Engineering Electromagnetics

PH1000
Class Day Time
1 Monday 9:00-9:50 AM
2 Wednesday 10:00-10:50 AM
3 Friday 11:00-11:50 AM

Dr. Y. Ashok Kumar Reddy

Assistant Professor of Physics
IIITDM Kancheepuram
Chennai, India
[email protected]
H41 Office: 119-L (North-East)
Contents: Engineering Electromagnetics PH1000
IIITDM
Vectors ‐ an introduction; Unit vectors in spherical and cylindrical polar co‐ordinates; Concept
of vector fields; Gradient of a scalar field; flux, divergence of a vector, Gauss’s theorem,
Continuity equation; Curl - rotational and irrotational vector fields, Stoke’s theorem
Electrostatics: Electrostatic potential and field due to discrete and continuous charge
distributions, boundary condition, Energy for a charge distribution, Conductors and capacitors,
Laplace’s equation Image problem, Dielectric polarization, electric displacement vector,
dielectric susceptibility, energy in dielectric systems
Magnetostatics: Lorentz Force law - Biot‐Savart's law and Ampere's law in magnetostatics,
Divergence and curl of B, Magnetic induction due to configurations of current‐carrying
conductors, Magnetization and bound currents, Energy density in a magnetic field, Magnetic
permeability and susceptibility
Electrodynamics: Electromotive force, Time‐varying fields, Faradays' law of electromagnetic
induction, Self and mutual inductance, displacement current, Maxwell's equations in free
space. Boundary condition, propagation in linear medium. Plane electromagnetic waves -
reflection and refraction, electromagnetic energy density, Poynting vector

Textbooks:
1. Introduction to Electrodynamics, David J. Grifiths, Prentice Hall, 2007.
2. Electromagnetic Field Theory Fundamentals, Bhag Singh Guru, Huseyin R. Hiziroglu, Cambridge
University Press; 2nd edition, 2009.
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Integral Calculus PH1000
IIITDM

Volume Integrals:
 A volume integral is an expression of the form:

 Td 
where, T is a scalar function and
dƬ is an infinitesimal volume element

 In Cartesian coordinates, dƬ = dxdydz

 For example, if T is the density of a substance (which might vary from point to
point), then the volume integral would give the total mass.

 Occasionally, we shall encounter volume integrals of vector functions because

the unit vectors (x̂, ŷ, and ẑ) are constants, they come outside the integral.

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 PH1000
Volume Integrals IIITDM

Problem: Calculate the volume integral of T = xyz2 over the prism?

Solution:
We can do the three integrals in any order.
Let’s do ‘x’ first: It runs from 0 to (1 - y)
then ‘y’: It goes from 0 to 1,
x+y=1
and finally ‘z’: It goes from 0 to 3

x=1-y

x2
 xdx  2
1 y
 x2 
if limits   substitute
 
 2 0
z3
 z dz  3
2

 z3 
3

if limits   substitute
3
 0
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 PH1000
Volume Integrals IIITDM
Problem: Let F = 2xz î - x ĵ + y2k̂ . Evaluate  F dV where V is the region bounded by
the surfaces x=0, x=2, y=0, y=6, z=x2, z=4?
Solution: The region V is covered (a) by keeping x & y fixed and integrating from z = x2 to z = 4
(base to top of column PQ),
(b) then by keeping ‘x’ fixed and integrating from y = 0 to y= 6 (R to S in the slab),
(c) finally keeping ‘y’ fixed and integrating from x = 0 to x = 2 (where z = x2 meets z = 4).

Then the required integral is

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 PH1000
Line, Surface and Volume Integrals Comparison IIITDM

6
Integral Calculus PH1000
IIITDM

Comparison of various coordinates

Table: Differential elements of length, surface, and volume in the rectangular,
cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems

7
 PH1000
Differential Calculus IIITDM

Del operator:
 The gradient has the formal appearance of a vector, ∇, “multiplying” a scalar T:

 The term in parentheses (adding) is called del:

 It doesn’t mean much until we provide it with a function to act upon.

 It does not “multiply” T.

 It is an instruction to differentiate what follows.

 ∇ is a vector operator that acts upon T, not a vector that multiplies T.

