Chapter 4

Energy Analysis of Closed

Systems
 Objectives
• Examine the moving boundary work or P dV work commonly encountered in
reciprocating devices such as automotive engines and compressors.
• Develop the general energy balance applied to closed systems.
• Define the specific heat at constant volume and the specific heat at constant
pressure.
• Relate the specific heats to the calculation of the changes in internal energy and
enthalpy of ideal gases.
• Describe incompressible substances and determine the changes in their internal
energy and enthalpy.
• Solve energy balance problems for closed (fixed mass) systems that involve
heat and work interactions for general pure substances, ideal gases, and
incompressible substances.

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 4–1 Moving Boundary Work 1

Moving boundary work (P dV work): Quasi-equilibrium process: A process

The expansion and compression work during which the system remains nearly in
in a piston-cylinder device. equilibrium at all times.

A gas does a differential amount of work

The work associated with a moving δWb as it forces the piston to move by a
boundary is called boundary work. differential amount ds.

 Wb = F ds = PA ds = P dV

2
Wb =  p dV (kJ)
1

Wb is positive → for expansion

Wb is negative → for compression

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 4–1 Moving Boundary Work 2

The area under the process curve The boundary work done during a
on a P-V diagram represents the process depends on the path followed
boundary work. as well as the end states.

The area under the process curve on a P-V

2 2
diagram is equal, in magnitude, to the work
Area = 𝐴 = න 𝑑𝐴 = න 𝑃 𝑑V
done during a quasi-equilibrium expansion or
1 1
compression process of a closed system.
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 4–1 Moving Boundary Work 3

The net work done during a cycle is the

difference between the work done by the Generalized boundary work relation
system and the work done on the system.
2

𝑊𝑏 = න 𝑃 𝑖 𝑑V
1

Pi is the pressure at the inner face of the piston.

In a car engine, the boundary work done by

the expanding hot gases is used to
overcome friction between the piston and
the cylinder, to push atmospheric air out of
the way, and to rotate the crankshaft.

𝑊𝑏 = 𝑊friction + 𝑊atm + 𝑊crank = න 𝐹friction + 𝑃atm 𝐴 + 𝐹crank 𝑑𝑥

1

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 4–1 Moving Boundary Work 4

Example: Boundary Work for a Constant-Pressure Process

2 2

𝑊𝑏 = න 𝑃𝑑V = 𝑃0 න 𝑑V = 𝑃0 V2 − V1
1 1
𝑊𝑏 = 𝑚𝑃0 v2 − v1

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 4–1 Moving Boundary Work 5

Example: Boundary Work for a Constant-Volume Process

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 4–1 Moving Boundary Work 6

Isothermal Compression Process of an Ideal Gas

Example: A piston–cylinder device initially contains 0.4 m3 of air at 100 kPa and
80°C. The air is now compressed to 0.1 m3 in such a way that the temperature
inside the cylinder remains constant. Determine the work done during this process

2 2
V2
𝑊𝑏 = න 𝑃𝑑V = න 𝐶V −1 𝑑V = 𝑃V 1n
V1
1 1

𝐶
𝑃V = 𝑚𝑅𝑇0 = 𝐶 or 𝑃 =
V

2 2 2
𝐶 𝑑V V2 V2
𝑊𝑏 = න 𝑃𝑑V = න 𝑑V = 𝐶 න = 𝐶 In = 𝑃1 V1 In
V V V1 V1
1 1 1

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 4–1 Moving Boundary Work 7

Boundary Work for a Polytropic Process

PVn = C , P = CV− n
2 2
−𝑛
V2−𝑛+1 − V1−𝑛+1 𝑃2 V2 − 𝑃1 V1
𝑊𝑏 = න 𝑃𝑑V = න 𝐶V 𝑑V = 𝐶 =
−𝑛 + 1 1−𝑛
1 1

𝑚𝑅 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑊𝑏 = 𝑛 ≠ 1 kJ
1−𝑛

Schematic and P-V diagram for a polytropic process.

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 4–2 Energy Balance For Closed Systems 1

Recall:
𝐸in − 𝐸out = Δ𝐸system kJ
Net energy transfer Change in internal, Kinetic,
Energy balance for any system
by heat, work, and mass Potential,etc., energies undergoing any process

• •
𝐸in − 𝐸out = 𝑑𝐸system /𝑑𝑡 kW
Rate of net energy transfer Rate of change in internal, Energy balance in the
by heat, work, and mass kinetic, potential, etc., energies rate form

The total quantities are related to the quantities per unit time
• • 𝑑𝐸
𝑄 = 𝑄Δ𝑡, 𝑊 = 𝑊 Δ𝑡, and Δ𝐸 = Δ𝑡 kJ
𝑑𝑡

𝑒in − 𝑒out = Δ𝑒system

kJ Energy balance per unit
kg
mass basis

𝛿𝐸in − 𝛿𝐸out = 𝑑𝐸system or 𝛿𝑒in − 𝛿𝑒out = 𝑑𝑒system Energy balance in

differential form
• •
𝑊net,out = 𝑄net,in or 𝑊net,out = 𝑄net,in Energy balance
for a cycle
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 4–2 Energy Balance For Closed Systems 2

Recall:
· ·
Wnet,out = Qnet,in or W net,out = Q net,in (for a cycle)

For a cycle ΔE = 0, thus Q = W.

