ECE 280L - Fall 2024

ECE 280L Fall 2024

Laboratory 9:
AM Radio

Contents
1 Introduction 2

2 Objectives 2

3 Background 3

4 Pre-Laboratory Assignment 6

5 TA Evaluation 7

6 Equipment Needed 8

7 Instructions 8
7.1 Exercise #1: AM Signal in Time and Frequency Domains . . . . . . . . . . 8
7.1.1 Preparation: Setting up the AM signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
7.1.2 Measurements & Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
7.2 Exercise #2: Using an External Modulating Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7.2.1 Preparation: Setting up the external modulator . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7.2.2 Measurements & Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
7.3 Exercise #3: Broadcasting your Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
7.3.1 Preparation: Set up Transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
7.3.2 Measurements & Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
7.4 Exercise #4: AM Demodulation using an Envelope Detector . . . . . . . . . 11
7.4.1 Preparation: Design and build the envelope detector . . . . . . . . . 11
7.4.2 Measurements & Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

8 Acknowledgement 12

9 Lab Grading 13
9.1 Checkpoints (80) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
9.2 Deliverables (20) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

10 APPENDIX A: Using the FFT function of the Function Generator 14

11 References 15

12 Updates 15

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1 Introduction
In this experiment, you will set up your own (low power) radio station, broadcast music, and
receive this music on an AM radio. You will be able to observe the signals both at the AM
transmitter and at various stages in the AM receiver.

2 Objectives
1. Use the function generator and oscilloscope to generate and make observations about
an AM signal.
2. Use an external signal (e.g., computer audio output, MP3 player) to modulate the
carrier signal generated by the function generator.
3. Use the function generator as an AM transmitter.
4. Design, build, and test an AM demodulator (envelope detector).

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3 Background
In this laboratory experiment, you will be exploring Full (aka, Asynchronous) Amplitude
Modulation and Demodulation. You will begin by examining an AM signal in both the time
and frequency domains.
As discussed in class, modulation of the carrier signal by the message signal will produce a
signal at the frequency of the carrier with an amplitude that varies according to the message
signal. In the frequency domain, modulation results in copies of the spectrum of the mes-
sage signal centered around the carrier frequency, in addition to an impulse at the carrier
frequency, as illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Time-domain (left) and frequency-domain (right) for full AM modulation of a

sinusoidal carrier. Figure from Signals and Systems, 2/E by Haykin and VanVeen, Figure
5.6, p. 435.

Pre-lab Deliverable (1/3): Which of the following carrier signals could correspond to
the frequency domain representation of a modulated signal shown in Figure 2?
1. xcarrier = sin(2π(100)t)
2. xcarrier = sin(2π(10)t)
3. xcarrier = sin(2π(115)t)

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Figure 2. Figure for Pre-lab Deliverable 1

This is accomplished in lab using the MOD function on the function generator. Using
the MOD, the desired modulation factor; that is, the extent to which the envelope of the
modulated time-domain signal oscillates, can be chosen. Experimentally, the modulation
factor µ can be calculated by:
Vmax − Vmin
µ=
Vmax + Vmin
To calculate the modulation factor of the signal in Figure 1, for example, one would use
max −Amin
µ= A Amax +Amin
.
Pre-lab Deliverable (2/3): Calculate the modulation factor for the signal in Figure 3.
Which of the following is the closest estimate?
1. µ = 0.5
2. µ=1
3. µ = 0.3
4. µ=0

Figure 3. Figure for Pre-lab Deliverable 2

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A simple circuit, called an envelope detector, can be built using a diode, a resistor, and a
capacitor and used to trace the envelope of the modulated signal and to recover the original
message signal (see Figure 4). When the envelope of the modulated signal is traced, the
relation between the carrier amplitude and the message signal is clear (provided certain
conditions are met when generating the signal).

Figure 4. Envelope detection circuit

Recall that the resistor and capacitor must be chosen such that the output of the circuit
(the voltage across the capacitor) traces the peaks of the modulated signal without falling
too far into the valleys and without skipping over lower-amplitude peaks. In other words,
the time constant of the RC circuit must not be too large or too small: to accomplish this,
one must obey the relation
1
τ = RC =
2πfc
√
Where fc = fcarrier × fmessage
Pre-lab Deliverable (3/3): What should the resistance in an envelope detection circuit
be if fcarrier = 100 kHz, fmessage = 1 kHz, and C = 100 nF?
1. R = 1.59 Ω
2. R = 15.9 Ω
3. R = 159 Ω
4. R = 1591 Ω
It will be your task to design a circuit that is appropriate for the AM signals you will be
creating.

