 means success, and non-zero means failure.
To check the exit status of a command:
$ echo $?
Functions in Shell Scripting:
Syntax:
function_name() {
commands
}
Example:
Best Practices
1. Always start scripts with #!/bin/bash.
2. Use comments (#) to explain code.
3. Follow consistent indentation for readability.
4. Test scripts on different shell environments for compatibility.
