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The measurement and evaluation of library services 2nd
Edition Sharon L. Baker Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Sharon L. Baker, F. Wilfrid Lancaster.
ISBN(s): 9780878150618, 0878150617
Edition: 2
File Details: PDF, 15.70 MB
Language: english
The
Measurement
and
Evaluation of
Library Services
Second Edition
SHARON L. BAKER
F. WILFRID LANCASTER
I N F O R M A T I O N RESOURCES PRESS 1
Copyright © 1977, 1991 by Information Resources Press, a division of Hemer &
Company.
All rights reserved.
Published May 1977. Second Edition September 1991.
Printed in the United States of America.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Available from
Information Resources Press
1110 North Glebe Road
Suite 5 5 0
Arlington, Virginia 22201
Library o f Congress Catalog Card Number 91-072908
ISBN 0-87815-061-7
CONTENTS
Exhibits ix
Preface xv
Preface to the First Edition xvii
1 The Evaluation of Library Services: An Introduction 1
2 The Effects of Accessibility and Convenience on Library Use 27
3 Collection Evaluation: Materials -Centered Approaches 39
4 Collection Evaluation: Use-Centered Approaches 79
5 Evaluation of In-House Use 123
6 Evaluation of Materials Availability 143
7 Evaluation of Catalog Use 181
8 Evaluation of Reference Services: Question Answering 229
9 Evaluation of Reference Services: Database Searching 273
10 The Relevance of Standards to the Evaluation of Library Services 321
11 The Range and Scope of Library Services 335
12 User Studies in Libraries 369
13 Conclusion 391
Index 395
vii
EXHIBITS
1-1 Organization of a library to serve the interface function. 10

1-2 Major library functions and manifestations of these functions. 11
1-3 Major library functions and the most important
services — public and technical —associated with them. 12
1-4 The transfer of information by published documents. 13
1-5 The interface function of libraries. 14
1-6 Relationship between macroevaluation and microevaluation. 20
1-7 Examples of possible performance criteria applied to various
services of a library. 21
3-1 Criteria developed for use by academic, public, and special
librarians in the Pacific Northwest for assessing a collection by
the impressionistic method. 43
3-2 Citation analysis: dispersion of magazine articles cited by
high school students. 50
3-3 Comparisons of coverage of five collections based on two
samples drawn from the American Political Science Review. 51
3-4 Comparisons of coverage of five collections based on citations
selected at random from five political science journals. 52
3-5 Results from two samples selected by the Lopez method to
evaluate the University of Manitoba library collections. 53
3-6 Incremental range of per student circulation for a
corresponding increase in per student acquisition. 56
3-7 Formula for estimating the size for liminal adequacy of the
collections of senior college and university libraries. 59
3-8 Formula A for determining the adequacy of college library
collections. 61
3-9 Steps in estimating collection size in a specific subject area. 64
ix
x Exhibits
3*10 Example of quantitative data collected for courses in religion

a t the University of Nebraska. 67
3*11 Example of a collection map for a school
library. 70
4-1 Five-year circulation of a select sample of DePauw University
books. 81
4-2 Sample of circulation data from the Goddard Space Flight
Center library. 95
4-3 Macrolevel analysis of circulalion/holdings data from
the Goddard Space Flight Center library. 96
4-4 Circulation versus holdings from class Q (Science). 97
4-5 Subject distribution of new acquisitions and books borrowed
on interlibrary loan for fiscal year 1980 at the University of
Missouri-Kansas City Health Sciences Library. 101
4-6 Distribution of book use on the basis of last circulation dale. 105
4-7 Estimated cost of circulation for three housing alternatives. 112
4-8 Crossover points for storage and disposal. 113
5- 1 Placement of the questionnaire when using the slip method. 128
5-2 Self-administered patron survey of in-house use. 130
5-3 Assignment of identifying numbers to all seats in the library. 131
5-4 Instructions and interview schedule used when selecting and
interviewing patrons, based on a random sampling of the
library’s sealing pallem. 132
5-5 Form used in unobtrusive observation of in-house use. 135
5-6 Comparison of lhe rales of in-house use obtained with
three methods of data collection. 136
5-7 Age and frequency of in-house use for government
publications. 139
5-8 Occupation of respondents using materials in the library. 140
6-1 Branching diagram showing the probability of a user finding
a particular item sought. 144
6-2 Naive results of a shelf list study of item availability with
data sorted by last circulation date. 149
6-3 Weighted results of a shelf list study of item availability
with data sorted by last circulation date. 150
6-4 Materials availability survey form. 153
6-5 Form used in survey of availability of library materials
at Bath University, England. 158
6-6 Comparison of percent fill rates by ‘’barrier” category. 160
6-7 Failure rates in three libraries for individual books by subject. 161
6-8 Satisfaction level as influenced by duplication rate
and popularity. 162
Exhibits xi
6-9 Loan period related to satisfaction level and duplication rate. 162
6-10 Loan period related to popularity and duplication rate. 162
6-11 Estimated satisfaction level (in percent) for varying levels
of popularity, loan period, and duplication rate. 164
6-12 Relationship between shelf bias and loan period. 165
6-13 Failure rates by type of user. 171
6-14 Follow-up action after failure to locate an item. 173
6- 15 Document delivery log. 175
7- 1 Student use of an online versus a traditional catalog. 184

7-2 Faculty use of an online versus a traditional catalog. 185
7-3 Patrons* reasons for seeking information in academic and
public libraries. 186
7-4 User questionnaire from the Council on Library Resources
Computer Catalog Study. 188
7-5 Two questions about subject searches conducted in the catalog. 194
7-6 Interview schedule designed to record patron actions during
a catalog search. 196
7-7 Transaction log record from Syracuse University. 198
7-8 Incidence of failure in subject searches. 207
7-9 Actions planned by library users after encountering failure
at the catalog. 215
7-10 Online screen display presenting catalog elements in
a traditional Library of Congress format. 216
7 - 11 Online screen display presenting catalog elements
organized under side headings. 217
8 -1 Steps in the reference interview process. 231

8-2 Reference question form used at the Walter Clinton Jackson
Library, University of North Carolina at Greensboro. 238
8-3 Index of quality scoring of reference service. 242
8-4 Percentage of complete and correct answers given in
obtrusive and unobtrusive evaluations in five Illinois public
libraries. 243
8-5 Results of selected studies of reference accuracy. 246
8-6 Overall success of professionals and nonprofessionals
in correcting faulty information in the reference interview. 249
8-7 Success of professionals and nonprofessionals in
answering questions, by type of question. 250
8-8 Reference librarian’s mental search strategy. 253
8-9 Reference transaction assessment instrument. 261
8-10 Reasons that patrons are not satisfied with reference
librarians* responses to their questions. 263
XU Exhibits
9-1 Anticipated use of search results by academic and

industrial scientists. 278
9-2 Online search request form used at the Wichita State University
library. 282
9-3 Four specific outcomes of a literature search: two positive
(relevant retrieved (a), and not relevant correctly rejected (d)),
and two negative (relevant misses (c), and not relevant
(noise) (b)). 283
9-4 Type of approach to a literature search by academic and
industrial scientists. 284
9-5 Mean references read, related to mean relevant references
retrieved by user group. 286
9-6 Example of Boolean and quorum function searches for
the same set of terms. 302
9-7 Accumulated figures for 14 searches comparing Boolean and
quorum function search methods. 303
9-8 Draft of a search evaluation questionnaire. 304
9-9 Search evaluation questionnaire to assess patron satisfaction,
recommended by the American Library Association's
Machine-Assisted Reference Section Committee on
Measurement and Evaluation of Service. 306
9-10 Cross-tabulation of relevance of references by patron’s
statement of search value. 308
9-11 Did search results justify the expense? 309
9-12 User perceptions of the amount of time saved by number
of citations retrieved. 310
10- 1 Formula A for determining the adequacy of college library
collections. 324
1 1- 1 Portion from the IAMC interview guide used in studying
the range and scope of services for obtaining documents when
the user is in the library. 345
11-2 Portion from the iamc interview guide used in studying
the range and scope of services for delivery of documents to
the user in the library. 346
11-3 Portion from the IAMC interview guide used in studying
the range and scope of services for delivery of documents
within the library. 346
the range and scope of services for requesting documents
when away from the library. 347
11-5 Portion from the iamc interview guide used in studying
the range and scope of services for delivery of documents
outside the library. 348
Exhibits xiii
1 1-6 Portion from the IAMC interview guide used in studying

the range and scope of services for reservations and
notification. 349
the range and scope of services for in-process documents. 350
the range and scope of services for circulation of serials. 351
11-9 Results of trials of weighting method with various groups. 352
11-10 Demonstration scoring of inventory data for six academic
medical libraries relative to “optimal” library. 353
11-11 Categorization of library user services. 354
11-12 Sample page from questionnaire used in survey of Indiana
libraries. 355
11-13 Distribution of 1,000 points among major service policy
categories for academic, public, school, and special libraries. 356
11-14 Match of scores of Indiana libraries with optimal service
policies of an ideal library: total scores for all service
policies. 357
11-15 Sample of data from a survey of services offered by media
centers in Indiana high schools: mean responses and rankings
by all media staffs and teachers. 358
11-16 Questionnaire rating user needs for comfort, information,
convenience, and cooperation. 359
11-17 Worksheet used to help select the roles that public libraries
should play. 363
11-18 Service alternatives and associated benefit considerations. 365
11-19 Ranking of service alternatives by budget level. 366
11-20 Percentage of respondents choosing alternative services at
three budget levels. 367
12- 1 Partial interview schedule using the critical incident
technique to determine the information sources used by
engineers working in an industrial organization. 385
12-2 Interview schedule using the critical incident technique to
determine the sequence in which information sources are used. 386
PREFACE
Many of those who read this book may have had, at one time or another,
the sense that our libraries are not serving their clientele as well as had been
planned. Perhaps a patron has been overheard commenting that he or she cannot
find anything good to read. Or maybe we have noticed someone becoming
increasingly frustrated while using the catalog. Or perhaps we’ve watched a
client turn away from the long line at the reference desk.
Unfortunately, few librarians have been adequately trained to evaluate the
effectiveness of library service. This book was designed to help fill that gap
and to encourage the growth of library evaluation by familiarizing librarians
with various evaluation techniques. There are other works on library evaluation,
most notably the first edition of this book (by F. W. Lancaster, Information
Resources Press, Arlington, Va., 1977), published 14 years ago as a review of the
literature on evaluation, and the recently published work If You Want to Evaluate
Your Library . . . (by F. W. Lancaster, University of Illinois, Champaign, Ill.
1988), designed as a beginning text to practical evaluation within libraries.
This volume seeks to combine the best of these two works. It includes a large
number of evaluative studies that have been conducted since the first edition
of this work was published, synthesizing major, consistent findings of past
evaluation efforts for practicing librarians who have little time to track down and
review these evaluative studies. Many of the studies reviewed used enhanced or
revised techniques. These techniques are described and evaluated for their rigor
and practical application within a library setting. This edition also reviews the
substantial body of literature on evaluation for each service area to determine if
any consistent patterns of findings appear. Patterns are discussed to help increase
librarians’ knowledge about a particular phenomenon and to improve the design
of individual studies by alerting librarians to potential problem areas.
xv
xvi Preface
Further, the book serves as a practical guide to performing evaluations

