2.

In a single throw with two dice, what is the chance of throwing

Compare the chances of throwing 4 with one dice 8 with forting 7 in two
throws of a gingle die?
Find the probability that a non-leap year should 8 with two dice and 12 with
three dice.
When a coin is tossed four times, find tho hould have 63 Saturdays?
(Madras, 2003)
(iii) at least two heads?
are thrown simultancously. Find
7 If all the letters of word 'ENGINEER' be the probability of getting at least
seven heads.
(P.T.U., 2003) together. probability that the number is divisible by 4 . from
zero to nine, every digit being used only once. Find the Four cards are
drawn from a pack of 52 cards. What is the chance that
(i) no two cards are of equal value ? (ii) each belongs to a different suit?
10. Suppose 5 cards are drawn at random from a pack of 52 cards. If all
cards are red what is the probability that all of them are hearts?
(Mumbai, 2005)
11. Out that
(a) none of the 3 is included?
(b) 2 of the 3 are included?
12. Five men in a company of twenty are graduates. If 3 men are picked out
of 20 at random, what is the probability that
(a) they are all graduates?
(b) at least one is graduate?
13. From 20 tickets marked from 1 to 20 , one ticket is drawn at random.
Find the probability that it is marked with a multiple of 3 or 5 .
14. Five balls are drawn from a bag containing 6 white and 4 black balls.
What is the chance that 3 white and 2 black balls are drawn?
15. (a) The probability of n independent events are p1 , p2 , p 3 ,… pn . Find the
probability that at least one of the events will happen. Use this result to find
the chance of getting at least one six in a throw of 4 dice.
(b) The probability of four persons A , B ,C , D hitting targets are respectively
1/2 ,1 /3 , 1/4 , 1/5 . What is the probability that target is hit buy at least one
person if all hit simultaneously.
(V.T.U., 2013)
16. Find the probability of drawing 4 white balls and 2 black balls without
replacement from a bag containing 1 red, 4 black and 6 white balls.
17. A bag contains 10 white and 15 black balls. Two balls are drawn in
succession. What is the probability that one of them is black and the other
white ?
18. A purse contains 2 silver and 4 copper coins and a second purse contains
4 silver and 4 copper coins. If a coin is selected at random from one of the
two purses, what is the probability that it is a silver coin?
(Osmania, 2002)
19. A box I contains 5 white balls and 6 black balls. Another box II contains 6
white balls and 4 black balls. A box is selected at random and then a ball is
drawn from it : (i) what is the probability that the ball drawn will be white?
(ii) Given that the ball drawn is white, what is the probability that it came
from box I.
(Mumbai, 2006)
20. A party of n persons take their seats at random at a round table; find the
probability that two specified persons do not sit together.
21. A speaks the truth in 75 % cases, and B in 80 % of the cases. In what
percentage of cases, are they likely to contradict each other in stating the
same fact?
(V.T.U., 2002 S)
22. The probability that Sushil will solve a problem is 1/4 and the probability
that Ram will solve it is 2/3. If Sushil and Ram work independently, what is
the probability that the problem will be solved by ( a ) both of them, ( b ) at
least one of them?
23. A student takes his examination in four subjects, P , Q, R , S . He estimates
his chances of passing in P as 4 /5, in Q as 3/ 4, in R as 5/6 and in S as 2/3. To
qualify, he must pass in P and at least two other subjects. What is the
probability that he qualifies?
24. The probability that a 50 year old man will be alive at 60 is 0.83 and the
probability that a 45 year old women will be alive at 55 is 0.87 . What is the
probability that a man who is 50 and his wife who is 45 will both be alive 10
years hence?
25. If on an average one birth in 80 is a case of twins, what is the probability
that there will be at least one case of twins in a maternity hospital on a day
when 20 births occur?
26. Two persons A and B fire at a target independently and have a
probability 0.6 and 0.7 respectively of hitting the target. Find the probability
that the target is destroyed.
27. A and B throw alternately with a pair of dice. The one who throws 9 first
wins. Show that the chances of their winning are 9 :8 .

