Module -1

DC Machines
1. ARMATURE REACTION

The effect of armature m.m.f. on the main-field flux distribution in the air gap is called armature
reaction.

The armature m.m.f. produces two undesirable effects on the main field flux and these are :
(i) net reduction in the main field flux per pole and
(ii) distortion of the main field flux wave along the air-gap periphery.
Reduction in the main flux per pole reduces the generated voltage and torque, whereas
the distortion of the main-field flux influences the limits of successful commutation in D.C.machines.

The purpose of this article is to investigate these effects and to discuss the methods of minimising the
problems arising from armature reaction effects.Fig. 1 (a) shows the flux path for the main poles of a
2-pole D.C. machine at no load i.e. with no armature currents. This main field flux, produced by field
m.m.f. If .Nf is shown by horizontal phasor OA = 0, on the right hand side of Fig. 1 (a).
Fig1 . Flux distribution of a) main field flux b) Armature flux iii) Resultant of both main field and
armature flux

When the D.C. machines is loaded, currents flow in the armature winding. These currents are shown
in Fig. 1 dots under main S pole and by crosses under main N-pole. These armature currents armature
flux shown by vertical flux lines in Fig. 1 (b), with field winding un-excited. In this figure is also
shown armature flux ϕa by a vertical phasor OB. Flux ϕa, is production by armature m.m.f. If Nf.

If the D.C. machine of Fig. 4.16 is working as a motor, then its armature must rotate anti-clockwise,
because of the fact that N, S poles of the main field must attract armature produced S, N poles. In case
D.C. machine is working as a generator, then its armature must be driven clockwise by the prime-mover.

An examination of Fig. 1 (a) and (b) reveals that the path of armature flux o, is
perpendicular to the main flux path ϕa. In other words, the path of the armature flux crosses
the path of the main-field flux. Thus the effect of armature flux on the main field is entirely
cross-magnetizing and it is for this reason that the flux created by the armature m.m.f. is called Cross
flux and effect is called Cross magnetising effect of Armature reaction .

When current flows in both the armature and field windings, the resultant flux
distribution is obtained by superimposing the two fluxes of Fig. 1 (a) and (b). This is
illustrated on left-hand side of Fig. 1(c). It is seen that armature flux aids the main field
flux at upper end of N-pole and at the lower end of S-pole, therefore, at these two pole ends (or tips),
the armature flux strengthens the main field flux. Likewise, the armature flux weakens the main field
flux at lower end of N-pole and at upper end of S-pole.

If there is no magnetic saturation, then the amount of strengthening and weakening of the main field
flux are equal and the resultant flux per pole remains unaltered from its no-load value. Actually,
magnetic saturation does occur and as a consequence, the strengthening effect is less as compared to the
weakening effect and the resultant flux is decreased from its no-load value. This is called
demagnetizing effect of armature flux.

In the phasor diagram of Fig. 1 (c), phasor sum of field flux, and armature flux ϕa,,
gives net flux ϕr. This resultant flux ϕr. is seen to be more than the main-field flux ϕa, at no-
load. This is, however, not true because of magnetic saturation in one of the pole tips of each pole. A
geometric neutral axis (GNA) is along the quadrature axis of the D.C. machine.
Magnetic neutral axis (MNA) is always perpendicular to the axis of resultant field flux. It is
seen from Fig. 4.16 (a) that MNA at no-load coincides with the GNA or q-axis. When the D.C. machine
is loaded, Fig. 4.16 (c) reveals that MNA is shifted from GNA. This shift is dependent upon the
magnitude of armature current. Thus, greater the magnitude of armature (or load) current, greater is the
shift of MNA from GNA.

It may therefore be stated from above that net effect of armature flux on the main-field flux is
(i) to distort the main-field flux thereby causing non-uniform distribution of flux underthe main poles,
(ii) to shift the MNA in the direction of rotation for a generator and against the direction
of rotation for a motor, and
(iii) to reduce the main-field flux from its no-load value due to magnetic saturation.
Graphical picture of Armature reaction

For better understanding of the interaction between main-field flux and armature flux, it is
preferable and convenient to draw the developed diagram of armature conductors and poles.
The developed view of Fig. 2 (a), with no armature currents under each pole, is shown in Fig.
2 (a). The brushes are along the interpolar axes midway between the main-pole axes.