of public service activities in libraries. The emphasis on public services is
a departure from the first edition of this work, which included chapters on
several technical service areas (for example, the evaluation of automation in
libraries). Because of the large volume of research on the subject, however, it
is impossible to discuss the evaluation of all public services here. Therefore,
services that are not widely available in all types of libraries (for instance,
bibliographic instruction and outreach programming) are excluded. Instead, this
book concentrates on the evaluation of collections and materials availability,
certain types of reference services (including database searching), and catalog
use, as well as the effects of accessibility and ease of use on public services,
the range and scope of library services, the relevance of standards to evaluation
activities, and evaluation by means of user studies.
One further point should be made. A very high percentage of studies discussed
in the first edition of this work were conducted in academic libraries. Since that
edition's publication, evaluation activities have increased in all types of libraries.
This book reflects that change, including findings of studies in public, school,
and special libraries as well.
A number of people have made important contributions to this book: Jim
Rice and Esther Bierbaum read and commented on various chapters; graduate
assistants Brian Schuck, Andrea Halverson, Julie Wullner, and Lorraine Hari-
combe located research articles, selected exhibits, checked citations, and proof
read chapters; Jay Semel, Loma Olson, and faculty working at the University
House at the University of Iowa provided a quiet place to write, support services,
and stimulating discussions; Carl Orgren, Joyce Hartford, and Ethel Bloesch of
fered tangible and emotional support; and Pal Kondora typed (and retyped) the
manuscript.
Sharon L. Baker
F. Wilfrid Lancaster
PREFACE TO T H E FIRST E D I T I O N
In the past 10 years, librarians, in common with other professionals, have

become increasingly interested in techniques that might be used to evaluate
the services they provide. One reason for this concern is, of course, financial:
growing competition for funds, inflationary pressures, and the need to justify
the importance of library services to those responsible for funding them. It
seems important, then, that graduate programs in librarianship should include
courses relating to the measurement and evaluation of library services, the major
objectives being to survey work already done in this area, and, perhaps more
importantly, to encourage students to adopt an “evaluative attitude" toward
library activities. Such a course has been offered since 1970 at the Graduate
School of Library Science, University of Illinois.
The present volume was developed primarily as a textbook for this course
and, perhaps, for similar courses in other schools. It should be regarded largely
as a survey and synthesis of, as well as a guide to, published literature in the
field. It should not, however, be regarded as a substitute for reading the various
studies directly. A serious effort has been made to include all important or
interesting approaches to evaluation and to p u t these into meaningful and, where
appropriate, critical perspective. The book concentrates primarily on techniques
that can be used to evaluate the public service of a library, preferably by means
of reasonably objective procedures, although some consideration also is given to
the evaluation of technical services. The emphasis is on evaluation methodology;
however, in reviewing studies which have been conducted, major findings are
frequently presented to show the types of results that have been achieved by
various procedures. As pointed out in the first chapter, the book is concerned
only with how well the library satisfies the immediate tangible needs of its users.
It deliberately excludes any consideration of the evaluation of libraries in terms
of their broader, intangible, and largely unmeasurable “benefits” to society.
xvii
xviii Preface to the First Edition
I would like to express my appreciation to Walter Allen, Michael Buckland,

Charles Bunge, George Bonn, and Don Swanson for reading and commenting
on various chapters, and to Herbert Goldhor for reviewing the entire volume.
I also would like to thank two of my graduate assistants, Elana Hanson and
Gini Gale, for their assistance at various stages of the manuscript. Both made
significant and useful contributions. Jane Gothard helped immeasurably with her
efficient typing. My greatest debt, however, is to Mary Jane Joncich, who helped
me both as a graduate assistant and as a critic, and who was largely responsible
for writing Chapters 10 and 11.
F. Wilfrid Lancaster
CHAPTER
THE EVALUATION OF LIBRARY

SERVICES: A N INTRODUCTION
WHY IS EVALUATION NEEDED?

The 1960s were prosperous years for most libraries. Libraries have always
competed for funds with other agencies and departments, but the economy of
that decade was so favorable that, even with competition, the funding of libraries
increased. When librarians asked their funding bodies for resources to implement
or maintain services, they generally received them, even though few data on the
success of existing programs had been collected. Library services grew in this
relaxed climate.
The picture changed as libraries entered two decades of unprecedented in
creases in the costs of running facilities capable of coping with more advanced
information needs. Since the early 1970s, costs have risen faster than income.
With various agencies competing for ever more limited funds, the governmental
and business organizations that fund today's libraries are increasingly concerned
with providing quality services while keeping costs down. These organizations
have developed various techniques to aid in measurement, evaluation, planning,
and decision making and expect the departments they fund to use these tech
niques to identify what is being done, why it is being done, and how much is
being done. No longer can librarians simply ask for resources and expect to get
them. Instead, they must indicate, in some meaningful and measurable way, the
results of their services. In effect, they have to show that their programs are
appropriate for the intended users and are achieving their objectives in an effec
tive and efficient manner. The pressing need for data collection of this type was
illustrated recently in an Association of Research Libraries (ARL) survey, which
showed that 90 percent of the respondents used quantitative data to support their
budget requests (Association of Research Libraries, 1987).
Orr (1973) noted more than 17 years ago that the request for ongoing eval
uation of library services is reasonable. Evaluation tools have proved success-
1
2 THE MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION OF LIBRARY SERVICES
ful in other fields, and many of the organizations that support libraries have
adopted these tools. Moreover, the increasing complexity of the alternatives that
librarians face— alternatives created in part by ever more powerful technological
advances and increasing formalization of library networks — makes it harder to
make critical decisions without a way to monitor what is currently happening.
In fact, some authors have argued that failure to evaluate the new alternatives in
terms of changing user needs may result in the ultimate demise of the library as
we know it (for example, see Rose, 197 1). Librarians should not view evaluation
as a burden imposed by funding officials but rather as a means of improving
services by providing information that can be used to solve problems or make
better decisions. If an administrator knows how a library is currently performing
and why it is performing as it is, he or she should be able to make better choices
about how that performance can be improved. Indeed, the arl study showed that
74 percent of the responding libraries use such information when deciding how
to allocate resources like staff and space (Association of Research Libraries,
1987).
Weiss (1982) argued that most evaluation decisions relate to whether or how
a library should
• Continue a program. For example, should a junior high school library

continue purchasing extensively in the field of mathematics if that material
is rarely used?
• Institute similar programs elsewhere. For instance, should a public library
expand a practice of interfiling adult and juvenile nonfiction to all its
branch libraries or just to those with no separate children’s room?
• Improve its practices or procedures. How can special librarians improve
their recall rates for online searching, for instance, without overloading
company researchers with irrelevant citations?
• Add, drop, or change specific program strategies and techniques. Should
an academic library change the locations o f its displays after discovering
that some less-accessible locations fail to promote use of the displayed
titles?
• Allocate resources among competing programs. Should a 30 percent
serials budget cut be applied across the board, or should the heavily used
scientific journals be cut less than the less frequently consulted humanities
journals?
• Accept or reject a program approach or theory. Should a corporate library
reject the notion that its researchers will voluntarily use the library to keep
up to date and instead establish a selective dissemination of information
(sdi) service?
Evaluation may also help establish a benchmark by showing the level of

performance at which a service is currently operating. I f librarians subsequently
change the service, they can compare the results with the benchmark to sec if the
The Evaluation of Library Services: An Introduction 3
service has improved. Routine inspection of benchmark figures can also alert the
library to signs of trouble if the quality or quantity of service suddenly declines.
Seventy-one percent of the arl respondents collected evaluation statistics to
serve as an early warning signal for trouble spots, and 55 percent used such
statistics to establish benchmark figures for staff productivity (Association of
Research Libraries, 1987).
Many libraries also use evaluation data to compare their services and re
sources with other libraries of a similar size, type, or nature, and there is grow
ing pressure at state and national levels for library associations to provide such
comparable data. For example, the Public Library Association is working to
establish a national database of public library statistics. The movement for com
parable statistics is fueled by the fact that librarians seeking increased funding
to improve substandard services can use the data to support their pleas.
Expertise gained in conducting an evaluation may be a valuable organizational
resource. Consider the case of a newly hired media specialist in a small
elementary school who spends the month before school opens evaluating the
nonfiction collection. This is done by determining whether the size of the
collection meets that recommended in the standards for the state, checking the
holdings against titles recommended for purchase in the most recent edition
of The Elementary School Library Collection (Winkcl, 1988), comparing the
holdings in various subject areas against the school's curriculum guide to
determine if the same areas are emphasized, examining past records of use
for the items, and noting dated materials that need to be replaced. It would be
expected that, as the result of the evaluation process, the media specialist would
become very familiar with old and current nonfiction sources that are used and
needed in the collection, thus increasing his/her effectiveness in acquiring future
materials and weeding out current ones, as well as in providing better reference
service.
At least one article has described the benefits to staff of the evaluation process
(Nugent and Carrow, 1977). When the National Criminal Justice Reference
Service (NCJRS) conducted an in-house evaluation of its indexing and retrieval
capabilities, management and staff both gained additional insight into the
nature of ncjrs problems and strengths. Staff gained expertise in conducting
evaluations that could be used on future projects, and communication increased
among the different functional groups dealing with indexing and abstracting.
Evaluation, therefore, should be thought of as a management tool whose
main purposes are to identify current strengths, limitations, and failures, and to
suggest ways to improve service.
WHY ISN'T MORE EVALUATION DONE?