8
Differential Calculus Del Operator PH1000
IIITDM

 Now, an ordinary vector ‘A’ can multiply in three ways:

1. By a scalar ‘a’: Aa

2. By a vector ‘B’, via the dot product: A · B

3. By a vector ‘B’, via the cross product: A × B

 Correspondingly, there are three ways the operator ∇ can act:

1. On a scalar function ‘T’ : ∇T (gradient)

2. On a vector function ‘v’, via the dot product: ∇ · v (divergence)

3. On a vector function ‘v’, via the cross product: ∇ × v (curl)

9
Concept of Vector Fields Potentials PH1000
IIITDM
Curl-less (irrotational) fields: The following conditions are equivalent
i.e., F satisfies one if and only if it satisfies all the others:
a)  F  0 everywhere
b
b)  F .dI is independent of path, for any given end points
a

 F .dI  0 for any closed loop

c) 
d) F is the gradient of some scalar function: F  V
e) If the divergence of a vector field (F) vanishes (everywhere), then F can be expressed as the
curl of a vector potential(A): .F  0  F   A
Divergence-less (solenoidal) fields: The following conditions are equivalent:
a)  F  0 everywhere
b)  F .da is independent of surface, for any given boundary line
c)
 F .da  0 for any closed surface.
d) F is the curl of some vector function: F   A
e) In all cases (whatever its curl and divergence may be) a vector field F can be written as the
gradient of a scalar plus the curl of a vector:
F  V   A
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Concept of Vector Fields Solenoidal fields PH1000
IIITDM

 A solenoidal vector field satisfies ∇.F = 0 for every vector F, where ∇ . F is the
divergence.

 If this condition is satisfied, there exists a vector A, known as the vector potential,
such that F = ∇ × A , where ∇ × A is the curl.

 This follows from the vector identity ∇ . F = ∇. (∇ × A) = 0

 If A is an irrotational field, ∇ × A = 0 so ∇. (A × r) = r. (∇ × A) – A. (∇ × r) = 0 – 0 = 0.
So A × r is solenoidal.

 Similarly, if u and v are irrotational, then u × v is solenoidal.

 The quantity (∇u) × (∇v) where ∇u & ∇v is the gradient, is always solenoidal.

 For a function φ satisfying Laplace's equation ∇2φ = 0, it follows that ∇φ is

solenoidal (∇ . ∇φ = 0) and also irrotational (∇ × ∇φ = 0).

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 PH1000
Differential Calculus IIITDM

Basics of Gradient:
 We know that the ∇ operator can be represented as:
 We can use this ∇ operator in gradient, divergence, and curl.

• Gradient is vector quantity and it is applied on scalar quantity.

• Gradient of function F can be calculated by

• It explains variation of function in x, y, and z directions.

 For example, if we apply gradient to function of temperature, then from gradient

we can understand the rate of change of temperature in x, y, and z directions.
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 PH1000
Differential Calculus IIITDM
Divergence:
 The divergence of a vector field measures how much the flow expands at a given
point.
 It does not indicate in which direction the expansion/spreading-out is occurring.

 From the definition of ∇, we construct the divergence:

 The divergence of a vector function v is itself a

scalar ∇·v.

 A vector field, v is called solenoidal, if divergence of that vector (v)

is zero at all the points in the field, i.e. ∇·v = 0.
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 PH1000
Differential Calculus IIITDM

Basics of Divergence:
 We know that the ∇ operator can be represented as:
 We can use this ∇ operator in gradient, divergence, and curl.

• Divergence is scalar quantity and it is applied on vector quantity.

• Divergence of function F can be calculated by,

 
.F  0  
  .F  0
.F  0

Water is Water is Water is

decreasing increasing constant

 It explains overall variation of function in x, y, and z direction.

 It explains overall rate of change with respect to coordinates.
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 PH1000
Differential Calculus Divergence IIITDM
Geometrical Interpretation:
• The name divergence is well chosen, for ∇·v is a measure of how much the vector
v spreads out (diverges) from the point.
 Imagine, a person is standing at the edge of a pond.
 Sprinkle some sawdust or pine needles on the surface.
 If the material collects together, you dropped it at a point of negative divergence;
if it spreads out, then you dropped it at a point of positive divergence.

 A point of negative (-) divergence is a sink, or “drain”.