26.6 BAYE'S THEOREM

An event A corresponds to a number of exhaustive events B1 , B2 , … , Bn. If
P ( B i ) and P ( A / Bi ) are given, then ard
P ( Bi ) P ( A /Bi )
P ( B i / A )=
Σ P ( Bi ) P ( A / Bi )
Proof. By the multiplication law of probability,
P ( A B i )=P( A) P ( Bi / A )=P ( Bi ) P ( A /Bi ) P ( B i ) P ( A /Bi )
P ( B i / A )= ¿
¿ P( A)
Since the event A corresponds to B1 , B2 , … , Bn , we have by the addition law of
probability,

P( A)=P ( A B1 ) + P ( A B 2 )+ …+ P ( A B n )=Σ P ( A Bi ) =Σ P ( Bi ) P ( A /B i)
P ( Bi ) P ( A /Bi )
Hence from (2), we have P ( B i / A )= which is known as the
theorem of inverse probability. Σ P ( Bi ) P ( A / Bi )

Obs. The probabilities P ( B i ) ,i=1 , 2 , … ,n are called apriori probabilities

because these exist before we get any information from the experiment.

The probabilities P ( A / Bi ) ,i=1, 2 , … , n are called posteriori probabilities,

because these are found after the experiment results are known.

Example 26.26. Three machines M 1 , M 2 and M 3 produce identical items. Of

their respective output 5%, 4 % and 3 % of items are faulty. On a certain day,
M 1 has produced 25 % of the total output, M 2 has produced 30 % and M 3 the
remainder. An item selected at random is found to be faulty. What are the
chances that it was produced by the machine with the highest output?

Solution. Let the event of drawing a faulty item from any of the machines be
A , and the event that an item drawn at random was produced by M i be Bi.
We have to find P ( B i / A ) for which we proceed as follows:

M1 M2 M3 Remarks

P (Bi ) 0.25 0.30 0.45 ∵ sum ¿ 1

P ( A / Bi ) 0.05 0.04 0.03

P ( B i ) P ( A /Bi ) 0.0125 0.012 0.0135 sum ¿ 0.38

P (Bi / A ) by Baye's
0.0125 0.012 0.0135 theorem

The highest output being from M 3, the required probability

¿ 0.0135 /0.038=0.355 .
Example 26.27. There are three bags : first containing 1 white, 2 red, 3
green balls; second 2 white, 3 red, 1 green balls and third 3 white, 1 red, 2
green balls. Two balls are drawn from a bag chosen at random. These are
found to be one white and one red. Find the probability that the balls so
drawn came from the second bag.

Solution. Let B1 , B2 , B3 pertain to the first, second, third bags chosen and A :
t.N.T.U., 2003) Now
1
P ( B 1 )=P ( B2 )=P ( B3 )=
3
( A /B1 ) =P a white and
P ( A/ B1 ) ¿