Dotted lines in Fig. 2 (a) show the distribution of main-field flux in the air gap with no armature
currents. In Fig. 2 (b), the variation of main field-flux density along the air-gap periphery is
shown by a solid line. In Fig. 2 (c), currents are indicated by dots under S pole and crosses
under N pole. These armature currents, with field winding unexcited, produce magnetic flux as
shown in Fig. 2 (c). As the armature flux produced by armature currents alone is normal to the
main-field flux, as before, it is called cross-flux. The m.m.f. created by armature currents in a
D.C. machine is triangular in nature and is depicted accordingly by a solid line

Fig 2. Flux distribution and flux density waveforms respectively due to (a),(b) field current alone
(c) ,(d) Armature current alone and (e) ,(f) both main field and armature currents
The air-gap flux due to armature m.m.f. is given by ratio of armature mmf to air gap reluctance . Under
the air gap is uniform therefore the air-gap flux variation under the poles is proportional to armature
m.m.f. and, is shown m Fig. 2 (d). In between the poles ie in the t o region, the long air gap offers large
reluctance, consequently the armature flux is much smaller in this region, in spite of a large value of
mmf. The armature flux density waveform created bv arm ature currents is, therefore, saddle-shaped’
as depicted by dotted curve in fig .2(d)

It is observed from this figure that armature flux-density waveform has

(i) zero value at the centre of the pole

(ii) increases from zero to maximum value at the pole tips and then
(iii) decreases rapidly to a minimum value at the middle of main poles.

When both armature and field windings carry currents, the resultant flux distribution
is obtained by superimposing the two fluxes, field flux of Fig. 2 (a) and armature cross-flux
of Fig. 2(e). The resultant flux distribution, no obtained, is shown in Fig. 2(e). This
figure reveals the strengthening of the resultant flux at one pole tip and weakening at the
other pole tip of each pole. As expected, this agrees with Fig. 1 (c).
For obtaining the resultant air-gap flux density waveform, when both field and
armature windings carry currents, add the corresponding flux-density ordinates of Figs. 2
(b) and 2 (d) at every point along the air gap periphery. The resultant flux-density
distribution in the air gaps is shown by the solid curve in Fig. 2 (f).

It may be seen from the resultant flux-density distribution curve that the effect of cross-magnetizing
armature m.mf. is to decrease the flux density under the leading pole tips** and to increase it under the
trailing pole tips for generator operation. Actually, the magnetic saturation in the iron does occur and
its effect is to increase the flux density under the trailing pole tips by a smaller amount than the decrease
under the leading pole tips. Saturation effect is indicated by cross- hatched areas in Fig. 2 (f).

Thus, under unsaturated conditions, the amount of flux increase under trailing pole tips is almost equal
to the decrease under leading pole tips and the total flux per pole on load remains almost unchanged
from its no-load value:

Under saturated conditions, the amount of increase in flux is less than the decrease and therefore total
flux per pole on load is less than its no-lond value. Hence, under saturated conditions, the effect of
cross-magnetizing armature m.m.f., i.e. cross-flux, is to demagnetize the main field. But note that the
demagnetizing effect of cros-flux is due to saturation only.

Fig.2(f) reveals that point of zero flux density has shifted through an angle Ɵ from
C.C' to D, D' respectively. In other words, MNA has shifted from GNA by an angle Ɵ.

For a motor, a dot under south pole and a cross under north pole results in a anti-
clockwise rotation in Fig. 1. Therefore, above results are also applicable to D.C. motor
Since the direction of rotation is reversed, the leading pole tips for a motor are the trailing pole
tips for a generator. Hence for a motor, the effect of cross-magnetizing armature m.m.f. is to
decrease the flux under the trailing pole tips and to increase it under the leading pole tips.
Note from above that for a generator, the effect of armature reaction is to distort the
flux and shift the zero crossing of the flux density wave in the direction of rotation. In the case
of motor, the distortion of the flux and zero crossing of the flux-density wave is shifted against
the direction of rotation.

In constant flux D.C. machines, such as shunt machines, the flux distortion is much more prominent
under heavy loads. In series and compound machines, the flux distortion is minimum, because with
the increase of armature m.m.f., there is a corresponding increase in the field m.m.f.

The effects of armature m.m.f. described above, may be summarised as follows:

(1) Armature flux path is normal to flux path of main poles. That is why armature flux is called cross-
flux or cross-magnetizing flux
(ii) The armature section distorts the main-field flux distribution along the air-gap periphery. This
distortion is in the direction of rotation for a D.C. generator and opposite to the direction of rotation
or a D.C. motor. This also means that MNA is shifted in the direction of rotation for a generator and
against the direction of rotation for a motor. This shift of MNA from GNA depends upon the
magnitude of load (or armature) current.
(iii) The demagnetizing effect of armature m.m.f. reduces the total flux per pole. This reduction has
been found to be 1 to 5% from no-load to full-load.