 A point of positive (+) divergence is a source, or “faucet”. 15
Differential Calculus Divergence PH1000
IIITDM

 In Cartesian Coordinates: (x, y, z)

 In Cylindrical Coordinates: (ρ, φ, z)

 In Spherical Coordinates: (r, θ, φ)

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 PH1000
Differential Calculus Divergence IIITDM
Problem: Suppose the functions are va = xx̂ + yŷ + zẑ, vb = yŷ , and vc = yŷ + z ẑ. Calculate their
divergences?
Solution:

Exercise Problem: Calculate the divergence of the following vector functions?

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Differential Calculus Divergence PH1000
IIITDM

Problem: Compute div F for F = (x2y, xyz, −x2y2)

Solution: div F = ∇.F = ∂/∂x (x2y) + ∂/∂y (xyz) + ∂/∂z (−x2 y2 )

= 2xy + xz

Problem: Compute div F for F = (x2y, (-z3 + 3x), 4y2)

Solution: div F = ∇.F = ∂/∂x (x2y) + ∂/∂y (3x−z3) + ∂/∂z (4y2)

= 2xy + 0 + 0

= 2xy

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Differential Calculus Divergence PH1000
IIITDM

Problem: Show that ∇rn = nrn-2r then prove that ∇ · (r/r3) = 0

Solution: 1st part: we know that r= (x2+y2+z2)1/2

2nd part:

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Integral Calculus: Gauss’s theorem PH1000
IIITDM

Fundamental Theorem for Divergences:

The fundamental theorem for divergences states that

 .v  d    v . da
s
v

 Mathematically Gauss theorem expressed as volume integration of the

divergence of the function is equal to the surface integration of function (v).

Basics of Gauss Divergence Theorem:

 It explains relationship in b/w volume integration & surface
integration.
 It is also used to see the location of source and sink.
 It explains rate of change of flux with respect to function.
 Divergence is flux density, it explains how much flux entering
or leaving the sink or source.

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Integral Calculus PH1000
IIITDM

Proof of Gauss Theorem:  v . da   .v  d

s
v

• It can be expressed as surface integration of

function (P) is equal to volume integration
of the divergence of the function.
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Integral Calculus Physical significance of Gauss Theorem PH1000
IIITDM

 v . da   .v  d
s
v

flux entering

 It is used to identify the position

where the source and sink is there.
 Where divergence is positive then
it is source and negative it is sink.
flux leaving

Uses of Gauss Theorem:

 Application of fluid mechanics
 To understand electromagnetics
 It is used to understand flaw of fields
(Gravitational, Electric & Magnetic fields)
 Used in aerodynamics
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Integral Calculus: Gauss’s theorem PH1000
IIITDM

Fundamental Theorem for Divergences:

 The fundamental theorem for divergences states that  v . da   .v  d

s
v

 This theorem has three special names: Gauss’s theorem, or Green’s theorem, or
divergence theorem.
 It states that the integral of the normal component of any vector field over a
closed surface is equal to the integral of the divergence of this vector field
throughout the volume enclosed by the closed surface.

 The theorem applies to any volume

V bounded by the closed surface.

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 PH1000
Fundamental Theorem for Divergences: Gauss’s theorem IIITDM
Geometrical Interpretation:
 If, we have a bunch of faucets/sources in a region filled with incompressible fluid,
an equal amount of liquid will be forced out through the boundaries of the region.
 There are two ways that we could determine of how much is being produced:
(a) We could count up all the faucets, recording how much each puts out, or
(b) We could go around the boundary, measuring the flow at each point, and add it
all up.

In essence, this is the divergence theorem.

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 PH1000
Fundamental Theorem for Divergences IIITDM
Problem: Verify the Gauss theorem for the vector function F = 4xz î - y2 ĵ + yz k̂ taken
over the cube bounded by x =0, x=1, y=0, y=1, z=0, z=1?
Solution:

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 PH1000
Fundamental Theorem for Divergences IIITDM

F = 4xz î - y2 ĵ + yz k̂
x =0, x=1, y=0, y=1, z=0, z=1

Hence, Gauss theorem is verified

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 PH1000
Fundamental Theorem for Divergences: Gauss’s theorem IIITDM
Problem: Check the divergence theorem using the function v = y2x̂ + (2xy + z2)ŷ +
(2yz)ẑ and a unit cube at the origin?