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4 Pre-Laboratory Assignment
Based on the Background information provided, answer the following questions on Grade-
scope:
1. Which of the following carrier signals could correspond to the frequency domain rep-
resentation of a modulated signal shown in Figure 2?
(a) xcarrier = sin(2π(100)t)
(b) xcarrier = sin(2π(10)t)
(c) xcarrier = sin(2π(115)t)
2. Calculate the modulation factor for the signal in Figure 3. Which of the following is
the closest estimate?
(a) µ = 0.5
(b) µ=1
(c) µ = 0.3
(d) µ=0
3. What should the resistance in an envelope detection circuit be if fcarrier = 100 kHz,
fmessage = 1 kHz, and C = 100 nF?
(a) R = 1.59 Ω
(b) R = 15.9 Ω
(c) R = 159 Ω
(d) R = 1591 Ω

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5 TA Evaluation
This is completed in lab after your TA has finished going over this week’s Pre-
Lab.
As we reach the end of this lab course, we kindly ask that you take a few moments to provide
us with valuable feedback on your experience with the ECE 280L Teaching Assistants, by
completing the TA Evaluation form. This feedback helps us improve the overall quality of
the course and ensure that our TAs are providing the best possible support for your learning
experience.
To access the TA Evaluation form, please follow these steps:
1. Navigate to the Duke Evaluation Kit
2. Log in with your netID and password
3. Locate and complete the TA Evaluation form
The TAs will leave the room for 15 minutes during this process to give you the privacy and
time needed to complete the evaluation. Your honest and constructive feedback is crucial
for the continuous improvement of the course and the development of our TAs.
Our goal is to achieve a 100% completion rate, as this will provide us with a comprehensive
understanding of your collective experience. Please remember that your input is invalu-
able, and we greatly appreciate your participation in this process. Thank you for your
time and commitment to making ECE280L an even better learning experience for future
students!

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6 Equipment Needed
• Test and measurement equipment
• Breadboard
• Circuit components to construct envelope detector (diode, resistor(s), capacitor(s))
• Portable AM radio
• Speech and music files

7 Instructions
7.1 Exercise #1: AM Signal in Time and Frequency Domains
In this part of the experiment, we shall learn how to use the function generator to produce
an AM signal. We will first consider signal frequencies that are much lower than those used
in radio frequency communication. This will allow us to display the carrier and its envelope
nicely.

7.1.1 Preparation: Setting up the AM signal

1. Connect the function generator to the oscilloscope channel 1 and set it to generate a
50 kHz sinusoid with a peak-to-peak voltage of 1 V.
2. Now, we will choose AM as the modulation scheme and generate a sinusoidal waveform
as the modulating signal:
• Press MOD, then select TYPE - AM. The SINE and MOD indicators will light
up.
3. Set the function generator to generate the modulating signal internally:
• Select SOURCE – INT in the MOD menu.
4. Set the modulation frequency to 1 kHz:
• Select AM FREQ – change to 1KHz in the MOD menu
5. Set the index of modulation: (AM Depth)
• Select AM DEPTH – change to 0% (use percentages – 0.5 index is equivalent
to 50% AM depth).

7.1.2 Measurements & Questions

1. In the set up procedure above, you have set the modulation index to zero. This means
that the carrier sinusoid is not modulated. Optimize the oscilloscope settings to display
the signal and measure its amplitude.
• NOTE: You can press Run/Stop to freeze the display to make it easier to make
measurements (using the cursors) and print images.
2. Now, set the modulation index to 0.5 by setting the modulation level to 50 percent
and complete the following:

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(a) Adjust the horizontal scale of the oscilloscope so that you can see several cycles
of the envelope of the AM waveform.
(b) Measure the maximum and minimum voltage levels of the AM envelope. Calculate
the modulation factor, µ, from:
Vmax − Vmin
µ=
Vmax + Vmin
Verify that it is around 0.5.
Deliverable (1/2): Include your measured values for Vmax , Vmin , and µ in your
lab submission.
(c) Use the FFT capability of your oscilloscope to display the AM signal in the
frequency domain. (See Appendix A for instructions on using the FFT function.)
Set the center frequency to the carrier frequency and the frequency span to 10
kHz.
Discussion (1/8): How many peaks did you expect to see and where did you
expect to see them on the frequency axis?
(d) Change the frequency of the modulating signal and observe how the spectrum
changes.
(e) Change the frequency of the carrier signal and observe how the spectrum changes.
Checkpoint (1/6): Relay your observations to your TA. Why does the spectrum
change the way it does?
3. Repeat the measurements and calculations above for a modulation factor between 0.1
and 0.2. Repeat deliverable as well.
4. Repeat the measurements and calculations above for a modulation factor between 0.7
and 0.9. Repeat deliverable as well.
5. Repeat the measurements and calculations above for a modulation factor between 1.1
and 1.2. Repeat deliverable as well.
Discussion (2/8): How did your observations and measurements change as you
adjusted the modulating factor?
Checkpoint (2/6): Explain to your TA how we should choose the modulating factor,
based on your discussion.

7.2 Exercise #2: Using an External Modulating Signal

In this exercise, you will use an external source (e.g., the audio output of the computer or
your MP3 player) to modulate the carrier sinusoid generated by the function generator.

7.2.1 Preparation: Setting up the external modulator

1. Continue using the 50 kHz carrier frequency set up in Exercise #1.

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2. Set the function generator to EXT AM modulation. (Refer back to Exercise #1, Prep
#3.)
3. If a cable is not already connected, connect the sound output of your computer to
the external modulation input of the function generator. Set the computer volume to
maximum. NOTE: The external modulation input is located on the back panel of the
function generator – labeled ‘Modulation In’.
4. Optimize your oscilloscope settings to display the music modulated AM signal in both
time and frequency domains.

7.2.2 Measurements & Questions

1. Find a music segment which spans a wide range of audio frequencies.
2. Play this music segment and observe the response on the oscilloscope screen.
Discussion (3/8): Discuss the relationship between the music and the resulting
modulated AM signal in the time and frequency domain. What are the frequency
ranges of the two sidebands?
Checkpoint (3/6): Check your understanding of External Modulating Signals with
your TA.

7.3 Exercise #3: Broadcasting your Signal

In this exercise, you will use the function generator as an AM transmitter (i.e., your own
radio station!) and broadcast your music a short (approximately 3’) distance. This will
allow several radio “stations” to operate simultaneously in the same room.

7.3.1 Preparation: Set up Transmitter

1. Set the carrier frequency on the function generator to a frequency in the AM band
(550 – 1600 kHz). If there is another radio station within 3 feet, be sure not to use the
same carrier frequency (or an actual radio station with a strong signal).
2. Set the peak-to-peak value of the carrier sinusoid to 1.5 V. This is a very small signal,
but you will see that it is sufficient. If you encounter problems, you might try a larger
value later.
3. Connect a BNC-Banana cable to the output of the function generator. This is your
broadcasting antenna.
4. Start playing your favorite music.

7.3.2 Measurements & Questions

1. Tune your portable AM radio to your broadcasting station. Adjust the position of
your broadcasting antenna to maximize the reception. Record the carrier frequency.
2. Once you start receiving the music from your own station, move away from the trans-
mitter as you listen to the radio.

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Discussion (4/8): How far can you move away from the transmitter and still recog-
nize the music signal from your station?
3. Ask your partner to change the peak-to-peak value of the carrier signal.
Discussion (5/8): How does changing the peak-to-peak value of the carrier signal
affect the strength and fidelity of the received signal?
Checkpoint (4/6): Show your TA your working radio and share your answers to the
discussion questions above.

7.4 Exercise #4: AM Demodulation using an Envelope Detec-

tor
In this exercise, you will examine AM demodulation via envelope detection more closely.
First, you will design and build the envelope detection circuit. Then you will test that the
circuit can be used to demodulate an AM signal, observing both the input and output signals
of the circuit.