Similarly 2 3 C × 1 C 3/ 6 C =1 1 6 1
( 2 2C/ 1A×)=5C 1,)P , P( ( A/1 B3 )=1() C 1 ×
2 C 1 ) / C 2=
3 6
P ( A / B2 ) P¿( B
By Baye's theorem, / (CA2/=B3 )=
5 5 5
P ( B 2 ) P ( A /B2 )
P (B2/ A ) ¿
P ( B1 ) P ( A / B1 ) + P ( B 2) P ( A/ B2 ) + P ( B3 ) P ( A /B3 )
RHOBLEMS
¿ 26.3 ¿
1. In a certain college, 4 % of the boys and 1 % of girls are taller than 1.8
m. Further more 60 % of the students are girls. If a student is selected
at random and is found to be taller than 1.8 m ., what is the
probability that the student is a girl?
(Kuruhshetra, 2013)
2. In a bolt factory, machines A , B and C manufacture 25 % ,35 % and 40 %
of the total. Of their output 5 % , 4 % and 2 % are defective bolts. A bolt
is drawn at random from the product and is found to be defective.
What are the probabilities that it was manufactured by machines A , B
or C ? (V.T.U., 2012 S; Rohtah, 2005)
 3. In a bolt factory, there are four machines A , B ,C , D manufacturing
20 % ,15 % ,25 % and 40 % of the total output respectively. Of their
outputs 5 % , 4 % , 3 % and 2 % in the same order are defective bolts. A
bolt is chosen at random from the factory's production and is found
defective. What is the probability that the bolt was manufactured by
machine A or machine D ?
(Hissar, 2007 ; J.N.T.U., 2003)
4. The contents of three urns are : 1 white, 2 red, 3 green balls; 2 white,
1 red, 1 green balls and 4 white, 5 red, 3 green balls. Two balls are
drawn from an urn chosen at random. These are found to be one white
and one green. Find the probability that the balls so drawn came from
the third urn.
(Kurukshetra, 2007)

26.7 RANDOM VARIABLE

If a real variable X be associated with the outcome of a random experiment,
then since the values which X takes depend on chance, it is called a random
variable or a stochastic variable or simply a variate. For instance, if a
random experiment E consists of tossing a pair of dice, the sum X of the two
numbers which turn up have the value 2 , 3 , 4 , … , 12 depending on chance.
Then X is the random variable. It is a function whose values are real
numbers and depend on chance.

If in a random experiment, the event corresponding to a number a occurs,

then the corresponding random variable X is said to assume the value a and
the probability of the event is denoted by P( X=a). Similarly the probability
of the event X assuming any value in the interval a< X <b is denoted by
P(a< X <b) . The probability of the event X ≤ c is written as P( X ≤ c ).
If a random variable takes a finite set of values, it is called a discrete variate.
On the other hand, if it assumes an infinite number of uncountable values, it
is called a continuous variate.

26.8 (1) DISCRETE PROBABILITY

DISTRIBUTION
Suppose a discrete variate X is the outcome of some experiment. If the
probability that X takes the values x i, is pi, then

P ( X =xi ) = pi or p ( x i ) for i=1, 2 , …

where (i) p ( x i ) ≥ 0 for all values of i , (ii) Σ p ( x i ) =1

The set of values x i with their probabilities pi constitute a discrete
probability distribution of the discrete variate X .

For example, the discrete probability distribution for X , the sum of the
numbers which turn on tossing a pair of dice is given by the following table :

X =x i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
 p ( x i ) 1/36 2/36 3/36 4 /36 5/36 6 /36 5/36 4 /36 3/36 2/36 1/36

¿ There are 6 × 6=36 equally likely outcomes and therefore, each has the
probability 1/36. We have X =2 for one outcome, i.e. ( 1,1 ) ; X =3 for two
outcomes (1 , 2) and (2 , 1); X =4 for three outcomes (1 , 3),(2 , 2) and (3 , 1) and
so on.]
(2) Distribution function. The distribution function F (x) of the discrete
variate X is defined by
x
F (x)=P (X ≤ x )=∑ p ( xi ) where x is any integer. The graph of F (x) will be
i=1
stair step form (Fig. 26.2). The distribution function is also sometimes called

Fig. 26.2
cumulative distribution function.