Solution: dƬ = dxdydz

∇ · v = ∂/∂x (y2) + ∂/∂y (2xy + z2) + ∂/∂z (2yz)

= 0 + 2x + 2y = 2(x + y)

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 PH1000
Fundamental Theorem for Divergences: Gauss’s theorem IIITDM

Now, to evaluate the surface integral, we must consider separately

the six faces of the cube. v = y2x̂ + (2xy + z2)ŷ + (2yz)ẑ

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 PH1000
Fundamental Theorem for Divergences: Gauss’s theorem IIITDM
v = y2x̂ + (2xy + z2)ŷ + (2yz)ẑ

So, =

Hence, divergence theorem is verified

Exercise Problem:

Sol: Refer, page no 48 in “Bhag Guru” textbook

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 PH1000
Differential Calculus Gradient IIITDM
 We want to generalize the notion of “derivative” to functions like T, which depend
not on one but on three variables.
 A derivative is supposed to tell us how fast the function varies, if we move a little
distance.
 But this time the situation is more complicated, because it depends on what
direction we move:
If we go straight up, then the temperature will probably increase fairly rapidly,
But, if we move horizontally, it may not change much at all.

 In fact, the question “How fast does T vary?” has an infinite number
of answers, one for each direction we might choose to explore.
 A theorem on partial derivatives states that

 This tells us how T changes when we alter all three variables by the
infinitesimal amounts dx, dy, dz.

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 PH1000
Differential Calculus Gradient IIITDM
 Notice that we do not require an infinite number of derivatives, just three (3)
will enough: Partial derivatives along each of the three coordinate directions

 The equation can be presented as:

Here is the gradient of T.

• Note that ∇T is a vector quantity, with three components.

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Differential Calculus Gradient PH1000
IIITDM
Gradient of a scalar fields in different coordinate systems:
Let V be the scalar fields whose gradient is to be calculated.
Gradient operator in Cartesian coordinate:

Gradient operator in cylindrical coordinate:

Gradient operator in spherical coordinate:

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Differential Calculus Gradient PH1000
IIITDM

Problem: Let f(x, y)=x2y. Find ∇f(3, 2)?

Solution: (a) The gradient is just the vector of partial derivatives. The partial derivatives of ‘f’

at the point (x, y)=(3,2) are:

∂f/∂x (x, y) = 2xy or, ∂f/ ∂x (3, 2) = 12

∂f/∂y (x, y) = x2 or, ∂f/∂y (3, 2) = 9

Therefore, the gradient is ∇f (3, 2) = 12î+9ĵ = (12, 9)

Problem: Find the gradient of r = x2  y2  z2 (the magnitude of the position vector)?

Solution:

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Differential Calculus Gradient PH1000
IIITDM

Problem: Find a normal vector to the surface x3 + y3z = 3 at the point (1,1,2)?

Solution:

To find a normal vector to a surface, observe that the surface as a level set of
some function g(x, y, z)

A normal vector to the implicitly defined surface g(x, y, z)=c is ∇g(x, y, z)

We identify the surface as the level curve of the value c = 3 for g(x, y, z)=x3 + y3z

The gradient of g(x, y, z) is ∇g(x, y, z) = 3x2î + 3y2zĵ + y3k̂

Evaluating at x=1, y=1, z=2, we get ∇g(1, 1, 2) = 3î + 6ĵ + k̂

Hence a normal vector to the surface at (1,1,2) is 3î + 6ĵ + k̂

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 PH1000
Differential Calculus Gradient IIITDM

Problem: Find the ∇φ if a) ln|r| and b) φ = 1/r?

Solution:

35
 PH1000
Fundamental Theorem for Gradients IIITDM

Starting at point ‘a’, we move a small distance ‘dI1’.

 The function T will change by an amount
dT = (∇T) · dl1
 Now we move a little further, by an
additional small displacement dl2.
The incremental change in T will be
(∇T) · dl2

 In this manner, going by infinitesimal steps, we make the journey to point ‘b’.
 At each step, we compute the gradient of T (∇T) and dot it into the displacement
dl and this gives us the change in T.

 The total change in T in going from a to b:

b

 T .dI  T (b)  T(a)

a

 This is the fundamental theorem for gradients.