Many librarians still seem reluctant to evaluate their services. If evaluation will
lead to better service, why has it been resisted? One major reason is that
some librarians believe that the effects of library service are so intangible that
i t is impossible to determine objectively whether or not the library’s goals have
been met (Orr, 1973). Hamburg et al. (1974) summarized many of these goals.
Consider, for example, the following:
• To aid in the creative use of leisure time for the promotion of personal
development and social well-being
• To help people become better family and community members by pro
moting rational, democratic attitudes and values
• To help people discharge political and social obligations, thereby estab
lishing an enlightened citizenship
• To develop creative and spiritual capacities
• To sustain the increasingly complex operations of government
• To assist people in their daily occupations, thereby sustaining economic
growth
Social, spiritual, and economic goals of this type sound impressive but are
of little use in helping librarians provide effective, efficient service. Such goals
may be related to the ultimate benefits of library services, but they do not
relate directly to the immediate functions of the library and are too vague and
impractical to be used as criteria for evaluating a library or its services.
As Drucker (1973) pointed out, public service institutions may have long-term
goals and missions that are relatively intangible, but they also need short-term
objectives that are both tangible and measurable to aid them in evaluating their
progress and the quality of their service.
“Saving souls/' as the definition of the objectives of a church is, indeed, “intangible.”
At least the bookkeeping is not of this world. But church attendance is measurable. And
so is “getting the young people back into the church.”
'The development of the whole personality” as the objective of the school is, indeed,
“intangible.” But “teaching a child to read by the time he has finished third grade” is by
no means intangible; it can be measured easily and with considerable precision . . .
Achievement is never possible, except against specific, limited, clearly defined targets,
in business as well as in a service institution. Only if targets are defined can resources
be allocated to their attainment, priorities and deadlines be set, and somebody be held
accountable for results. But the starting point for effective work is a definition of
the purpose and mission of the institution— which is almost always “intangible,” but
nevertheless need not be vacuous, (pp. 48-49)
Most librarians used to operate with nebulous missions and goals in mind.
B u t many of today’s librarians have taken Drucker’s words to heart. Increas
ingly, librarians arc recognizing the need to have a multitiered, cyclical planning
process which takes into account thal each library is unique and should be as
sessed in the context of its own history, constraints, users, and environment.
Such a planning process requires that a library decide what its major functions
will be, write a mission statement expressing this philosophy, and set long
term goals to guide the direction of the organization. The process, however,
also emphasizes creating short-term measurable objectives to guide day-to-day
activities, designing strategies to meet the objectives, and evaluating the success
of those strategies. (An explanation of the process is offered by Bunge [1984].)
Several national library organizations are promoting this very type of planning
process. The Public Library Association’s Planning and Role Setting for Public
Libraries: A Manual of Options and Procedures (McClure el al., 1987) is an
example of this.
The planning process recognizes that evaluation is not an isolated, sporadic
event but rather an integral part of the planning cycle. Indeed, Schlachter and
Belli (1976) showed that libraries writing specific objective statements were
more likely to use evaluation techniques than libraries with no stated goals or
with more nebulous goals. They concluded that agencies explicitly identifying
what they are trying to do will usually want to know i f they have been successful
in doing it. The emphasis on planning cycles should give impetus to evaluation
activities in libraries.
There are other potential barriers to evaluation. One of these is a stated
lack of staff lime. Baker (1987) studied 6 1 public libraries in Nonh Carolina
to determine how many were using the evaluation measures listed in Output
Measures for Public Libraries (Zweizig and Rodger, 1982). She discovered
that although library directors ihought evaluation was important in these days
of limited funding and use of these output measures had been recommended
by both the Public Library Association and the stale library, 58 percent of the
libraries were not using the measures. In 59 percent of these, library directors
slated that staff did not have time to collect the data. Even those libraries
that collected this type of evaluative data concentrated their efforts on those
measures that were quickly and easily calculated, based on statistics that all
North Carolina public libraries are required to report to the state library, namely,
circulation per capita, reference transactions per capita, program attendance per
capita, library visits per capita, registration as a percentage of population, and
turnover rate. Libraries were much less willing to collect statistics requiring the
use of a separate survey or other specialized data collection measures and a
larger investment of staff time to collect and analyze the data, such as reference
fill rate, title fill rate, subject and author fill rate, browser fill rale, document
delivery rate, and in-library materials use.
The findings of this study are not surprising given that most libraries have not
assigned evaluation duties to a particular person but rather expect regular staff
to do evaluation in addition to their other dudes. Frequently, however, it is those
libraries experiencing the severest shortages that most need evaluation. After all,
evaluation has the potential to save staff time in the long run by making library
operations more efficient and effective. Hiring an outside consultant to perform
initial evaluations may be the best way to resolve the difficulties here.
A third barrier to library evaluation is the prevalence of staff with humanities

and fine arts backgrounds (DuMont and DuMont, 1979; Schlachter and Belli,
1976). These staff members may not be experienced in or knowledgeable about
the collection and analysis of empirical data. Recently, public library directors
confirmed that their staff lacked the skills to conduct even simple evaluations
(Baker, 1987). This problem can be overcome by continuing education; however,
this can only happen i f library educators are themselves comfortable with the
techniques used for research and evaluation and i f research is consistently
emphasized in graduate programs in library and information science. At this
point, a growing number of studies suggest that many library school faculty do
not have research-oriented degrees; that their research is less in quantity and is
more naive and unsophisticated than that produced in comparable disciplines;
and that the new librarians these people teach often lack the ability to understand,
use, or perform research (Haas and Kraft, 1984; Houser and Lazorick, 1978;
Katz, 1975; Peritz, 1980, 1981; Stroud, 1982; Van de Water et al., 1976;
Wallace, 1985; Wyllys, 1978). The situation appears to be changing slowly,
as research and publication requirements for university faculty become more
stringent (Peritz, 1981).
The fact that library managers and staff, who might not fully understand
the nature of evaluation, may fear the final results is yet another barrier to
evaluation (DuMont and DuMont, 1979; Neenan, 1986). Staff members often
are afraid that any service flaws will reflect negatively on their own abilities. But
evaluation is not meant to pinpoint individual flaws with the intent of punishing
someone. Rather, it should be a developmental activity that is undertaken to
improve services, either those provided by an individual or by the library.
Evaluation results should yield objective data that identify program strengths
and weaknesses. The former should be supported; the latter should be corrected
through staff training, the addition of appropriate resources, and the like.
The ultimate goal of evaluation — a goal that every professional librarian can
support — is the improvement of service to users.
One of the best ways to overcome the fear of evaluation is to foster staff
involvement. Indeed, at least two authors (Bonn, 1974; Futas, 1985) suggest
that evaluation may in some instances be futile unless staff, who have in-depth
knowledge of existing services, patron needs, and limitations of the library, are
involved. Training can help improve staff understanding of what evaluation is,
how evaluation procedures can be designed to meet local needs, how evaluation
data can be interpreted, and how evaluation findings can be used (Alkin, Stechcr,
and Geiger, 1982). Since training fosters both understanding and involvement,
the evaluator may be better able to cope with staff expectations for the evaluation
and determine the most appropriate manner o f reporting the final results. Direct
staff involvement may also foster an increased understanding by the evaluator
of the program in general and of the internal and external political environments
that arc in operation i n a particular library. This may lead to more realistic
The Evaluation of Library Services: A n Introduction 7
suggestions for improvement and thus to increased utilization of evaluation

results (Braskamp and Brown, 1980).
A final barrier to evaluation has not been well researched: that management
must be committed to evaluation for it to work. It is not enough merely to
collect evaluative data and statistics; for evaluation to be effective, management
must be prepared to use the results to make changes where indicated. Schlachter
and Belli (1976) found that in 7 8 percent of the California public libraries in
which evaluations were performed, no changes were made. Perhaps some needed
changes were not made for valid reasons, such as an immediate lack of resources
to solve the problem. The fact that so many libraries failed to make any changes,
however, may indicate that the evaluations often were conducted on a pro forma
basis rather than as a coordinated effort to improve the quality of service. This
pattern has been documented in settings other than libraries (Dickey, 1979) and
may be overcome to some extent if the evaluator takes an active role in fostering
the use of the information, rather than merely assuming that management will
act on the information contained in a final evaluation report (Braskamp and
Brown, 1980; Reisner et al., 1982).
In spite of these barriers, there is growing evidence that more libraries arc
becoming interested in regularly and comprehensively evaluating their programs
and that various library associations are promoting this trend. Some libraries,
such as the Fairfax County (Virginia) Public Library, have hired full- or part-time
specialists in evaluation. This trend is most pronounced in academic libraries;
a recent survey showed that 66 percent of the arl libraries had officers with
librarywide responsibility for the collection, manipulation, and dissemination of
statistics (Association of Research Libraries, 1987).
LEVELS AND TYPES OF EVALUATION

It is feasible to evaluate any type of library service at three possible levels:
effectiveness, cost-effectiveness, and cost-benefit.
Effectiveness must be measured in terms of how well a service satisfies
the demands placed on it by its users.1 An effectiveness study might, for
example, ask whether reference questions are answered to the users’ satisfaction
or whether a library provides wanted materials to its users when needed.
An evaluation of a system’s cost-effectiveness is concerned with its internal
operating efficiency. Such a study measures how efficiently (in terms of costs)
the system is satisfying its objectives, that is, meeting the needs of its users.
1 The authors agree with DuMont and DuMont ( 1 9 7 9 ) that the effectiveness of the overall library
can be measured in other ways (for instance, the ability of the library to survive in a changing
environment and to retain capable staff over time). The focus of this work, however, is to address
the effectiveness of specific library services, and the definition of effectiveness reflects this.
Libraries can improve the cost-effectiveness of a service by holding costs