7.4.1 Preparation: Design and build the envelope detector

1. On the function generator, generate an AM signal with a modulation index of 0.5, a
carrier signal with a frequency of 100 kHz (a frequency below the AM range is chosen
to more easily visualize signal on the oscilloscope) and an amplitude of 5 Vpp, and a
modulating tone of 1 kHz.
2. The simple envelope detector consists of a diode, resistor, and capacitor configured
as shown in the circuit diagram of Figure 5. For the purposes of this lab, Rs will be
thought of as an inbuilt resistance inherent to the function generator. Using a resistor
(R) value of 10 kΩ, determine the value of the capacitor, (C), suitable for
detecting your AM modulated wave.
Checkpoint (5/6): Check your determined value of C with your TA.

Figure 5. Envelope detection circuit

3. Build the circuit shown in Figure 5, using the determined value of C.

4. Apply the AM signal to the envelope detector circuit.

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7.4.2 Measurements & Questions

1. Use the oscilloscope to display your AM signal in the time domain. Optimize the
settings of the oscilloscope so that you can observe several periods of the modulating
signal.
2. Verify the carrier and modulating frequencies of your signal.
3. Use the FFT capability of your oscilloscope to display the AM signal in the frequency
domain.
Discussion (6/8): How many peaks do you observe in the spectrum? Where are
they located? Is this expected/unexpected?
4. Now, observe the output of the envelope detector by placing the oscilloscope across
the resistor (R).
Deliverable (2/2): Include a photo of the oscilloscope screen showing the output of
the envelope detector in the time domain in your lab submission.
Discussion (7/8): Discuss the similarities and differences between the two time
domain signals observed in #1 and #5. Have you recovered your original signal?
5. Now, use the FFT to display the frequency spectrum of the output (across R).
Discussion (8/8): Discuss the relationship between the two frequency domain rep-
resentations (seen in #3 and #7).
Checkpoint (6/6): Explain to your TA what you’ve discussed in the last two dis-
cussion points. Relate your frequency domain observations to your time domain ob-
servations of the input and output signals.

8 Acknowledgement
Exercises #1 – 3 were developed by Mehmet Ozturk (NC State) and appear in Introduc-
tion to Signals, Circuits, & Systems Laboratory Manual, Laboratory #8: Transmission and
Reception of RF Signals, p. 77 – 84, 2006 (unpublished).

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9 Lab Grading
Your lab will be graded based on the checkpoints completed in lab, and on the deliverables
uploaded to Gradescope as follows:

9.1 Checkpoints (80)

9.2 Deliverables (20)
• Include your measured values for Vmax , Vmin , and µ for the following modulation fac-
tors:
– 0.5
– between 0.1 and 0.2
– between 0.7 and 0.9
– between 1.1 and 1.2
• Include a photo of the oscilloscope screen showing the output of the envelope detector
in the time domain.

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10 APPENDIX A: Using the FFT function of the Func-

tion Generator
To set the oscilloscope up to display the frequency domain representation (FFT) of a signal,
do the following:
1. Begin by pressing the Math key.
2. Using the softkeys below the screen, select FFT.
3. You should now see both the time domain sinusoid and a second, noisy signal on the
display. The frequency domain trace is difficult to make sense of at this point and you
will need to adjust a few parameters (as described next) in order to make the trace
useful.
4. Use ‘Span’ and ‘Center’ to adjust horizontal scale
5. You will need to adjust the display parameters such that you can clearly see the fre-
quency range of interest. To do this, we need to be aware of a performance specification
of the FFT function on the oscilloscope: the maximum frequency displayed is
equal to 102.4/(time per division setting). This means that, if the time per
division is 200 µs, the maximum frequency is 512 kHz (approximately the same as
the frequency span parameter. Thus, the time per division setting can be adjusted to
change the maximum frequency and effectively scale the axis.
6. Use ‘Math’ knobs (far right on scope) to adjust vertical scale.
7. Press the Center Frequency softkey and set to the appropriate value using the dial
used (at other times) to move the cursor.
8. Press the Frequency Span softkey and set to the appropriate value using the dial
used (at other times) to move the cursor.

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11 References
12 Updates
• v2: November 2024 - Added a prelab; changed lab report to lab deliverables; made
multiple adjustments based on recommendations of Jenny Green (Pratt ’25), Eduardo
Bortolomiol (Pratt ’26), and Adam Davidson.
• June 2024: Converted to a standalone document
• October 2021: Converted to LATEX.

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