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 PH1000
Fundamental Theorem for Gradients IIITDM

Geometrical Interpretation:
b

 T .dI  T (b)  T(a)

a
 Suppose you wanted to determine the height of the “Eiffel Tower”.
 You could climb the stairs, using a ruler to measure the rise at each step, and
adding them all up (left side of the above equation).
 Otherwise, you could place altimeters at top and bottom, and subtract the two
readings (right side of the above equation).
 You should get the same answer either way (i.e., fundamental theorem).
 Evidently, gradients have the special property that their line integrals are path
independent.
b
 Corollary 1:
 T .dI
a
Independent of the path taken from a to b.
 Corollary 2:
 T  dI
Since the beginning and end points are identical
Hence, T(b) – T (a) = 0
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 PH1000
Fundamental Theorem for Gradients IIITDM
Problem: Let T = xy2, and take point ‘a’ to be the origin (0, 0, 0) and ‘b’ the point (2,1,0). Check
the fundamental theorem for gradients?

Solution:

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 PH1000
Fundamental Theorem for Gradients IIITDM
Slope of line (iii)=dy/dx=1/2 dy=1/2dx T = xy2, and take point ‘a’ to be the origin (0,0,0) and
‘b’ the point (2,1,0)
Integrate on both sides: y=1/2x
Other way,
Since, slope, y=mx+c
Then Eqn of line (iii) is y=1/2x

T = xy2

39
 PH1000
IIITDM
Curl:
 The curl of a vector field captures the idea of how a fluid may rotate i.e., it
measures the tendency of particles at P to rotate about the axis.

• From the definition of ∇, we construct the curl:

 The curl of a vector field is a vector.

 In vector calculus, the curl is a vector operator that describes the infinitesimal
circulation of a vector field in 3-D Euclidean space.
 The curl at a point in the field is represented by a vector whose length and
direction denote the magnitude and axis of the maximum circulation.
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Differential Calculus Curl PH1000
IIITDM

• The curl of a field is formally defined as the circulation density at each point of the
field.
• A vector field, v is called irrotational if curl of that vector (v) is zero i.e. v  0 .
This means, in the case of a fluid flow, that the flow is free from rotational motion,
i.e., no whirlpool.
• If  v  0 then v in a rotational (non-conservative) vector field, i.e., whirlpool.
• For a 2-D flow with v represent the fluid velocity, v is perpendicular to the
motion and ῶ represent the direction of axis of rotation.

 v  0 → Irrotational vector field

 v  0 → Rotational vector field

41
Differential Calculus Curl Rotational & Irrotational field PH1000
IIITDM
Problem: Show that curl of a vector A = ρsinφρ̂- ρcosφφ̂ +2zẑ at a given point
P(2,π/2,3) has irrotational field.
Sol: Given A = ρsinφρ̂- ρcosφφ+2zẑ, at P (2, π/2, 3)
ˆ ˆ zˆ
 1   
 A 
   z
A A  Az
1      
   
   
ˆ
  (A z )  (A  ) ˆ   (A z )  (A  )   (A  )  (A  ) zˆ 
 
   z     z 
 
    
Here, A    sin , A    cos , A z  2z
 1            
  ˆ 
 A   (2z)  (.  cos ) ˆ   (2z)  ( sin )   (.  cos )  ( sin ) zˆ 

   z 
   z 
 
    

1 1
 0  0 ˆ  0  0 ˆ  2 cos  cos  zˆ   3 cos  zˆ  3cos zˆ
  
    
At the po int P 2, , 3    2,   , z  3 then,  A  3cos   ẑ  0
 2  2  2 

Hence, the curl of a given vector A has irrotational field at a point P (2, π/2, 3).
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 PH1000
Differential Calculus Curl IIITDM

Geometrical Interpretation:
• The name curl is also well chosen, for v is a measure of
how much the vector v spins around the point in question.
 Imagine you are standing at the edge of a pond.

 Float a small paddlewheel (or a cork with toothpicks pointing out radially);
if it starts to rotate, then you placed it at a point of nonzero curl.
 v  0
A whirlpool would be a region of large curl.