Explain how the demagnetizing effect of armature mmf on the main-field flux can be
investigated through the use of magnetization curve o f a dc machine:

Fig 3 .Demagnetising effect of armature mmf on the main field flux

The effect of magnetic saturation on the reduction of main-field flux caused by armature
reaction can be visualized with the help of Fig. 3. In this figure, magnetization curve, triangular
armature mmf variation and S pole of a dc machine are shown. The brushes are in the GNA.
For field current If , the field mmf is AT f . At no load, the flux density B0, under the entire pole
shoe is ab for a field mmf ATf .

For armature current Ia , armature mmf is + ATa under pole tip Q and - ATa under pole tip P.
The net mmf under pole tip Q is () and that under pole tip P is ( ATf - ATa ) as shown. The mmf
( ATf + ATa) under pole tip Q corresponds to a flux density B x . Under pole tip P, net mmf (
ATf - ATa) corresponds to a flux density B2. It is observed from Fig. 4.18 that increase in flux
at pole tip Q, proportional to (B1 – B0) is less than the decrease in flux under pole P, proportional
to (B0 - B2).

This shows that under saturated conditions, the resultant flux per per pole is reduced from its
no load value. Therefore, the field excitation has to be increased under loaded conditions if the
field flux is to be kept constant at its no-load value. Note that the flux density at the middle of
pole face is not effected by armature mmf

1.1 Detrimental Effects Of Armature Reaction

there are two types of effect of armature mmf on the main field flux:

1) Distortion in Main Field Flux

2) Net reduction of Main Field Flux

Due to the above two effects of armature mmf, there are many detrimental effects on the Electrical
machine. Distortion of Main Field Flux gives rise to three detrimental effects: Rise in Iron Loss, Poor
Commutation and Sparking in Carbon Brushes.

Net reduction in Main Field Flux leads to increased cost of field winding as we need more field winding
to have a fixed value of field flux. Now we will discuss each of the bad effects of armature reaction
briefly but in systematic way as follow:

Rise in Iron Loss: Iron loss basically depends on the maximum value of flux density in the teeth and
in pole shoes. Because of armature reaction the value of flux density increases considerably over its
value at no load. As a result, Iron Loss specially at teeth and pole shoes are much more greater at load
when compared to no load values. Also, because of increase of magnetic flux density in the teeth and
pole shoes cause it to saturate which in turn results into the stray flux at end plates and covers. This
leads to more eddy current and hysteresis loss. Iron loss at full is nearly about 1.5 times that of its value
at no load.

Poor Commutation: At no load, zero crossing of flux density wave is along GNA but under loading
condition of DC Machine the zero crossing of flux density wave shifts by an angle of Ɵ from GNA.
This shift Ɵ depends on the magnitude of load current i.e. armature current. The greater the armature
current more will be shift and hence more will be the value of Ɵ.

As we know that, better commutation takes place if the voltage across the terminals of coil short
circuited by brushes is zero. Because of this, normally brushes are placed along GNA as along GNA the
flux density is zero and hence no emf will be generated across the ends of the coil. But because of
armature reaction thing no longer work.
 This is because, due to armature reaction the zero crossing of flux density wave shifts by some angle
Ɵ and therefore the coil undergoing the commutation do not have zero emf induced across the terminals
rather it has some finite value. This induced emf in the coil undergoing commutation results into delay
in reversal of armature current in the coil short circuited by the carbon brushes which in turn may lead
into sparking at carbon brushes and poor commutation.

Sparking: Let us suppose that, the machine is heavily loaded. In this case the load current i.e. armature
current will be much more. Under such condition, the distortion in main field flux waveform will be
considerable and a greater amount of emf proportional to BvL will be induced across the coil ends
undergoing the commutation.

If the voltage between the adjacent commutator segment exceeds 30 or 40 V, a spark may occur between
these adjacent segments. This spark may spread around the commutator in the form of fire ring.

Cost of Field Winding: Due to the demagnetizing nature of armature reaction, total flux per pole
reduces from its no load value because of magnetic saturation. Thus there is a net reduction in the main
field flux which will reduce the generated voltage across the terminal of generator with increase in load.
Likewise, the torque developed in motor, reduces as the load increases due to reduction in main field
flux because of armature reaction. In order to compensate for this reduction in total flux, field mmf may
be increased either by increasing the number of turns in filed winding or by using thick wire of field
winding. Either of these scheme results into increased cost.