872
Example 26.28. 1 die is tossed thrice. A success is 'getting 1 or 6 ' on a toss.
Find the mean and variance of the number of successes.
2 1 1 2
Solution. Probability of a success ¿ = , Probability2 2 of 2 failures
8 ¿1− = .
∴ prob. of no success ¿ Prob. of all 36 failures
3 ¿ ×1 × 2 =2 4 3 3
3
Probability of one successes and 2 failures ¿ 3 c 1 × 1× 13 3 27
× = 2
Probability of two successes and1 one failure ¿ 3 c 3 ×3 ×3 2 =
× 9
1 1 1 2
3 3 3 9
Probability
Now of three
x =0 1 successes
2 3 ¿ × × =
i 3 3 3 27
∴pi=8 /27 4 /9 2/9 ¿ ¿
mean 4 4 1
μ=Σ pi xi =0+ + + =1.
Also 9 9 9
2 4 8 9 5
Σ pi xi ¿ 0+ + + =
9 9 27 3
2 2 2 5 2
σ ¿ Σ p i x i − μ = −1= .
Example 26.29. The probability density function 3 of3a variate X is

X: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

p( X): k 3k 5k 7k 9k 11k 13 k

(i) Find P( X< 4), P(X ≥ 5), P(3< X ≤ 6).

(V.T.U., 2013)
(ii) What will be the minimum value of k so that P( X ≤ 2)> 3.

Solution. ( i ) If X is a random variable, then

6

∑ p ( x i )=1 i.e. , k +3 k +5 k +7 k +9 k +11 k +13 k=1 or k =1/49 .

P ( X < 4)=k +3 k +5 k +7 k=16 k =16/ 49 .¿
i=0
¿
value of k =1/30.
Example 26.30. A random variable X has the following probability function :

x : 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2 2 2
p(x ): 0 k 2k 2k 3k k 2k 7k +k

(i) Find the value of the k

(ii) Evaluate P( X< 6), P( X ≥ 6)
(V.T.U., 2014)
(iii) P(0< X <5).
(Anna, 2012 ; W.B.T.U., 2005 ; J.N.T.U., 2003)
Solution. (i) If X is a random variable, then
7

∑ p ( x i )=1 , i.e. , 0+ k +2 k +2 k +3 k + k 2+ 2 k 2+ 7 k 2 +k =1
i=0
i.e.,
(ii) P( X< 6)=P( X=0)+ P(X =1)+ P (X=2)+ P( X=3)+ P(X =4 )+ P (X=5)
2 2 8 1 81
¿ 0+ k +2 k +2 k +3 k + k =8 k + k = + =
2 2 10 9 1001 100
19
P(X ≥ 6) ¿ P(X =6)+ P(X =7)=2 k +7 k + k= + =
100 10 100
(ii) P(0< X <5) ¿ P (X=1)+ P(X =2)+ P (X=3)+ 8 P(4 X=8)
¿ k +2 k + 2 k +3 k=8 k= = .
10 5

26.9
CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTION
When a variate X takes every value in an interval, it gives rise to continuous
distribution of X . The distributions defined by the variates like heights or
weights are continuous distributions.

A major conceptual difference, however, exists between discrete and

continuous probabilities, When thinking in discrete terms, the probability
associated with an event is meaningful. With continunas events, however,
where the number of events is infinitely large, the probability that a specific
event will cucur is practically zero. For this reason, continuous probability
statements must be worded somewhat differently from discrete ones.
Instead of finding the probability that x equals some value, we find the
probability of x falling in a small interval.

Thus the probability distribution of a continuous variate x is defined by a

function f (x)
1 such that1 the probability of the variate x falling in the small
interval x − 1 x + d x is f (x)d x. Symbolically it can be expressed as
d x to
( 1
)
P x − d x ≤ 2x ≤ x+ d x 2=f (x)d x . Then f (x) is called the probability density
2 and the continuous
function 2 curve y=f (x ) is called the probability curve.
The range of the variable may be finite or infinite. But even when the range
is finite, it is convenient to consider it as infinite by supposing the density
function to be zero outside the given range. Thus if f (x)=0(x ) be the density
function denoted for the variate x in the interval (a ,b) , then it can be written
as
f (x ) ¿ 0 , ¿ x< a
¿ ¿ x> b . ¿
¿ ∅ (x), ¿ ¿ ¿
The density function f (x) is always positive and ∫ ∞−∞ f (x)d x =1 (i.e., the total
area under the probability curve and the x -axis is unity which corresponds to
the requirements that the total probability of happening of an event is
unity).
(2) Distribution function
x
If F (x)=P (X ≤ x )= ∫ f (x ) d x
−∞
then F (x) is defined as the cumulative distribution function or simply the
distribution function of the continuous variate X . It is the probability that
the value of the variate X will be ≤ x . The graph of F (x) in this case is as
shown in Fig. 26.3(b).