constant while raising the level of effectiveness or by maintaining a particular
level of effectiveness while reducing costs.
Costs are tangible so long as they are thought of only in monetary terms. But
it is easy to be shortsighted in this respect. The fallacy that lime spent using
information services is free must be avoided. User time is not free, at least not
within the broad context of society as a whole. In fact, the costs of operating an
information service may be small compared with the cost of using iL For some
evaluation purposes, a realistic cost analysis of an information service should
consider all costs, including those incurred by users.
A cost-benefit evaluation is concerned with whether the value (worth) of the
service is more or less than the cost of providing it. In other words, a cost
benefit study attempts to determine whether the expense of providing a service
is justified by the benefits derived from it. Such a study might determine, for
example, whether the amount and quality of past use of a community information
and referral directory justify the cost of continuing to compile and update
the resource. Librarians can improve the cost-benefit relationship by increasing
benefits without increasing costs or by reducing costs without reducing benefits.
If libraries were profit-making entities, cost-benefit studies would be easy to
conduct, because the primary benefit is profit, a tangible and therefore easily
measured variable. The reality is that cost-benefit studies are almost impossible
to conduct in libraries because many of the presumed benefits of information
services are intangible (for example, an informed electorate). It is, however,
possible to measure user perceptions of the benefits of library services. Indeed,
White (1979) argued quite convincingly that, at least for corporate libraries, the
value of the service is worth more than the cost of providing it i f corporation
managers feel i t to be a positive influence on the company’s employees. The
value of the service is less than the cost of providing it if the managers perceive
a negative impact or no impact on the employees. This line of reasoning could
be modified and used in public, school, academic, and other special libraries.
The expression cost-performance-benefit refers to the interrelationships
among costs, performance (level of effectiveness), and benefits. These interrela
tionships cannot be completely separated (Lancaster, 1971). In practice, i t is dif
ficult to differentiate between cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit studies: a par
ticular change in a system may increase its effectiveness, its cosi-effectivcness,
and its benefits. (This book deals primarily with the effectiveness of library
services, although cost-effectiveness also is considered. The ultimate benefit of
library services — that is, the value to users of having these services available — is
not discussed i n detail.)
Another distinction, which K i n g and Bryant (1971) have explained, is the
difference between macroevaluation and microevaluation. The effectiveness of
a system or service may be evaluated at cither level. Macroevaluation, which
is descriptive in nature, measures how well a system operates, that is, its
success rate. The results usually can be expressed in quantitative terms, such as
percentage of success in satisfying requests for interlibrary loans.
Consider the case of a user entering the library to borrow a particular item for
which there is no substitute. The evaluator would like to know whether the user
leaves with the item in hand. Although this situation seems simple, the user’s
success actually depends on the answers to several questions, including: Does
the library own the item? Is it cataloged or accessible in some other manner?
Is it on the shelf when sought? Can the user find it on the shelf?
Success rate can be considered to be the product of a series of probabilities
that some event will occur. Suppose that in the above example the library owns
85 percent of the items sought by users, that 80 percent of the owned items
can be located in the catalog, that 7 5 percent of these are on the shelf when
users look for them, and that users succeed in finding items on the shelf (when
actually there) 90 percent of the time. The probability that a particular user will
leave the library with an item sought is thus 0.85 x 0.80 x 0.75 x 0.90, or 46
percent In other words, a user of this library has about a 46 percent chance of
finding a particular item. One of the objectives of macroevaluation is to establish
probabilities of this kind.
Macroevaluation reveals that a particular system operates at some benchmark
level but does not indicate why the system operates at this level or what might be
done to improve performance in the future. If changes are subsequently made to
the service, the effects can then be compared with the benchmark. The recently
updated Output Measures for Public Libraries (Van House et al., 1987) is an
example of a manual designed to aid libraries in macroevaluation. It suggests
that libraries collect 12 sets of data indicative of performance, all designed to
show what is happening in a library at a given time.
Microevaluation is diagnostic in nature, investigating how a system operates
and why it operates at a particular level. Because microevaluation deals with
factors affecting the performance of the system, it is necessary if the results
of the investigation are to be used to improve performance. The study should
demonstrate under what conditions the service performs well and under what
conditions it performs badly, thereby allowing identification of the most efficient
ways to improve performance.
The most important element of this diagnosis is the identification of reasons
why particular failures occur. For example, a user might not have received a
complete and accurate answer to a reference question because the librarian did
not take time to verify the user’s real (and often ambiguously staled) need,
used an inadequate strategy to search the catalog and other bibliographic aids
for the answer, or was too busy to help the user locale the item on the shelf.
Alternatively, the failure might have been due to collection inadequacy, poor
indexing of a book that contains the answer, or poor subject access in the card
catalog.
If an evaluation is to be more than an academic exercise, it should be
diagnostic, collecting data that indicate how a service performs and why it
performs as it does, including reasons why failures occur. It should be of
practical use to the librarian, providing guidance on what actions might be taken
to improve the effectiveness of the services provided.
It is important to differentiate between subjective and objective evaluation.
Subjective evaluation is based on opinion. For example, a geology expert
might be called in to give an opinion on whether the library’s collection
of materials on plate tectonics is adequate. Subjective opinion certainly has
value, because all aspects of service cannot always be measured objectively.
Subjective judgments may, however, by their very nature, be biased and should
be checked against objective measures whenever possible to verify their validity.
For instance, studies have shown that subjective opinions can be “wrong.” As
an example, users do not always know whether they have been given complete
and correct responses to reference questions. (See Chapter 8, “Evaluation of
Reference Services: Question Answering,” for a more thorough discussion of
this phenomenon.) Objective criteria and procedures allow librarians to be more
analytical and diagnostic and are often more useful when seeking to determine
how a service can be improved.
One last distinction in terms is called for. Evaluation may either be formative
or summative. Formative evaluation produces information that is fed back dur
ing the development of a program to help improve the program (Scriven, 1967).
Summative evaluation is performed at the end, generally to measure the overall
LIBRARY MANAGEMENT
TECHNICAL PUBLIC
SERVICES SERVICES
UNIVERSE Selection and Acquisition Collection

OF
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
RESOURCES Cataloging Finding Tools USER
Indexing
Classification Staff Services
Reference
Dissemination
Document Delivery
Physical Preparation Circulation
Binding and Repair Photocopying
Borrowing
INTERLIBRARY
COOPERATION
AUTOMATION
EXHIBIT 1-1 Organization of a library to serve the Interface function.

PRINCIPAL FUNCTIONAL COMPONENT PUBLIC MANIFESTATION
Acquisition
and Collection
Storage
FINANCIAL Organization
RESOURCES and Finding Tools
Control
Presentation Staff Services

to User
EXHIBIT 1-2 Major library functions and manifestations of these functions.
success or failure of a program. For example, in a literacy program presented by

a library, the formative element in the evaluation program may seek to determine
whether the methods of instruction used appear to be satisfactory or whether they
should be modified or replaced. The summative evaluation, on the other hand,
should be conducted to assess the achievement of the program, most obviously
in terms of demonstrated improvement in reading ability.
LIBRARY FUNCTIONS AND OBJECTIVES

The functions of all libraries are essentially the same: to acquire bibliographic
materials related to the interests of a particular user population, actual or poten
tial; to organize and display these materials; and to make the materials available
to users. To satisfy its overall objectives, a library generally is organized into
technical services and public services (Exhibit 1-1). Technical, or “behind-the-
scenes,” services interface directly with the universe of bibliographic resources
and provide a bridge between these resources and the user. Public services in
terface directly with the user community and provide a bridge between the user
and the resources. The library staff is involved in both types of activities; “man
agement” directs and coordinates both. The library may cooperate with other
institutions in both public and technical services and today may apply automated
procedures to many of them.
Libraries arc involved primarily in three major activities: (1) acquiring ma
terials and storing them, (2) identifying materials and locating them, and (3)
presenting these materials to library users in a variety of forms (Exhibit 1-
2). The library staff is involved in all three activities, and library costs are
Acquisition Organization Presentation

and and to
Storage Control User
TECHNICAL SERVICES PUBLIC SERVICES

(INPUTS) (OUTPUTS)
Selection Catalog
Ordering Shell Arrangement
Receiving Reference Service
Cataloging (a) Manual
Classification (b) Machine
Indexing Announcement/Dissemination
Abstracting Document Delivery
Physical Preparation Reading Facilities
Binding and Repair Circulation
Copying
Borrowing
EXHIBIT 1-3 Major library functions and the most Important services —
public and technical — associated with them.
distributed over all of them. The activities are manifested to the library user in
the form of the collection, the tools available to exploit this collection (including
shelf arrangement, catalogs, and indexes), and the services provided to the user.
A l l three facets— collection, tools, and services — arc closely interrelated, and all
must be considered in any overall evaluation of the library. Whereas technical
services are concerned mostly with inputs to the library, public services arc
concerned mostly with outputs. Exhibit 1-3 depicts the three major library
activities and the most important services — technical and public — associated
with them.
In a broader context, libraries arc part of the entire process of transferring
information via the published record (Exhibit 1-4). The process comprises the
composition, publication, and distribution of a document; acquisition of the
document by libraries and others; organization and control o f the document
(the library processes that arc designed to make it accessible to users, includ
ing cataloging, classification, indexing, abstracting, shelf arrangement, and re
lated activities); physical presentation to the user; and assimilation of the docu
ment’s contents by the user. This transfer process can be thought of as a cycle.
USE
(RESEARCH AND
APPLICATION)
Role of the 2 7 Role of the

author Composition Assimilation user
3 6 Role of
Role o f Printing Dissemination libraries and
the and and information
publisher Distributing Presentation centers
4 5
Acquisition Organization Role of libraries,
Role of bibliographies, indexing,
and and
libraries and abstracting services
Storage Control
EXHIBIT 1-4 The transfer of Information by published documents. Adapted

from King and Bryant (1971), courtesy of Information Resources Press.
Assimilation, the stage at which a user is informed by a publication, could lead

to some application of this newly acquired knowledge (for example, in research).
This may, in turn, result in the composition of a new document.
Although librarians should be interested in all the activities illustrated in this
diagram, libraries are directly concerned only with steps 4, 5, and 6 in Exhibit
1-4. The library exists to bring documents and users together. It seeks to ensure
that users gain access to publications that are pertinent and comprehensible (in
other words, written in a readable language at an understandable level). The
assimilation of a document by a user, once it has been supplied, is generally
outside the library’s sphere of influence. The librarian has no direct control
or influence over users and usually does not know whether they used or were
informed by the items supplied. This is why the ultimate benefits of library
service are difficult to measure.
It has been suggested that the ultimate product of the library is not the use
of materials. Armstrong (1968), for example, claims that when a person borrows
OBJECTIVES
To Maximize Accessibility
of Materials to Users
(EFFECTIVENESS)
To Maximize Exposure
of Users to Materials
To Maximize
Accessibility/Exposure (COST-EFFECTIVENESS)
per $1 of Expenditure
EXHIBIT 1-5 The interface function of libraries.
books on how to construct a house, the house built is the real product. This
approach is unacceptable. The library has adequately served its function i f it has
a supply of good, readable, up-to-date materials on how to construct a house
and can make these materials available at the time the user needs them. Whether
or not the reader actually builds the house is governed by myriad factors that arc
beyond the control of the library. Moreover, of all these factors, the availability of
suitable reading materials is likely to be one of comparatively minor importance.
Assume, for example, that user A and user B come to a library seeking books on
house construction. Both borrow materials that they consider suitable for their
present purposes. User A subsequently builds a house; B does not. It is doubtful
that anyone could say that the library succeeded in the first case and failed in
the second. I t can, however, legitimately be said that the library failed i f user B
was unable to find suitable materials in the library at the lime they were needed.
Therefore, a library can only be evaluated in terms of whether or not i t is able
to provide the materials sought by users when they arc needed.
The overall mission of the library is to make the universe of bibliographic
resources (using “bibliographic” in the widest sense), or at least that portion
having the most immediate relevance and interest, maximally accessible to its
particular user population (restricted geographically or by institutional affiliation)
The Evaluation of Library Services: A n Introduction 15
(Exhibit 1-5). Hamburg, Ramist, and Bommer (1972) and Hamburg et al. (1974)
staled the mission differently: to maximize the exposure of library users to the
universe of bibliographic materials.
These two facets (accessibility/exposure) of the mission are really opposite
sides of the same coin. Maximization of accessibility suggests a somewhat
passive information service—one in which the library makes materials available
but waits for users to request them. Maximization of exposure, on the other hand,
carries a more active connotation—such as bringing materials to the attention of
potential users through some dynamic means like a current awareness service,
such as SDI. In the past, most academic, public, and school libraries have
been passive, providing services “on demand” only. Many industrial libraries
and other specialized information centers have been more dynamic, providing
services—not directly solicited—designed to keep users cunent with literature
in their areas of specialization.
The major criterion by which to evaluate the effectiveness of a library is the
degree to which it maximizes accessibility, exposure, or both; the major criterion
by which to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of a library is the degree to which it
maximizes accessibility/exposure per dollar expended.
The accessibility/exposure objectives of the library were perhaps enunciated
most clearly by Hamburg, Ramist, and Bommer (1972) and Hamburg el al.
(1974); however, they have been described by many others as well. The five
“laws” of library science written by Ranganathan (1957) present these objectives
in a highly concentrated form:
1. Books are for use.