1.2 Methods Of Limiting The Effects Of Armature Reaction

The cross-magnetizing effect of armature m.m.f. can be minimised at the design and construction
stage of a D.C. machine. Various methods of mitigating the effects of armature reaction are discussed
below :
(a) High-reluctance pole tips – If the reluctance of the pole tips is increased, then the magnitude of
armature cross-flux is reduced and the distortion of the resultant flux density wave is minimised. The
reluctance of the pole tips can be augmented by using chamfered or eccentric pole shoes. A machine
fitted with chamfered or eccentric pole face has short air-gap length at the pole centre and longer air
gap lengths under the pole tips, i.e. the proflle of the pole shoe is not concentric with the armature core
as shown in Fig. 4 (a).

Fig 4 . Eccentric or chamfered pole b) Lamination 1 and 2 are stacked alternatively

Another method reluctance to cross-flux is to assemble alternatively the pole laminations depicted
in Fig. 4 (b). That is, if the first lamination has the pole tip to the left, the second lamination has its pole
tip to the right, the third lamination pole tip to the left and so on, until the required pole depth is
developed. Since the iron area under the pole tips is almost halved, the reluctance under the pole tips is
considerably increased.

The two constructional techniques mentioned above reduce the main field flux to some extent. In order
to maintain it constant, the main field m.m.f. must be raised accordingly. But the influence of increased
pole-tip reluctance is more pronounced on the cross-flux than on the main field flux.
In D.C. machines, the short air gap at the pole centre and longer air gaps at the pole tips are kept only
to limit the effect of cross-magnetizing armature m.m.t. on the main poleflux. The distribution of the
flux density wave along the air-gap periphery need not be a sine wave in D.C. machines.

(b) Reduction in armature flux – Another constructional technique of reducing the armature cross-
flux is to create more reluctance in the path of armature flux without reducing
the main field flux noticeably. This is achieved by using field-pole laminations having several
rectangular holes punched in them. One such lamination having four holes or slots is shown in Fig.
4.20 (a). It is seen from Fig. 4.20 (b) that reluctance offered to armature flux is increased due to four
air-gap openings introduced in the path of cross-flux. As a result, armature cross-flux is reduced
considerably, whereas the main-field flux remains almost uneffected.

Fig .5. a) One field pole laminations with four punched holes b) Two pole DC machine having punched
field pole laminations

Combination of the constructional features described in Figs. 4 and 5 may be used most effectively in
reducing the armature cross flux.

(c) Strong main-field flux – During the design of a D.C. machine, it should be ensured that the main
field m.m.f. is sufficiently strong in comparison with full-load armature m.m.f. Greater the ratio of main
field m.m.f. to full-load armature m.m.f, less is the distortion produced by armature cross flux and
predominant would be the control of field m.m.f. over the air-gap flux. Actually, this ratio depends on
the type of duty cycle the D.C. machine has to perform.

(d) Interpoles – The effect of armature reaction in the interpolar zone can be overcome by interpoles,
placed in between the main poles. The magnetic axis of interpole winding is in line with the quadrature
axis. Interpole winding is connected in series with armature so that
interpole m.m.f is able to neutralize the effect of armature m.m.f. in the interpolar zone at all levels of
load current not exceeding the safe limit.

(e) compensating winding – The effect of armature reaction under the pole shoes can be limited by
using compensating winding. This winding is embedded in slots cut in the pole is a D.C. machines this
is the best but the most expensive method.
1.3 Effect Of Brush Shift, Magnetising And Demagnetising Ampere Turns And
Conductors

It is seen from Fig.1 or Fig. 2 that armature reaction shifts the MNA in the direction of
rotation in a generator and against the direction of rotation in a motor. The brushes are along
the GNA. The coils undergoing commutation have, therefore, rotational e m.f. generated
in them. As a consequence, sparking and poor commutation occurs. If the brushes are given a
shift through an angle Ɵ, no rotational em.f. would be generated in the coils undergoing
commutation; this would result in smooth commutation. This shows that for obtaining good
commutation, the brushes should be given a forward or backward shift so as to ensure good
commutation. In this section, the effect of brush shift in the direction of rotation (called
forward shift) or opposite to the direction of rotation (called backward shift) is investigated.