The distribution function F (x) has the following properties:

(i) F ′ (x )=f (x) ≥ 0, so that F (x) is a non-decreasing function.
(i) F (−∞)=0 ;
(iii) F (∞)=1
(iv) P(a≤ x ≤ b)= ∫ ba f (x)d x =∫ b− ∞ f (x )d x − ∫ a−∞ f ( x) d x=F (b)− F (a).

Example 26.31. (i) Is the function defined as follows a density function?

−x
f (x) ¿ e , ¿ x ≥ 0
¿0, ¿ ¿ ¿
(ii) If so, determine the probability that the variate having this density will
fall in the interval (1, 2)?
(iii) Also find the cumulative probability function F (2) ?

Solution. (i) f (x) is clearly ≥ 0 for every x in (1 , 2) and

∞ 0 ∞

∫ f (x )d x= ∫ 0 ⋅d x +∫ e − x d x=1
−∞ −∞ 0

874
Hence the function f (x) satisfies the requirements for a density function.
(ii) Required probability ¿ P(1 ≤ x ≤ 2)= ∫ 21 e− x d x =e− 1 − e− 2=0.368 − 0.135=0.233 .

This probability is equal to the shaded area in Fig. 26.3 (a).

(iii) Cumulative probability function F (2)
2 0 2

∫ f (x )d x= ∫ 0 ⋅d x +∫ e d x=1− e =1 −0.135=0.865
−x −2

−∞ −∞ 0
which is shown in Fig. 26.3 (b).
Fig. 26.3

26.10 (1) EXPECTATION

The mean value ( μ ) of the probability distribution of a variate X is
commonly known as its expectation and is denoted by E( X ). If f (x) is the
probability density function of the variate X , then
∑ x i f ( x i)
i

(discrete distribution)
or
∞
E( X )=∫ x f ( x )d x
−∞
(continuous distribution)
In general, expectation of any
E[ϕ (x )]=∑ϕ ϕ(x( x) is
function ) f (given
x) by
i i
i
∞

E [ϕ(x )]= ∫ ϕ (x) f (x)d x

(discrete distribution) −∞
or
(2) Variance of a distribution is given by
or
σ =∑ ( xi − μ ) f ( x i )
2 2

i
¿
(continuous distribution)
(discrete distribution) (continuous distribution)
where σ is the standard deviation of the distribution.
(3) The rth moment about the mean (denoted by μr ) is defined by
r
μr =Σ ( x i − μ ) f ( x i )
¿
(discrete distribution)
or
(4) Mean deviation from the mean is given by

Σ |x i − μ| f ( x i)

or by
∞

∫ ∨x − μ∨f (x ) d x
−∞
(discrete distribution) (continuous distribution)
Example 26.32. In a lottery, m tickets are drawn at a time out of n tickets
numbered from 1 to n . Find the expected value of the sum of the numbers on
the tickets drawn.
(Rohtak, 2011)

Solution. Let x 1 , x 2 ,… , x n bo the variables reprononting the numbera om the

firat, ancond, ..., nth licket The probability of drawing a ticket out of n
ticketa bolng in onch case 1/n, wo hove
 1 1 1 1 1
E ( x i )=1 ⋅ + 2⋅ +3 ⋅ +…+ n ⋅ = (n+1)
n n n n 2
∴ expected value of the sum of the numbers on the tickots drawn
¿ E ( x 1+ x2 + …+ x m )=E ( x 1 ) + E ( x 2 ) +…+ E ( x m )
1
¿ m E ( x i )= m(n+ 1)
2
Example 26.33. X is a continuous random variable will prolabilliy denolty
findion given by
f (x) ¿ k x (0 ≤ x< 2)
2 ¿ 4 ¿ −k x +6 6 k (4 ≤ x< 6)