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 4–2 Energy Balance For Closed Systems 3

Recall:
Energy balance when sign convention is
used: Various forms of the first-law
relation for closed systems.
• heat input and work output are positive.
• heat output and work input are negative.
𝑄net,in − 𝑊net,out = Δ𝐸system

𝑄 − 𝑊 = Δ𝐸
𝑄 = 𝑄net,in = 𝑄in − 𝑄out

𝑊 = 𝑊net,out = 𝑊out − 𝑊in

The first law cannot be proven mathematically, but no process in nature is known to
have violated the first law, and this should be taken as sufficient proof.

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 4–2 Energy Balance For Closed Systems 5

Example
A rigid tank is divided into two equal parts by a partition. Initially, one side of the tank contains 5 kg of water at
200 kPa and 25°C, and the other side is evacuated. The partition is then removed, and the water expands into the
entire tank. The water is allowed to exchange heat with its surroundings until the temperature in the tank returns
to the initial value of 25°C. Determine (a) the volume of the tank, (b) the final pressure, and (c) the heat transfer
for this process.

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 4–2 Energy Balance For Closed Systems 4

Energy balance for a For a constant-pressure expansion or

constant-pressure expansion compression process:
or compression process
General analysis for a closed system undergoing a
Δ𝑈 + 𝑊𝑏 = Δ𝐻
quasi-equilibrium constant-pressure process. Q is
to the system and W is from the system.

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 4–2 Energy Balance For Closed Systems 5

An example of constant-pressure process

A piston–cylinder device contains 25 g of saturated water vapor that is maintained at a constant pressure of 300
kPa. A resistance heater within the cylinder is turned on and passes a current of 0.2 A for 5 min from a 120-V
source. At the same time, a heat loss of 3.7 kJ occurs. Determine the final temperature of the steam.
(the electrical power is given by 𝑊ሶ𝑒 = 𝑽𝐼)

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 4–3 Specific Heats 1

Specific heat is the energy required to raise

It takes different amounts of energy to
the temperature of a unit mass of a substance
raise the temperature of different
by one degree in a specified way.
substances by the same amount.

Specific heat at constant volume, cv: The energy required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the volume is
maintained constant.
Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The energy required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the pressure is
maintained constant.

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 4–3 Specific Heats 2

Constant-volume and constant-pressure specific heats cv and cp (values given

are for helium gas).

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 4–3 Specific Heats 3

Consider a fixed mass in a stationary closed system Formal definitions of cv and cp.
undergoing a constant-volume process

𝛿𝑒in − 𝛿𝑒out = 𝑑𝑢

𝑐𝜐 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑑𝑢 at constant volume
𝜕𝑢
𝑐𝜐 =
𝜕𝑇 𝜐

Consider a constant-pressure expansion or

compression process
𝜕ℎ
𝑐𝑝 =
𝜕𝑇 𝑝

The equations are valid for any substance undergoing any process.
cv is related to the changes in internal energy and cp to the changes in enthalpy.

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 4–3 Specific Heats 4

The specific heat of a substance

changes with temperature.

cv and cp are properties.

The specific heats of a substance depend on the state.
The energy required to raise the temperature of a substance by one degree is
different at different temperatures and pressures.
A common unit for specific heats is kJ/kg·°C or kJ/kg·K.
Are these units identical?
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 4–4 Internal Energy, Enthalpy,
and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases 1

Schematic of the experimental

apparatus used by Joule.
u = u (T ) h = h(T )
Joule showed using this experimental
apparatus that u = u(T) du = cv (T )dT
dh = c p (T )dT

Internal energy and enthalpy

change of an ideal gas
2

Δ𝑢 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = න 𝑐v (𝑇)𝑑𝑇 (kJ/Kg)
1
2

Δℎ = ℎ2 − ℎ1 = න 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇)𝑑𝑇 (kJ/Kg)
1

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 4–4 Internal Energy, Enthalpy,
and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases 2

For ideal gases, u, h, cv, and cp vary with temperature only.

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 4–4 Internal Energy, Enthalpy,
and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases 3

Ideal-gas constant-pressure specific heats for some gases (see

Table A–2c for cp equations).

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 4–4 Internal Energy, Enthalpy,
and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases 4

At low pressures, all real gases approach ideal- In the preparation of

gas behavior, and therefore their specific heats ideal-gas tables, 0 K is
depend on temperature only. chosen as the reference
temperature.
The specific heats of real gases at low pressures
are called ideal-gas specific heats, or zero-
pressure specific heats, and are often denoted
cp0 and cv0.
u and h data for a number of gases have been
tabulated.
These tables are obtained by choosing an
arbitrary reference point and performing the
integrations by treating state 1 as the reference
state.
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 4–4 Internal Energy, Enthalpy,
and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases 5

Internal energy and enthalpy change when specific heat is taken constant at an
average value
u2 - u1 = c v ,avg (T2 - T1 ) (kJ / Kg)
h2 - h1 = c p ,avg (T2 - T1 ) (kJ / Kg)

For small temperature intervals, the The relation Δu = cv ΔT is valid for

specific heats may be assumed to vary any kind of process, constant-
linearly with temperature. volume or not.