2. Every reader his book.
3. Every book its reader.
4. Save the time of the reader.
5. The library is a growing organism.
The first three laws are closely interrelated. The statement “Books are for
use” implies the entire concept of the library as an interface between users and
bibliographic resources. It also suggests that collections and services must be
evaluated in terms of user needs. The second law relates directly to accessibility.
It is not enough that lhe item sought by a user is owned by the library; it must
also be available when the reader needs it. The third law implies exposure in lhe
sense that the library, as a more active information service, makes bibliographic
resources known to potential users.
In his fourth law, Ranganathan recognized a secondary, but still important,
objective relating to lhe internal efficiency of lhe library: to make bibliographic
resources accessible in ways that are most convenient to lhe user. Rzasa and
Baker (1972) restated this, noting that lhe primary goals of a library were io
maximize user satisfaction and to minimize time loss to the user. They also
recognized a secondary goal: to increase the number of actual library users.

These three goals all involve the maximization of exposure and the minimization
of cost to the user.
The fifth and final law, “The library is a growing organism,” indicates that
the library must be willing to adapt to new conditions (changing social and
technological conditions as well as changing needs among its clientele) if it is
to meet its goal of maximizing accessibility and exposure while minimizing the
user’s time and effort.
The accessibility/exposure goals of the library can also be seen in the
evaluation of information retrieval systems. A group of “user requirements” for
automated information retrieval systems have been identified. Summarized, they
are
• Coverage of the collection (or database)— the scope of the collection in

terms of the extent to which it is complete in various subject areas.
• Recall— the ability to retrieve the relevant literature when a request is
made to the system.
• Precision — the ability not to retrieve irrelevant literature in response to
a request to the system. Jointly, recall and precision measure filtering
capacity — the ability to let through only what the user wants.
• The amount of effort the user must spend in exploiting the system— if the
effort required is excessive, the system will not be used. Some people
may even prefer to do without needed information i f the task of locating
such information is particularly burdensome to them. As “Mooers’s Law"
states, “An information retrieval system will tend not to be used whenever
i t is more painful and troublesome for a customer to have information
than for him not to have i L ” (Mooers, 1960, p. ii)
• The response time of the system— how long the user has to wait to obtain
needed literature or references to such literature.
• The form of output provided by the system.
Coverage and recall relate directly to the accessibilily/exposure missions of

information services, and the other criteria relate directly to the additional goal
of providing this acccssibility/cxposure as efficiently as possible to save the time
of the user. These criteria are applicable to the evaluation of library service in
general. They provide a precise restatement of the overall acccssibility/cxposure
objectives of libraries and arc clearly within the spirit of Ranganathan’s laws.
MEASURING EXPOSURE THROUGH MACROEVALUATION

The most complete discussion of procedures for measuring exposure was by
Hamburg, Ramist, and Bommer (1972) and Hamburg c t al. (1974). Users may
be exposed to library materials either directly or indirectly. Direct exposure

refers to the user’s own exploitation of library materials and can be expressed
quantitatively by the number of items borrowed or consulted in the library,
the number of photocopies made, and so on. Indirect exposure refers to staff
exploitation of the library’s materials on behalf of the users. It can be measured
by the number of telephone inquiries handled or the number of individuals
attending a library function such as a book discussion or a storytelling session
for children. Exposure is always measured quantitatively.
Hamburg et al. tried to develop an overall index to measure exposure and
tentatively came up with three measures of increasing sophistication: exposure
counts, item-use days, and exposure time. In the exposure count, each single use
of the library’s resources counts as a single exposure, either direct or indirect.
Although this method provides an easy way to measure exposure, it has a number
of disadvantages:
• Dissimilar events, like borrowing a book, consulting an index, and

answering a telephone inquiry, may be combined into one overall count
Of course, it is possible to divide these various events into separate counts,
but this may complicate subsequent manipulation and analysis of the data
collected.
• Volume of use is measured, but amount of use is not For example, five
separate uses of The Official Airline Guide, each taking one minute, would
count as five separate exposures. On the other hand, a book borrowed and
used continuously for five days would count as a single exposure.
• It is possible to increase exposure counts artificially. For example, a
reduced loan period would presumably result in more individual loans
per year. The exposure count would thus increase, but the actual level of
service offered might not.
Item-use days measures exposure in number of days of use. For example,

an item used within the library for part of one day counts as one item-use day,
whereas a book borrowed for five days is counted as five item-use days. This
measure, which appears to have first been suggested by Meier (1961), indicates
use more precisely than does the exposure count, but it too has disadvantages:
• A book borrowed for five days is not necessarily used for five days or,
indeed, used at all. Actual use can only be determined by interviewing
users, or a sample of users, at the time they return materials to the
library—a difficult and time-consuming process. Also, the accuracy of
the measures thus made depends entirely on how accurately the users
remember how much they used a particular publication.
• Events that should be considered approximately equal in value may be

weighted differently. For example, a document used for one hour during
each of five days counts as five item-use days, whereas the same document
used for five hours in one day counts as only one item-use day.
Exposure time measures the actual hours of use. This is a more exact measure
of the amount of use and can be determined only by sampling — by observing
users, selected at random, in the library and by questioning users, again at
random, when they return borrowed materials (a difficult and costly process).
The object of the sampling is to determine the average amount of time associated
with each type of exposure.
De Prospo, Altman, and Beasley (1973) developed a completely different
index to measure exposure: effective user hours — the number of hours of actual
use recorded during a sampling period divided by the number of hours in that
period. Take, for example, a sampling period of 50 consecutive hours during
which a library is open; 620 hours of actual use are accumulated (the sum of
all hours spent in the library by all users during the sampling period). The final
number of effective user hours, therefore, is 620/50, or approximately 12.4 hours
of user lime for each hour that the library is open.
Exposure, by its very nature, is measured in quantitative terms and thus is
subject to all the problems associated with measuring quantity only. The most
obvious is that a unit of exposure does not indicate the quality of use. The
loan of a novel for recreational reading, for example, may count the same as
the scholarly use of a rare manuscript in the library. Although it is theoretically
possible to incorporate some qualitative elements into exposure measures by
weighting the various exposures according to type of user, type of use, or both,
i t is unlikely that much consensus would be reached (among librarians or others)
as to what weights should be assigned to these different use categories.
A fully acceptable index of exposure has not yet been found, much less an
“index of effectiveness,’* but this docs not mean that library services cannot
or should not be evaluated (A versa, 1981). In any case, Spray (1976) found
that administrators generally do not require the use of one overall index of
effectiveness but rather consider a variety of factors, including qualitative ones,
when making program decisions. In other words, macroevaluation may not
require the development of a single measure of use but rather the examination
of a large number of measures i n a particular library setting. For example, when
evaluating the overall success of reference services, the following questions are
all appropriate: To what extent is the population aware that reference service
is provided? How many questions are received? Arc the answers given both
complete and correct? H o w often arc patrons satisfied with the answers they
receive? A l l these questions arc valid, and the answers to each of them may
contribute information that is useful in the decision -making process.
Ultimately, all activities in which the library engages arc designed to increase
accessibility/exposure. As pointed out by Hamburg, Ramist, and Bommer (1972)

and Hamburg et al. (1974), one should be able to assess the effects of changes in
the collection, tools, and services in terms of exposure. Consider the following
examples.
• The more branch locations provided, the greater the exposure.

• The more hours the library is open, the greater the exposure.
• The more titles provided, the greater the exposure.
• The more copies provided, the greater the exposure.
• The more physically accessible the collection, the greater the exposure.
• The more liberal the usage period (up to a point), the greater the exposure.
• The more explicit the shelf arrangement, the greater the exposure.
• The more assistance given to users, the greater the exposure.
• The more accessible the catalog, the greater the exposure.
• The more indexes provided, the greater the exposure.
• The more widely publicized the services, the greater the exposure.
Although all library activities are designed to increase exposure, not all
are intended to increase immediate exposure. Some activities, including the
purchasing of new materials and publicizing of services, represent an investment
in future exposure.
MEASURING EXPOSURE THROUGH MICROEVALUATION

Exposure is a measure of the volume of use. It is an appropriate indicator of a
library’s effectiveness; presumably, the more effective the library, the more it
will be used. The amount of use per dollar expended is an appropriate measure of
cost-effectiveness. But volume of use is a relatively gross, quantitative measure,
suitable only for macroevaluation. Microevaluation of library services involves
the identification of factors affecting the amount of use and degree of user
satisfaction (Exhibit 1-6). In general, microevaluation of any service should
lake into account quality, lime, and costs (including costs represented by human
effort). There are a variety of relevant criteria by which the various technical
and public services of a library can be evaluated (Exhibit 1-7).
Ultimately, the public services of a library should be judged in terms of user
satisfaction. The extent to which the library is used (the amount of exposure
actually provided) presumably reflects user satisfaction. This satisfaction could
also be measured with subjective methods such as questionnaires or interviews.
These have some value but are of limited use for purposes of microevaluation.
Users are not always able to recognize “failures.” For example, a user who
cannot locate a particular item in the catalog may be unaware of entries filed
under headings that were not consulted. Or a user seeking a particular item may
FIRST LEVEL SECOND LEVEL