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 PH1000
Differential Calculus Curl IIITDM

Representation of Curl in various coordinates:

Curl in Cartesian Coordinates:

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 PH1000
Differential Calculus Curl IIITDM

Curl in Cylindrical Coordinates:

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Differential Calculus Curl PH1000
IIITDM

Curl in Spherical Coordinates:

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 PH1000
Differential Calculus IIITDM
Some properties of Curl, Divergence, and Gradient: If A and B are differentiable
vector functions; φ and ψ are differentiable scalar functions of position (x, y, z), then

47
Differential Calculus Curl PH1000
IIITDM
Problem: Find the curl of F = yz2î̂ + xy ĵ + yz k̂
Solution: F

1
Problem: If v    r , prove    v where, w is a constant vector?
2
Solution:

48
Integral Calculus PH1000
IIITDM
Fundamental Theorem for Curls:
This theorem also known as Stokes’ theorem, written as

 v .da   v .dI p

s
Stokes’ theorem states that the surface integration of curl of the function is equal to
the line integration of function (here, the outside/boundary of the patch, P).

Basics of Stokes Theorem:

 It explains relationship in b/w line integration & surface integration.
 It is based on the curl of function.
 Curl of function explains rotation of body (clockwise/anti-clockwise)
at different position, means torque at the position:
 If curl of function is >0, body will rotates in anti-clockwise direction.
 If curl of function is <0, body will rotates in clockwise direction.
Torque is a measure of the force that can cause an object to rotate about an axis
49
Integral Calculus Function of Stokes Theorem PH1000
IIITDM
• Mathematically Stokes theorem expressed as line integration of function (P)
is equal to surface integration of the curl of the function:
 v .dI   v .da
p
s

Line integration over the entire surface Surface with respect to function

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D2eHgZ4kMHU 50
Integral Calculus PH1000
IIITDM

Proof of Stokes Theorem:  v .dI   v .da

p
s

51
Integral Calculus PH1000
IIITDM
Physical significance of Stokes Theorem:
If we consider a flow of fluid on the surface,

Anti-Clockwise: Curl of the function is positive Clockwise: Curl of the function is negative
 Here, we can identify the torque on the body.
 Based on the torque, we can identify the line integration of the system.
 Hence, we can determine how much force acting on the system.
 This will helpful in electrodynamics: Maxwell equations
Uses of Stokes Theorem:
 It is used in application of fluid mechanics
 It is used to understand electromagnetics
 It is used to understand flow of fields (Gravitational, Electric & Magnetic fields)
 Used in aerodynamics
52
 PH1000
Fundamental Theorem for Curls: Stoke’s theorem IIITDM

Geometrical Interpretation:
 Now, there are plenty of surfaces (infinitely many) that share any given boundary
line.
 Twist a paper clip into a loop, and dip it in soapy water.
 The soap film forms as a surface, with the wire loop as its boundary.
 If you blow on it, the soap film will expand, making a larger surface, with the same
boundary.

 Ordinarily, a flux integral depends critically on

what surface you integrate over, but
evidently this is not the case with curls.

 For Stokes’ theorem says that  v  da is

equal to the line integral of v around the
boundary, and the latter makes no reference
to the specific surface we choose.
53
 PH1000
Summary: Gradient, Divergence, and Curl IIITDM

54
 PH1000
Fundamental Theorem for Curls: Stoke’s theorem IIITDM

Problem: Suppose v = (2xz + 3y2)ŷ + (4yz2)ẑ. Check Stokes’ theorem for the square surface?

Solution:

55
 PH1000
Fundamental Theorem for Curls IIITDM

Exercise Problem: v = (2xz + 3y2)ŷ + (4yz2)z

Test the Stokes’ theorem for the function v = (xy)x̂ + (2yz)ŷ + (3zx)ẑ
using the triangular shaded area of below figure.
Sol: Refer, page no 36 in “Griffths” textbook (or)
https://www.hellovaia.com/textbooks/physics/introduction-to-electrodynamics-
4th-edition/vector-analysis/q134p-test-stokes-theorem-for-the-function-using-
the-triangu/
56
 PH1000
Fundamental Theorem for Curls: Stoke’s theorem IIITDM

Problem: Verify Stokes' theorem for A = (2x - y) î - yz2 ĵ - y2 z k̂ , where S is the upper half
surface of the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 1 and C is its boundary?
Solution:

57
 PH1000
Laplacian IIITDM

Scalar Laplacian:
 The Laplacian of a scalar field V, written as 2V is the divergence of the gradient
of V.
 Laplacian of V:V = 2V

Divergence of a vector is scalar Gradient of a scalar is vector

 The Laplacian of a scalar field is scalar.