∫ of X . ∫
Find k and mean value k x d x + 2 k d x + ∫ (− k x +6 k)d x=1
0 2 4
Solution. Since the total probability is unity
2 (
2 3
k ∣ x 2 / 2|0 +2 k∨x
6 ¿4 + − k x 2 /2+ 6 k x| =1
4
∴∫ f (x )d x=1
2 k + 4 k +(−100 k +12 k )=1 i. c . , k=1/8
6

Mean of X =∫ x f ( x)d x
0
Example 26.34. A variate X has the probability distribution
¿
2 x 4 : −3 6 6 9
¿∫ k x P( +∫ 2 k :x d1/
x+6∫ 1x /2
2
d xX=x) (− k 1/3
x +6 k)d x
0 2 4
Find E( X ) and E ( X 2) . Hence evaluate E¿ ¿.

Solution.
1 1 1
E( X )=−3 × +6 × + 9 × =11/2
6 2 3
¿
¿
Example 26.35. The frequency distribution of a measurable characteristic
varying between 0 and 2 is as under
3
f (x) ¿ x , ¿ 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
Calculate the standard deviation and also the mean deviation about the
mean.

Solution. Total frequency1 N= ∫ 10 x 3 d x+ ∫ 21 ¿

′
∴ μ1 (about the origin) ¿ ¿
N
¿2¿
′
μ2 (about the origin) ¿
Hence
′ 2 1
σ =μ2=μ2 − ( μ 1) =
2 ′
15
1
i.e., standard deviation σ = .
√15
Mean deviation about the mean

¿
26.11 MOMENT GENERATING FUNCTION
(1) The moment generating function (m.g.f.) of the discrete probability
distribution of the variate X about the value x=a is defined as the expected
value of e t (x −a ) and is denoted by M a (t) . Thus
M a (t)=Σ pi e (
t x i − a)

(1)
which is a function of the parameter t only.
Expanding the exponential in (1), we get
2 r
t 2 t r
M a (t) ¿ Σ pi +t Σ pi ( xi − a ) +
Σ pi ( x i − a ) +… + Σ x i ( xi − a ) + …
2! r!
′
where μr is the moment of order r about a . Thus a M (t) generates moments
and that is why it is called the moment generating function. From (2), we
find
′ r
μr = coefficient of t r l ! in the expansion of M a ( t).
Otherwise differentiating (2) r times with respect to t and then putting t=0 ,
we get

[ ]
r
d ′
r
μr =
M a (t)
dt t =0
(3)
Thus the moment about any point x=a can be found from (2) or more
conveniently from the formula (3)
Rewriting (1) as M a (t)=e ∑ p i e or M a (t)=e M 0 (t)
−a t tx −at i

(4 )
about the noint
Thus the m.g.f. about the point a=e −a(4
t
)
(m.g.f. about the origin).
Obs. The m.g.f. of the sum of two independent variables is the product of
their m.g.fs.
continuous probability distribution about x=a is given by
∞
M a (t)=∫ e
t (x −a )
f (x)d x .
−∞
Example 26.36. Find the moment generating function of the exponential
distribution
1 − x /c
f (x)= e ,0 ≤ x ≤ ∞ , c> 0 . Hence find its mean and S.D.
c
(Kurukshetra, 2009)
Solution. The moment generating
∞
function about
∞
the origin is
t x 1 − x/ c 1
M 0 (t) ¿∫ e ⋅ e d x= ∫ e
(t −1 / c)x
dx
0 c c 0
¿ ¿
Hence the mean is c and S.D. is also c .