Available (Macroevaluation) (MicroevaJuation)
Materials
Measurement of amount Diagnostic. Goes beyond
of exposure. May simply simple quantitative mea
be in quantitative terms surement and attempts to
with no explanation of determine why a particu
why this amount of ex lar level of exposure is
posure is achieved, with achieved (i.e., the factors
Library no attempt to identify affecting library perfor
Interface failures in service, and mance) and what might be
with no identification done to increase exposure
of ways in which expo in the future.
sure might be increased.
User
Population
EXHIBIT 1-6 Relationship between macroevaluation and microevaluation.
not know that the item is shelved in another part of the library. To be able to
identify various types of failures in library services, and particularly to identify
their causes, more objective, quantitative measures of performance often are
needed, such as the percentage of time users are successful in finding items on
the shelves or the percentage of time staff members are successful in answering
telephone inquiries.
Some aspects of library service are more easily evaluated than others.
Generally, the more concrete the user requirement, the easier it is to measure user
satisfaction in absolute terms. For example, i f a user comes to a library seeking
a particular book for which no substitute is acceptable, then that individual
either finds the book and is presumably completely satisfied or docs not and is
dissatisfied. The degree to which a “known-item” requirement is met is relatively
easy to measure; and it also is relatively easy to identify the factors determining
whether or not particular books arc available when needed. But consider the
user who comes to the library seeking bibliographic material about a particular
subject. It is not loo difficult to determine whether or not some material is found
on this subject. I t is much more difficult to determine whether the best material
is found, or whether all relevant material is located (assuming that the user
wants a comprehensive search). Whereas a known-item search can be scored as
Technical Services Public Services
Quality 1. Selection and acquisition 1. Range of services offered

Size, appropriateness, and balance 2. Helpfulness of shelf order and guidance
of collection 3. Catalog
2. Cataloging and indexing Completeness, accuracy, and ease of use
Accuracy, consistency, and completeness 4. Reference and retrieval
The Evaluation of Library Services: An Introduction

Completeness, accuracy, and percentage success
5. Document delivery
Percentage success
Time 1. Delays in acquisition 1. Hours of service

2. Delays in cataloging and other processing 2. Response time
3. Productivity of staff 3. Loan periods
Cost 1. Unit cost to purchase 1. Effort to use

2. Unit cost to process Location of library
Accession Physical accessibility of collection
Classify Assistance from staff
Catalog 2. Charges levied
EXHIBIT 1-7 Examples of possible performance criteria applied to various services of a library.
21
0 or 1 (a failure or a success), depending on its outcome, a subject search is

not as readily amenable to such an absolute scoring system. Moreover, a user
may come to a library, particularly a public library, with no specific requirement
in mind beyond finding an entertaining book. The degree to which this user
is satisfied is more difficult to evaluate and is certainly not susceptible to any
absolute score. It can be easily determined whether the user borrows one or
more books, but it is quite difficult to discover if he or she is actually entertained
by them. If not, the reason most likely is beyond the control of the library.
The satisfaction of this “browsing” type of requirement, although more diffi
cult to measure and express in quantitative terms, is not completely unmeasur
able, but it may be necessary to express the results as subjective statements of
user satisfaction. Moreover, factors influencing the satisfaction of various types
of users certainly can be identified to ensure that library shelves contain a wide
selection of materials that are likely to satisfy most browsers.
The technical services of a library, unlike the public services, cannot be evalu
ated directly in terms of user satisfaction. Technical processes must be evaluated
from two viewpoints: (1) internal efficiency and (2) external, long-term effects
such as the effects on public service and, ultimately, user satisfaction. Internal
evaluation is concerned largely with time and cost factors — for example, how
much it costs to acquire a book and catalog it accurately, and how long it takes to
process a new book (the lime lag between receipt in the library and appearance
on the shelf). From such calculations, various comparisons can be made with
published standards, other organizations, or performance at other times. Some
qualitative internal evaluation of technical processes may also be possible. For
instance, the consistency and quality of cataloging activities can be checked.
The external evaluation of technical processes involves longer term consider
ations: the effect of the technical processes on the public services of the library.
Selection and acquisition, for example, determine adequacy of the collection
and thus greatly influence use, whereas the quality of indexing and cataloging
influences use of the catalogs and other tools, as well as the degree of suc
cess achieved in locating needed documents. Baker’s (1988) article on fiction
classification is one example of a study showing that changing the method of
access can both improve user satisfaction and increase use of certain areas of
the collection.
CONCLUSION
Before an individual can use the services of a library, he or she must know
of its existence and of the resources i t provides. One important factor affecting
the extent o f library use is physical accessibility. Libraries must be conveniently
located. The typical person visits a library because there is some need for its
services. Needs generally fall into four major categories:
The Evaluat ion of Library Services: An Introduction 23
1. To obtain one or more bibliographic items whose existence is already

known
2. To obtain one or more items dealing with a particular subject
3. To obtain the answer to a specific factual question
4. To locate some unspecified item (book, videotape, record, or the like) for
purposes of diversion or entertainment.
The extent to which these needs are promptly satisfied depends on the size and
quality of the library’s collections; the adequacy of collection organization; the
usefulness of the tools —especially catalogs, indexes, and shelf arrangement—
providing access to the collections; and the ability and willingness of the staff
to exploit these resources. Whether or not a user is satisfied with the service of
the library depends largely on how long it takes, and how much effort must be
expended, to obtain a particular known item, one or more items dealing with
a particular subject, or the correct answer to some question. The evaluation of
library service should be regarded as a management tool, applied to determine
how effectively and efficiently the library is serving the needs of its users, to
identify limitations and failures of service, and to suggest ways in which the
service might be improved. If implemented, these improvements in immediate
service should lead to improvements in the ability of the library to reach its
longer term, largely unmeasurable goals.
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Association, 1982.
CHAPTER
THE EFFECTS OF ACCESSIBILITY

A N D CONVENIENCE
ON LIBRARY USE
Libraries exist primarily to link a particular user population with a universe

of bibliographic resources needed for some purpose. Librarians attempt to
maximize the user’s accessibility or exposure to those resources. The ideal
library is organized so that its patrons expend minimum effort to obtain access
to bibliographic materials when they need them. This is because many patrons,
consciously or unconsciously, will weigh the cost of a service against the benefits
of using iL
Two models of information-seeking behavior exist in the library literature
(Hardy, 1982). The cost-benefit model suggests that people select information
sources primarily on the basis of their benefits, with cost as a secondary criterion.
The least-effort model suggests that people first select those information sources
that require the least effort to use, even if they have to make sacrifices in the
quality of information obtained. (The principle of least effort was first described
by Zipf, 1949.) A great deal of evidence exists to support the least-effort model,
which is perhaps best exemplified by Mooers’s famous law:
An information retrieval system will tend not to be used whenever it is more painful and
troublesome for a customer to have information than for him not to have it. (Mooers,
1960, p. ii)
Poole (1985) reviewed dozens of studies on information-seeking behavior

and confirmed Mooers’s law, although he slated it in a slightly longer version
that he called the avoidance-least-effort theory. The theory is as follows:
1. A first principle of human behavior is to avoid pain.

2. All human behavior has the purpose of problem solving.
27
3. In solving problems, man will calculate the possible consequences of his acts.
4. In solving problems, man will attempt to reduce all negative consequences of his
acts to a minimum.
5. One negative consequence of the expenditure of effort in problem solving is the
discomfort of fatigue.
6. So as to minimize the probability of fatigue, man will attempt to minimize his
expenditure of effort.
7. By expending least effort, man seeks to avoid pain. (p. 95)
Mooers* s law and the various least-effort principles imply that librarians can
increase use by reducing the amount of effort patrons need to expend to use the
library facilities, services, or resources. Therefore, librarians should concentrate
on increasing accessibility-convenience to library services, because this will
decrease the “pain” or “cost” of using these services.
Various types of accessibility — including societal, institutional, psychologi
cal, intellectual, bibliographic, and physical — have relevance to libraries (Cul-
nan, 1985; Dervin, 1973; Wilson, 1968). Societal accessibility is the need for
society to provide certain types of information, allocating the resources nec
essary to satisfy these information needs. Institutional accessibility is the need
for the existence of organizations that can provide the desired information to
a particular individual or group of individuals. The public library movement
was bom when one community recognized books and other publications as a
public good and devoted public funding to maintaining and staffing a collection
designed to meet the reading needs of its citizens. Psychological accessibility
relates to the “friendliness” o f the information source. For example, a library
user may refuse to consult a librarian who is perceived to be unsympathetic to
the user’s needs. Intellectual accessibility is an individual’s capacity for under
standing library resources (for example, the catalog) and using the information
sources provided. Some librarians, for instance, have initiated literacy programs
to increase intellectual accessibility; others have deliberately selected a variety
o f materials for users who differ i n terms of reading ability, general intelligence,
or sophistication.
The two types o f accessibility with which librarians are most familiar are bib
liographic and physical accessibility. Librarians typically provide bibliographic
accessibility through catalogs, various indexing and abstracting tools (in paper,
online, or CD-ROM form), or some type of selective dissemination of information
(SDI) services. Physical accessibility is the ability of an individual to have easy
access to the information service and to the resources i t provides.
Over the years, several dozen studies have examined how the accessibility
or convenience of facilities, services, or materials affects their use. A review of
the literature reveals four recurring findings, noted more than 20 years ago by
Allen and Gcrstbcrgcr (1967):
The Effects of Accessibility and Convenience on Library Use 29
1. For the typical user, perceived accessibility is the single most important
determinant of the overall extent to which an information channel is used.
2. The more experience a user has with a channel, the more accessible he or
she will perceive it to be.
3. After the user finds an accessible source of information, he or she will
screen it on the basis of other factors (for example, technical quality).
4. High motivation to find specific information may prompt users to seek out
less -accessible sources of information.
PERCEIVED ACCESSIBILITY-CONVENIENCE
For the typical person, those information sources perceived to be the most
accessible or convenient are used the most. Consider, for example, the many
studies that examine the effects of distance on public library use (Elrick and
Lavidge, Inc., 1977; Hayes and Palmer, 1983; Monat, 1967; Palmer, 1981;
Schlipf, 1973). The studies generally show that most users reside within 5 miles
of the library, that use declines rapidly as distance from the nearest branch or
bookmobile stop increases, and that few active users live 10 or more miles from
library facilities. Moreover, various studies show that adding or changing library
locations can greatly increase use. For instance, a new library situated on the
pedestrian walkway at the McGill metro station in Montreal attracted 5,000 new
library users in its first year of operation (Lavigne, 1984).
Although public libraries have special problems because of the comparatively
large geographic areas they serve (for example, Onadiran and Onadiran, 1981),
the effect of physical accessibility on library use is not exclusive to this type
of library. McCabe et al. (1976) assessed use by nonaffiliated users of all types
of libraries within a six-county area in Pennsylvania; 67 percent of these users
said convenience of location was the primary factor influencing their choice
of library. Other studies have shown that student use of academic libraries is
related to the distance students live from the university (for example, Orten and
Wiseman, 1977). Even the specific location of a library within a campus or
school can influence its use to a considerable degree, and the precise location
of a special library within a corporate complex can affect significantly the type
and amount of its use (Culnan, 1980; Neal and Smith, 1983; Slater, 1963). The
extent to which an individual uses any library depends al least partly on how
easily it can be reached from home or office.
Accessibility is a primary criterion influencing the public’s selection of ma
terials used for pleasure reading or as information sources (Baker, 1986a; Cul
nan, 1985; Ennis, 1965; Hemon, 1984; Waples, 1932). In fact, the typical
person considers accessibility or convenience before considering other selec
tion factors relating either to one item or to the collection as a whole—factors
like currency, quality, comprehensiveness, and relevance (Adedigba, 1985;
Dougherty and Blomquist, 1974; Hardy, 1982; O’Reilly, 1982; Rosenberg,