 A scalar field V is said to be harmonic in a given region if its Laplacian vanishes

in that region:
i.e., 2V  0

 Laplacian of a vector A denoted as 2V is defined as

2V  A   A
58
Laplacian PH1000
IIITDM

Laplacian in different coordinates:

59
Laplacian PH1000
IIITDM

Laplacian: Physical meaning

 As a second derivative, the one-dimensional Laplacian

operator is related to minima and maxima:

When the second derivative is positive, the curvature is concave &

when the second derivative is negative, the curvature is convex.

 In most of situations, the two-dimensional (2-D)

Laplacian operator is also related to local
maxima & minima.

• If Δφ = - vE: Maximum in E(φ(E)) > average

value in surroundings.

• If Δφ = + vE: Minimum in E(φ(E)) < average

value in surroundings.

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Laplacian PH1000
IIITDM

Problem: Find the Laplacian of the scalar field f = 3x3y2z3 ?

Solution: ∇2 f = ∂2f /∂x2 + ∂2f /∂y2 + ∂2f/ ∂z2

= ∂2/∂x2 (3 x3 y2 z3 ) + ∂2/∂y2 (3 x3 y2 z3 ) + ∂2/∂z2 (3 x3 y2 z3 )

= ∂/∂x (9 x2 y2 z3 ) + ∂/∂y (6 x3 y z3 ) + ∂/∂z (9 x3 y2 z2 )

= 18 xy2z3 + 6x3z3 + 18x3y2z

Extracting common factors, the scalar ∇2f can also be written as

∇2f = 6xz (3 y2 z2 + x2 z2 + 3x2 y2)

= 6xz (3y2 (z2 + x2 ) + x2 z2)

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Laplacian PH1000
IIITDM

Problem: Find the Laplacian of the scalar field f = xz  y = x1/2 z1/2 +y?

Solution: ∇2f = ∂2/∂x2 (x1/2 z1/2 +y) + ∂2/∂y2 (x1/2 z1/2 +y) + ∂2/∂z2 (x1/2 z1/2 +y)

= ∂/∂x (1/2 x( 1/2 −1) z1/2) + ∂/∂y (1) + ∂/∂z (1/2 x1/2 z( 1/2 −1))

= ∂/∂x (1/2 x− 1/2 z12) + 0 + ∂/∂z (1/2 x1/2 z− 1/2 )

= 1/2 (− 1/2 ) x(− 1/2 −1) z1/2 + 1/2 (− 1/2 ) x1/2 z(− 1/2 −1)

= − (1/4) x− 3/2 z1/2 − (1/4) x1/2 z− 3/2

This result may be rewritten as,

∇2 f = − (1/4) x1/2 z1/2 (x−2 + z−2)

= − (1/4) (xz)1/2(1/x2 + 1/z2)

62
Integral Calculus PH1000
IIITDM

Continuity Equation:
• Continuity equation is simply conservation of mass of the flowing fluid.
• Consider fluid flowing through the pipe. It is impossible that fluid entering from
one end of pipe vanishes while coming out of other end of the pipe.
• This is a same thing which continuity equation tells us that mass of flowing fluid is
conserved.

 Let 'm' be the mass of the fluid, ‘v' be the volume of the fluid, and 'ρ' be the
density of the fluid, then as we know density is equal to mass/volume,
Therefore, ρ = m/v , then mass becomes, m = ρ x v
 Volume can be written as area times thickness i.e., v = A x t
where, 'A' is Cross section area of pipe and 't' is thickness of fluid column in pipe
 Then, mass becomes, m = ρ x A x t
 To find of mass flow rate, differentiation above equation with respect to time be
the mass flow rate: dm
dt
63
Integral Calculus Continuity Equation PH1000
IIITDM
dm
 Hence, = ρ x A x v (Differentiation of t with respect to time gives velocity of the fluid).
dt
 Considering mass flow rate for small section of fluid, need to find mass flow rate for entire
fluid, then we will write mass flow rate in integral form:

 We know that m = ρ x V
 Taking Elemental volume ‘∀’ (for all) instead of 'V’, m = ρ x ∀
 To find mass flow rate integrating above equation with respect to time, we get:

 Equating both the mass flow rate equations we get,

 Using gauss divergence theorem:

64
Integral Calculus Continuity Equation PH1000
IIITDM

 Since the volume ‘∀’ does not change with time, the sequence of
differentiation and integration in the first term of can be interchanged.