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 4–4 Internal Energy, Enthalpy,
and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases 6

Three ways of calculating u and h

1. By using the tabulated u and h data. This is the Three ways of calculating Δu.
easiest and most accurate way when tables are
readily available.
2. By using the cv or cp relations (Table A-2c) as a
function of temperature and performing the
integrations. This is very inconvenient for hand
calculations but quite desirable for computerized
calculations. The results obtained are very
accurate.
3. By using average specific heats. This is very
simple and certainly very convenient when
property tables are not available. The results
obtained are reasonably accurate if the
temperature interval is not very large.

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 4–4 Internal Energy, Enthalpy,
and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases 9

Example: A piston–cylinder device initially contains 0.5 m3 of nitrogen gas at 400 kPa and 27°C. An electric
heater within the device is turned on and is allowed to pass a current of 2 A for 5 min from a 120-V source.
Nitrogen expands at constant pressure, and a heat loss of 2800 J occurs during the process. Determine the final
temperature of nitrogen..

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 4–4 Internal Energy, Enthalpy,
and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases 9

Example: A piston–cylinder device initially contains air at 150 kPa and 27°C. At this state, the piston is resting
on a pair of stops, as shown in the figure, and the enclosed volume is 400 L. The mass of the piston is such that a
350-kPa pressure is required to move it. The air is now heated until its volume has doubled. Determine (a) the
final temperature, (b) the work done by the air, and (c) the total heat transferred to the air

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 4–5 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and
Specific Heats of Solids and Liquids 1

Solids and liquids are incompressible substances.

Incompressible substance: A substance whose specific volume (or density) is

constant.

The Specific Volumes Of Incompressible The cv and cp values of incompressible substances

Substances Remain Constant During A Process. are identical and are denoted by c.

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 4–5 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and
Specific Heats of Solids and Liquids 2

Internal Energy Changes

du = cv dT = c (T ) dT
2
u = u2 − u1 =  c (T ) dT ( kJ/kg )
1

u  cavg (T2 − T1 ) ( kJ/kg )

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 4–5 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and
Specific Heats of Solids and Liquids 3

h = u + Pv

h = u + vP  cavg T + vP ( kJ/kg )

For solids, the term v ΔP is insignificant, and thus h  u  cavg T .

For liquids, two special cases are commonly encountered:

1. Constant-pressure processes, as in heaters ( P = 0 ) : h = u  cavg T

2. Constant-temperature processes, as in pumps ( T = 0 ) : h = vP

The enthalpy of a compressed liquid

h@ P ,T  h f @ T + v f @ T ( P − Psat @ T )

Usually amore accurate relation than h@ P ,T  h f @ T

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 4–5 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and
Specific Heats of Solids and Liquids 4

Example: Cooling of an Iron Block by Water

A 50-kg iron block at 80°C is dropped into an insulated tank that contains 0.5 m3 of liquid water
at 25°C. Determine the temperature when thermal equilibrium is reached.

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 4–5 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and
Specific Heats of Solids and Liquids 4

Example: Cooling of an Iron Block by Water

Carbon steel balls (ρ = 7833 kg/m3 and cp = 0.465 kJ/kg·°C) 8 mm in diameter are annealed by
heating them first to 900°C in a furnace, and then allowing them to cool slowly to 100°C in
ambient air at 35°C, as shown in the figure. If 2500 balls are to be annealed per hour, determine
the total rate of heat transfer from the balls to the ambient air.

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 Summary
• Moving boundary work.
• Energy balance for closed systems.
• Specific heats.
• Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats of ideal gases.
• Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats of incompressible
substances (solids and liquids).

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 Problems
Problem 1:
A piston–cylinder device initially contains 0.35 kg of steam at 3.5 MPa, superheated by 7.4°C.
Now the steam loses heat to the surroundings and the piston moves down, hitting a set of stops at
which point the cylinder contains saturated liquid water. The cooling continues until the cylinder
contains water at 200°C. Determine (a) the final pressure and the quality (if mixture), (b) the
boundary work, (c) the amount of heat transfer when the piston first hits the stops, and (d) the
total heat transfer.

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 Problems
Problem 2:
Water is boiled at sea level in an electric kettle. The kettle contains 1 L of water when full. Once
boiling starts, it is observed that half of the water in the kettle evaporates in 13 min.
(a) Determine the power rating of the electric heating element immersed in water.
(b) Determine how long it will take for this heater to raise the temperature of 1 L of cold water
from 18°C to the boiling temperature.

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 End of Chapter 4

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