1966). In the McCabe et al. study (1976) previously mentioned, only 21 percent
of the respondents chose to visit a library because of its collection.
Patrons often use information sources that are readily al hand even when they
know that better sources are available elsewhere. Many students, for example,
use the closest accessible sources of information (for example, friends, teachers,
and family) even when they know more authoritative sources can be found at the
university library (Dunn, 1986). Herron (1986) observed a similar pattern among
journalists working for large metropolitan newspapers, even though they had
reasonable access to library facilities. Faculty, in both schools and colleges, tend
to use personal library collections more than they do departmental collections;
use departmental collections more than the main library; and use the main library
more than less-accessible libraries, materials housed in remote storage facilities,
or interlibrary loan systems (Holmes, 1987; Neal and Smith, 1983; Soper, 1972,
1976; Woodbum, 1969). Few patrons in any type of library reserve or recall
books checked out to other patrons; this is true even when such options are
advertised as being available and even when the material desired is considered
belter in some way than the material in hand (for example, Fullmer, 1981).
The general public's desire for convenience and easy access to information
resources also is illustrated by lhe popularity of four other types of services:
1. Selective dissemination of information (SDI) services. Special librarians

profile the interests of company scientists, managers, and other employees and
provide them, on a regular basis, with abstracts of current materials that match
their profiles. Most users of such services feel they are better informed as a
result of lhe service, state that their satisfaction with the library has increased,
or are able to quantify significant savings in lhe time associated with collecting
information in general (for example, Estabrook, 1986; Houlson and Jax, 1987;
Universiti Sains Malaysia Library, 1983).
2. Other current awareness services. Publishers have developed a number of
journals that provide rapid and convenient access to the new literature in a given
area. Most notable is Current Contents, which reproduces lhe contents pages of
journals in various areas. One study found that scientists prefer Current Contents
because it is comprehensive and provides the authors’ addresses. The scientists
often found it easier to write the authors directly for reprints of important articles
than to use their local libraries, which had “lots of red tape” or access barriers
(Lancaster, 1974).
3. Document delivery services. University libraries allow faculty and staff
to order needed bibliographic materials by telephone. Library staff retrieve
each item from the slacks, charge it out, and have it delivered to the office of
the requester. Patron satisfaction with the library increases, and patron use of
the services increases if patrons perceive the services to be easier to use than
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
judge. Each of the spiritual dignitaries employed many arguments to
induce me to join them. I was at last, from what I had seen and
heard, persuaded that all the men of name and power had espoused
this unfortunate party’s interest, and were united in carrying it
forward to a conclusion. The thirty thousand ducats were every now
and then referred to. To make the story short, the devil tempted me;
I became one of their number, and was one of the most active in the
whole of the disturbance and insubordination which have lately
manifested themselves.” This seems a very candid confession, but it
helped the unfortunate culprit nothing. The grand vezír looked in the
poor devil’s face with astonishment, and wondered at his statement.
He ordered Aghá Mustafa to conduct the culprits into the royal
presence, where the whole of the above facts were again elicited,
and the result was, that the emperor ordered their heads to be
severed from their bodies, which was immediately complied with. A
day or two afterwards the insurgent Dipa kiz Rizván met with a
similar fate; so did also Ghuzáz Alí and Burnáz Mohammed; but the
infamous and wicked Kátib Jezámí could nowhere be found. Strict
search for him it must, however, be confessed, was not made. It
appears that he had collected a great quantity of gold together, had
himself put into a coffin, and was carried over from Constantinople
to Uskudár (Scutari), whence, with a few servants, he fled on
horseback. His servants, falling in love with his money, however, took
the opportunity, when they reached a mountainous part of the
country, to murder him, and took the whole of his gold to
themselves. Whilst these wretches were disputing and maliciously
contending as to the mode of dividing their spoil, one of their
number fled from them; and thus the story of Kátib Jezámí was
made known.
Hasan Khalífeh, another of the heads of the insurgents who had
been previously involved in other desperate acts, thinking himself
perfectly secure, entered into coffee-houses, and spent part of the
nights of the month of Ramazán in gay conversation, and in the
participation of good cheer along with some of his friends in the
above houses; but on the 11th night of that month, whilst enjoying
his pleasure in one of these cafés, he was seized and hurried away
into the presence of the emperor, when he was without mercy
instantly sent to the mansions of the dead. In this way the whole of
the ringleaders of the insurgents were disposed of: the world was
thus delivered from their mischievous existence.
As to Gúzelcheh Mohammed Páshá, the deputy-governor of
Constantinople, he fled and hid himself at the very commencement
of the tumult, as before observed; but he was afterwards discovered
in the habit of a súfí, near the mosque built by Hájí Khosrú, a rich
man, on the outside of Constantinople. He threw himself on the
mercy of the sublime Sultán, and thus escaped with his life.
New troubles, however, arose. A foundation for enmity between the
spáhís and the janissaries was laid by the proceedings of the grand
vezír, as before hinted. Peace and order had scarcely begun to be
felt, when a dispute arose between these two powerful military
bodies, and was carried on with the utmost asperity. Whenever any
of the one party met any of the other, a battle uniformly took place.
But it was beyond the walls of Constantinople that this hostility was
most fiercely manifested. The proud vezír’s passion for murder and
bloodshed continued unabated: his thirst for vengeance against the
remaining objects of his hatred he never failed to satiate whenever
he found an opportunity of doing so. He thought that the measure
he had employed in crushing the rebellion which had been raised
against himself had been completely effectual. He was proud of his
own doings, and began to publish abroad in the palace of the
emperor Alexander (the court of Constantinople) his own mighty
deeds; and supposed he was every way such a favourite with the
emperor that nothing he could ask would be refused. In this exalted
state of his imagination, he passed five successive inglorious fast
days in the greatest transports and joy. Having fully acquired the
victory and glory which he thought necessary for himself, he began
to increase his own abstemiousness and piety in a corresponding
measure; but his fury and malignity for promoting the purposes of
his own heart were in proportion to the good qualities he had
formerly manifested. In short, he exercised violence and cruelty
without restraint. He shed blood, and punished to excess; any one
who was so unhappy as to displease him, however trifling the
offence might have been, was certain of feeling his vengeance, and
that was generally death. Without even the shadow of any rational
pretext whatever, he caused one Alí Aghá, the brother-in-law of the
ághá of the palace, to be strangled. The very day after this deed
was committed, he went to the diván, and caused Tarnákjí Hasan
Páshá to be singled out from among the senators in the diván, and
ordered his head to be struck off even under the sacred roof; but for
what crime he suffered death no one knew. The grand vezír, in fact,
was absolute and supreme, and therefore irresistible.
Hasan Páshá, formerly mentioned, was about this time appointed to
the government of Baghdád, to which he repaired.
Azím Zádeh Effendí relates, what is not at all to be wondered at in
those days of mourning, that this same grand vezír had formed the
design also of numbering among the slain Sáa’tjí Hasan Páshá, who
had been formerly governor of Constantinople, but that he had the
good fortune to make his escape to Trebisond. Háfiz Páshá, the
eunuch, who formerly had been káímakám of the Sublime Porte, was
sent by him to the Seven Towers, and he lay there without the hope
of escape. Others besides these now mentioned felt his resentment,
and that too for mere trifles: for neglecting to shew him the respect
he conceived to be due to him, or if he had any suspicion of their
acting contrary to his views of such things.
About this same time also he began to lay his hand upon the
merchants, and to extort money from them. By the advice of Yázijí
Zádeh, he got the ulemá to extend his powers and privileges, by
which means he exercised oppression and tyranny, cruelty and
rapine, in every direction.
Other affairs of this period.

On the 11th of Ramazán, Jeráh Mohammed Páshá was appointed to
take the command of the troops who had been ordered to act
against the insurgents; but this appointment was again rescinded on
the 25th following, and Jeghala Zádeh was fixed upon. Khosrú
Páshá, who had been removed from the government of Egypt, was
appointed vezír over the emperor’s private property, and was
ordered to take his seat in the diván; and on the 1st of Dhu’l Kadah,
he was appointed to take the command of the troops who served on
the banks of the Danube. Ferhád Aghá having been deposed from
the command of the janissaries, Kásim Aghá, deputy of the Kapújís,
was appointed in his stead. Delí Hasan, the rebel-chief, who had
gone to winter at Karah-hísár, sent his deputy, Sháh Verdí, to
Constantinople, to solicit pardon for all his past offences, and
promising obedience in future. Through the good offices of the
túrnají báshí, who had recommended to employ him on the frontiers
of Romeili, where he might have an opportunity of manifesting his
courage, he was too suddenly received back into favour, and the
country of Bosnia was rashly conferred on him. This same túrnají
báshí accompanied Hasan’s deputy back, and carried with him for
the reconciled chief a drum, a flag, and a robe of honour, which the
government thought proper to send him. After having dispersed his
rebel troops, he passed over to Romeili about the beginning of Dhu’l
Kadah, and got the command of about four hundred men. The
above-mentioned túrnají báshí was also sent with a body of
janissaries to the camp of Mohammed Páshá at Belgrade, who had
succeeded to the grand vezír in the command of the army on the
frontiers, and having left Buda, had come to Belgrade. Here he
collected his troops, and waited with some anxiety for the arrival of
the janissaries, whom he expected the túrnají báshí would bring with
him; and also for Delí Hasan. In the month of Dhu’l Kadah, Núh
Páshá, the beglerbeg of Anatolia, who had succeeded Jeghala Zádeh
in the east, and who had been appointed to the government of
Caramania, Sivás, Merœsh, Haleb, and Adna, was appointed to
conduct the war against those rebel chiefs who had continued their
hostility, after Delí Hasan had reconciled himself. But when these
rebels, however, did make peace, the sons of the khán of the
Crimea, Salámet Gheráí, Mohammed Gheráí, and Shaher Gheráí,
who had gone over to them, returned to the court of their brother,
the ruling khán, when their unnatural conduct was pardoned. This
took place towards the end of Dhu’l Hijja. On the 27th of the same
month, the emperor was exceedingly enraged against the royal
prince called Mahmúd Sultán, for some vicious conduct which had
manifested itself in him. The true reason seems to have been this.
One of the mesháiekh, or doctors, entered into a correspondence
with Sultán Mahmúd, which flattered him with the prospect of
mounting the Ottoman throne. This correspondence fell into the
hands of the Kizlar Aghá, who informed the emperor of what was
going on. The prince was first seized, then his mother, the sheikh or
doctor, and all the other persons who were any away connected with
the secret. This conduct, on the part of the persons concerned,
awakened, as well it might, the suspicion of the emperor, who
deemed it of so serious nature, that at the end of one month after
they had been apprehended they were made to feel what they had
every reason to dread. Mahmúd was a youth of great bravery and
heroism. When at any time he saw his father in a thoughtful mood
about the issue of the rebellion, which we have lately described, he
used to say to him: “Make me commander-in-chief, and I will soon
bring these rebels to submit, either by the sword or by acts of
kindness: the thing is by no means difficult.” The emperor, however,
did not like to hear him express himself in that way, and therefore
prohibited the use of such language.
Among the strange events of this year is the following. Abd-ur-
rahmán, sometimes called Nedázlí, a teacher in an academy in
Constantinople, was apprehended on the 10th Jamadi II., and put to
death in the royal diván on a charge of impiety and atheism. Akhí
Zádeh Effendí the chief-priest of Romeili, and Asa’d Effendí the chief-
priest of Anatolia, were the two judges who condemned the
unhappy man. Asa’d Effendí, in a letter he sent to Tarnákjí Hasan
Páshá, says “he had never met in all his life such another Zendik
(sadducee) as Abd-ur-rahmán. He avowed most thoroughly,”
continues Asa’d Effendí, “his disbelief of the resurrection, heaven
and hell, reward and punishment. I asked him to reply to several
texts, and employed many strong and perspicuous arguments with
the view of rescuing him from his unbelief and depravity, but he
would not recant. So great an unbeliever was he, in his perverted
judgment on points on which there can be no doubt! But neither
was he to be considered as an insane person, for he argued strongly
for his own views and mode of belief. There is no hope whatever of
convincing a madman; and this sadducee, when he was not brought
to repentance, deserved to die, and to this doom he was subjected.
If your excellency had been here you would, with your own hands,
have slain him. The world is delivered from his corrupt opinions,
Muselmans from his influence, and the orthodox faith from the
slanders of his tongue.”
Concerning the operations of the new Commander-in-chief