In Fig. 1 (c), the brushes are at GNA. Let the brushes be given a forward shift in a
generator or backward shift in a motor, so that brush axis is now along the MNA, Fig. 6 (a).
In other words, the brushes are given a shift through an angle Ɵ and occupy a position PQ as
shown. The armature flux Φa = OB must be along the brush axis as before. Flux Φa , can now
be decomposed into two components: 0C and OD as shown in Fig. 6 (b).

The component OC =Φa sin is opposing the main field flux Φf. Therefore, OC has a
demagnetizing effect on the main-field flux. The other component OD, being perpendicular to
the main flux Φf, is the cross-magnetizing armature flux. Note that the resultant flux op is
obtained from the phasor sum of ΦR =Φf+Φa

It is observed from Fig. 6 (b) that with brush shift, the resultant flux gets reduced from its no-
load value even if there is no magnetic saturation.

Fig.6. Effect of brush shift on the resultant flux in a D.C. machine.

Draw RS making an angle Ɵ with respect to GNA and on the other side of brush shift,
Fig. 6(a). The total armature ampere turns can now be divided into two groups as
illustrated in Fig. 7. The conductors shown in angle ROP and QOS or the conductors lying
in angle 40 for every 360° electrical (or 2Ɵ for every 180º electrical) are producing a flux
opposite to the main field flux. This can be verified by the right-hand grip rule. Hence the
ampere turns due to the conductors contained in 4Ɵ degrees for every 360° electrical are
demagnetizing in nature.

Fig.7 Effect of brush shift on (a) De-magnetising ampere turns (b) Magnetising ampere turns

In the above expression for ATd, angle Ɵ is in electrica1 degrees. In Fig. 7 (b), the conduc -
tors lying in angle ROQ and POS produce flux perpendicular to the main field flux as shown.
Therefore, ampere turns produced by the conductors lying within angle (360 - 4Ɵ) for every
360° electrical (or for every pole pair) produce cross-magnetizing ampere urns.

Obviously, if brush shift 0 = 0, the brushes are on GNA, demagnetizing ATs are zero
and the entire armature ampere turns are cross-magnetizing in nature.
The effect of brush shift can also be examined from the developed view of the armature
conductors and field poles. For this purpose, let the brushes be shifted in the forward direction
for a generator or backward direction for a motor, Fig. 8 (a). The peak of the triangular
armature m.m.f. wave is also shifted by the same angle, because armature m.m.f. axis must
coincide with the brush axis. The armature flux density waveform is no longer symmetrical
about the interpolar or quadrature axis, Fig.8 (c). When the ordinates of armature flux-
density waveform are added to the ordinates of no-load field form, the resultant flux density
waveform with brush shift is obtained as shown with solid line in Fig. 8 (b). Armature flux
density waveform in Fig. 8 (c) reveals that reduction in flux density at pole tips 1, 1' is more
than the addition in flux density at pole tips 2, 2'.

For comparison purposes, the resultant flux density waveform without any brush shift is also
drawn with dotted line. An examination of Fig. 8 (b) shows that the ordinates of resultant flux
density waveform with brush shift are smaller as compared with the ordinates of resultant
flux density waveform with zero brush shift.

Consequently, the flux per pole is reduced if the brushes are given a forward shift in case of a
generator or backward shift in case of a motor. This reduction in flux causes a decrease in
the generator terminal voltage or an increase in the motor speed.

Fig. 8. Effect of brush shift on the resultant flux density waveform.

If the brushes are given a backward shift in a generator or forward shift in a motor, the flux
per pole becomes more and as a result of it, the generator terminal voltage rises and the motor
speed falls.
Note:

Prior to the invention of interpoles, brush shift was carried out to improve the
commutation-forward in a generator and backward in a motor. Now-a-days brush shift is
never carried out. However, during the assembly of a D.C. machine, the brushes may be
displaced from the quadrature axis unknowingly. Loose brushes in the holders or non-uniform
brush pressure may also shift the brush axis from q-axis. Then the question arises as to how to
detect whether the brushes are placed correctly along the quadrature axis or not. For this
purpose, the following procedure may be adopted.

Run the machine at rated speed as a D.C. generator, first in one direction and then in the
opposite direction. For the same field and armature currents, if the terminal voltages for
both the directions of rotation are the same, then the brushes are placed correctly along the
quadrature axis. Alternatively, run the machine as a D.C. motor, first in one direction and then
in opposite direction. For the same field and armature currents, if the rotor speed turns

out to be the same for both directions of rotation, then the brushes are placed correctly along
the quadrature axis. If the brushes get shifted inadvertently from the quadrature axis, then the
terminal voltages in case of generator or speeds in case of motor, for both the directions of
rotation, would not be equal.