Therefore,

This is integral form of continuity equation

 We can also write it as:

This is Continuity equation

65
Vector Analysis Important Formulas/Concepts
PH1000
IIITDM

Vector Expressions in Rectangular Coordinate system: (x,y,z)

66
Vector Analysis Important Formulas/Concepts
PH1000
IIITDM

Cylindrical Coordinate System: (ρ,φ,z)

Rectangular to Cylindrical and vice versa
The transformation of vector:
 a   cos  sin  0  a  ρ̂ = cosφ x̂ + sinφ ŷ,
     x
 a    sin  cos  0  a  φ̂ = −sinφ x̂ + cosφ ŷ,
     y
a   0  a  ẑ = ẑ
 z   0 1   z 

Cylindrical

Rectangular

 a  cos   sin  0  a 
 x   
 a    sin  cos  0  a  ρ2=x2+y2, tanφ = y/x and z=z
 y    
   0  a 
 z  
a 0 1   z 
67
Vector Analysis Important Formulas/Concepts
PH1000
IIITDM

Spherical Coordinate System: (r,θ,φ) r̂ = sinθ cosφ x̂ + sinθ sinφ ŷ + cosθ ẑ

Rectangular to Spherical and vice versa: θ̂̂ = cosθ cosφ x̂ + cosθ sinφ ŷ − sinθ ẑ
Vector Transformation φ̂ = −sinφ x̂ + cosφ ŷ

 ar   sin  cos  sin  sin  cos    a x 

    
 a    cos  cos  cos  sin   sin    a 
     y
 a    sin    a 
    cos 0   z 
Spherical

Rectangular

 a  sin  cos  cos  cos   sin    a 

 x   r
 a    sin  sin  cos  sin  cos    a 
 y   
   cos     a 
 a z  
sin 0    
68
Vector Analysis Important Formulas/Concepts
PH1000
IIITDM
 Line Integrals: A line integral is an expression of the form of

 v .dI
b
from point a to b: 
a
v .dI & in closed path case:
 Surface Integrals: A surface integral is an expression of the form of

 v .da & in closed path case:  v .da

s
 Volume Integrals: A volume integral is an expression of the form of

 Comparison of various coordinates: Here, dƬ = dxdydz

69
Vector Analysis Important Formulas/Concepts
PH1000
IIITDM

 The term del operator can be expressed as:

 Gradient of a scalar fields in different coordinate systems:

“Gradient is vector quantity and it is applied on scalar quantity”

Gradient operator in Cartesian coordinate:

Gradient operator in cylindrical coordinate:

Gradient operator in spherical coordinate:

b
 Fundamental theorem for gradient:  T .dI  T (b)  T(a)
a
70
Vector Analysis Important Formulas/Concepts
PH1000
IIITDM
Divergence:
“Divergence is scalar quantity and it is applied on vector quantity”

 A point of negative (-) divergence is a

sink, or “drain”.
 A point of positive (+) divergence is a
source, or “faucet”.

 Fundamental Theorem for Divergences:  .v  d    v . da

s
v
 Mathematically Gauss theorem expressed as volume integration of the
divergence of the function is equal to the surface integration of function (v).
71
Vector Analysis Important Formulas/Concepts
PH1000
IIITDM

 Divergence in Cartesian Coordinates: (x, y, z)

 Divergence in Cylindrical Coordinates: (ρ, φ, z)

 Divergence in Spherical Coordinates: (r, θ, φ)

72
Vector Analysis Important Formulas/Concepts
PH1000
IIITDM
Curl: The curl of a vector field is a vector.

 Rotational & irrotational vector field:

 v  0 Irrotational vector field
 v  0 Rotational vector field
 If curl of function is >0, body will rotates in anti-clockwise direction.
 If curl of function is <0, body will rotates in clockwise direction.

 Fundamental Theorem for Curl (Stokes’ theorem):  v .da   v .dI

p
s
Stokes’ theorem states that the surface integration of curl of the function is equal
to the line integration of function (here, the outside/boundary of the patch, P).
73