26.12 PROBABILITY GENERATING

FUNCTION
The probability generating function (p.g.f.) P x (t) for a random variable x
which takes integral values 0,1 , 2 , 3 ,… only, is defined by
∞
P x (t)= p0 + p1 t+ p2 t 2 +…=∑ pn t n= E ( t x )
n=0

( )
∞
∂P
The coefficient of t n ¿in∑the n −1 ∂P(t
P ) in powers of
n pexpansion
n t of
or =Σ n p n=μ′1 t gives P ¿.
∂t n=0 ∂ t t =1

( )
2 ∞ 2
∂ P ∂ P
∂ P ∂t 2 ¿ ∑
n −2 ′ ′
n (n −1) pn t or =Σ n(n −1) p n=μ2 − μ1
( )
k
Also k
=n ! pnn =0
, k=1 , 2 , … n. ∂ t2 t =1
∂t t =0¿valued variates,
For integral ¿ we have ¿

P x ( e t ) =E ( e t x ) =m . g . f . for x
Obs. The p.g.f. of the sum of two independent random variables is the
product of their p.g.f.'s.
Example 26.37. If x be a random variable with probability generating
function P x (t), find the probability generating function of
(i) x +2
(ii) 2 x .

Solution. We have P x (t)=∑ ∞k=0 pk t k

(i) Probability generating function of x +2=∑ ∞k=0 p k t k+2 =t 2 ∑∞k=0 pk t k =t 2 Px (t ).
k
(ii) Probability generating function of 2 x=∑ ∞k=0 pk t 2 k =∑∞k=0 pk ( t 2 ) =P ( t 2 ).

PROBLEMS 26.4
1. A random variable x has the following probability function :

Values
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
of x :

p(x ) : 0.1 k 0.2 2k 0.3 k

Find the value of k and calculate mean and variance.

(V.T.U., 2012 S ; C.S.V.T.U., 2007 ; Madras, 2003)
2. Find the standard deviation for the following discrete distribution :

x : 8 12 16 20 24

p(x ): 1/8 1/6 3/8 1/4 1/12

3. Obtain the distribution function of the total number of heads

occurring in three tosses of an unbiased coin.
4. Show that for any discrete distribution β 2 ≥ 1.
5. From an urn containing 3 red and 2 white balls, a man is to draw 2
balls at random without replacement, being promised Rs. 20 for each
red ball he draws and Rs. 10 for each white one. Find his expectation.
 6. Four coins are tossed. What is the expectation of the number of
heads?
7. The diameter of an electric cable is assumed to be a continuous
variate with p.d.f. f (x)=6 x(1− x), 0≤ x ≤ 1. Verify that the above is a
p.d.f. Also find the mean and variance.
8. A random variable gives measurements X between 0 and 1 with a
probability function
3 2
f (x) ¿ 12 x − 21 x +10 x ,0 ≤ x ≤ 1
¿ ¿
(
(i) Find P X ≤
1
2)
(ii) Find a number
( )
and P X >
1
2 P( X ≤ k )= 1
k such that
9. The power reflected by an aircraft that 2 is received by a radar can be

{
1 − x/ x
described by an exponential variable X . The probability density of X
e 0
, x random
≥0
is given by f (x)= x 0 where x 0 is the average power received by
the radar. 0, x< 0
(i) What is the probability that the radar will receive power larger than the
power received on the average ? (ii) What is the probability that the radar
will receive power less than the power received on the average?
(Mumbai, 2006)
10. A function is defined as follows:
f (x)=0 , x <2
1
¿ (2 x +3), 2 ≤ x ≤ 4
18
Show that it is a density function.¿ 0Find
, the x> 4.
probability that a variate having
this density will fall in the interval 2 ≤ x ≤3 ?
11. A continuous distribution of a variable x in the range (−3 ,3) is defined as

f (x) ¿
Verify that the area under the curve is unity. Show that the mean is zero.