Mohammed Páshá.
Soon after the grand vezír’s return to Constantinople last year, Lálá
Mohammed Páshá, whom he had left in the supreme command at
Buda, was appointed serdár in his room, or commander-in-chief of
the whole of the Turkish forces on the frontiers.
Lálá Mohammed Páshá, as before hinted, left Buda and came to
Belgrade, whence he issued orders to all the troops to assemble at
his head-quarters. After these orders had been attended to, and the
various troops had accordingly assembled at Belgrade, he found it
would be too late in the year to wait for the arrival of the janissaries,
whom the túrnají báshí was conducting to him from Constantinople,
or for Delí Hasan (lately a powerful and mischievous rebel). In short,
the season had already been far advanced, and therefore
Mohammed Páshá returned towards Buda with the whole of his
army. After crossing the bridge of Usk he encamped at a place called
Kúrwah, where he received a visit from Delí Hasan Páshá, now the
beglerbeg of Bosnia. When this man first came over to Romeili,
under the semblance of having returned to obedience, he still
cherished in his heart, notwithstanding this appearance, his old
sentiments of disaffection. For some small offence which the master
of the vessel in which he sailed from Anatolia had given him, he got
into a rage and shot him dead. His conduct at Adrianople was still
more flagrant. He collected there, by violence, an immense quantity
of spoil; robbed the saddler of that place of all the furniture he had
in his premises; laid a heavy contribution on the inhabitants, and did
not leave the place till a certain number of yúks of money had been
given to him. He acted in this tyrannical way at Philippopolis, Sofia,
and other cities through which he passed with his troops, amounting
to ten thousand foot and horse, on his way to join the commander-
in-chief. These troops had a most strange appearance. Many of them
were naked-looking wretches, wearing amulets and chains about
their necks; others of them had camel-bells fixed to their stirrups,
and also wore amulets and chains on their backs; others were
without caps or bonnets, and wore long hair like women, divided
into tresses; others again had no covering for their legs. Each man
of this motley crew carried a sort of spear, having a white flag about
two spans long at the top. Thus arranged and accoutred, they
surrounded the serdár’s tent with their matches burning in their
hands, and crooked daggers stuck in their girdles. After having
arranged themselves properly and being put in right order, the
serdár sent one hundred and forty garments for the better sort
amongst them, and cloth for as many more. Four hundred of them
offered to enter the ranks of the serdár; but he replied he would see
about it, and afterwards dismissed this savage-looking multitude.
His royal highness Ghází Gheráí, khán of the Crimea, who had
wintered at Petcheví, made an excursion into the enemy’s
dominions, but had not been so successful in the enterprize as he at
first anticipated. When the commander-in-chief11 was on his way
from Buda to Belgrade he paid his royal highness a visit; but on
account of some misunderstanding or other, the khán returned to his
own dominions without offering, in any way, to assist the besieged in
Buda, which we lately left under the command of Mohammed Páshá,
afterwards appointed commander-in-chief. The enemy’s camp, below
Pest, was about fifty thousand strong. They had constructed a
bridge across to the island of Chíl, and occupied that island with the
view of preventing boats passing with provisions to Buda.
When the army under Mohammed Páshá, the commander-in-chief,
had taken up its position in the neighbourhood of the enemy’s camp,
the whole of the enemy’s guns were directed against the Moslems,
who, from the necessity they were under of preparing themselves
trenches, were not in a condition to act on the offensive, or even on
the defensive. The Moslems appeared, even to themselves, to have
been in a dilemma at this time, and did not seem to know how to
conduct their military manœuvres. They were aware, at least some
of their leaders were so, that if they had sent out detachments to
harass the country around Pest, the enemy would not fail to take
advantage of this, and come and attack them when less able to offer
them effectual resistance. As the recovering of Buda was their chief
object, they were unwilling to retire before they had at least supplied
it with a sufficient quantity of provisions, and thus encourage the
Budians to maintain their heroic resistance. The opinions of the
warriors, however, were various and conflictive: one party proposed
one thing, another opposed this, and a third had a new plan
altogether. At length, however, now that Yemishjí Páshá was no
more at their head, they resolved on constructing bridges, and
attacking the enemy that had taken possession of the Chíl. This was
talked over and considered. Kúchuk Osmán Aghá, Fedái Beg, ághá
of the salihdárs, some emírs well acquainted with the use of small-
arms, and three thousand segbáns, with ten pieces of cannon, were
ordered to effect a landing on the island during the night, and raise
bastions, mounds, &c. The commander of the segbáns, who acted in
the room of the ághá of the janissaries, came forward, and said that
he had ordered three or four thousand of the common soldiers to
this service, as it was unnecessary, and even improper, he said, to
employ the janissaries in a species of labour which was beneath
their rank in the army. These sentiments did not sound well in the
ears of those veterans who thought otherwise; they said that the
success of the undertaking depended on the janissaries being
employed in it. A warm discussion ensued, and every one gave his
own opinion. One party proposed that Serkhúsh Ibrahím Páshá,
cousin to the commander-in-chief, should conduct this expedition.
This was opposed by another party, who proposed that Murád
Páshá, beglerbeg of Romeili, with his provincial troops, should be
sent. This was also rejected; and it is no wonder if the conflicting
opinions which prevailed in the Moslem camp on this occasion
should have proved the means of its utter ruin and destruction. From
this very terrible result, however, they were saved, though at the
expense of many lives.
Dervísh Páshá, who had been deposed from the government of
Bosnia, was finally fixed on to conduct the expedition. On his
reaching a bridge which the Moslems had just constructed for his
use, he broke out into a rage when he saw it, and declared it
altogether defective and dangerous. Mohammed Páshá, when the
fact was explained to him, smoothed him down by telling him it
should be, without delay, put into a proper state. “I need only tell
you,” said the serdár, “in order to secure your services, that the
janissaries in Constantinople, in consequence of their having met
with the emperor’s countenance, and that of the prime minister,
have become excessively tyrannical and turbulent. When you reflect
on this, and when you consider that those of the same body of men
amongst us here have manifested a similar spirit, you will not, I am
sure, flinch from the duty assigned you.” This speech had the
desired effect. Dervísh swore that he regarded his own life no more
than he did a draught of water. “My reflection forbids me,” answered
he, with no small degree of generous warmth, “to feel concern about
self, but it demands of me, on the other hand, to be every way alive
to the interests of my government, and to the glory of my religion.
No sacrifice can be too great for either of these.” Thus saying, he
proceeded. By means of boats four or five thousand horse and ten
thousand foot were conveyed across to the above island under
covert of the night.
It is very singular, as well as very remarkable, that at this time
Mohammed Páshá was visited by a sort of deep lethargy, which
seemed extremely alarming; so much so, in fact, that he could not
raise his head, and when he opened his eyes he spoke nonsense. In
the meantime midnight had passed away, and the troops, which had
effected a descent on the island of Chíl, had made no trenches nor
erected any bastions. The segbáns who formed part of the
expedition obstinately refused to open trenches. “We fought on the
other side,” said they, “without the use of trenches, and we will not
use them here.” The other janissaries, however, dug trenches for
themselves.
On the morning of the 4th of the month Sefer these unruly troops
stood forth without order, and without any preconcerted plan, just
like an army of locusts; and instead of acting in concert, and under
regular authority, they spread out into small parties, and began to
harass and plunder the country round Pest. They killed a few in
these excursions, and seized a handful of others, with whom they
returned to their camp. The bridge above referred to, though
immense labour had been used in getting it ready, was not as yet
fully finished. The enemy, who had been watching the movements of
the Moslems, now put themselves in motion. They resembled a
horde of swine following each other. The Hungarian cavalry attacked
with fury those of the Moslems, and the bloody contest continued for
several hours. It was very awful to see so many thousands of men in
battle-array, some dying on the field and others drowning in the
Danube. An auxiliary force of some hundreds of Moslems was
conveyed over to the aid of their brethren in the island, whilst the
cannon in the camp were made to play on the enemy with some
effect. Dervísh Páshá, who commanded the expedition, was left with
only ten pages around him; but he maintained his ground with
matchless heroism. He tried, though in vain, to rally around him his
troops, who were flying in all directions. Seeing himself abandoned
by his men, and having no hope of succour from any quarter, he
rushed in among a body of the enemy with the few who had
remained faithful to him, and died sword in hand.
In this very disastrous attempt no less than six thousand of the
turbulent segbáns perished. The enemy, on perceiving the
advantage they had gained, advanced their guns to the edge of the
river, and destroyed the bridge which had cost the Moslems so much
trouble in constructing. This was not all. They soon after sent over in
boats a host of troops to the Moslem side of the river, and during the
night effected a number of trenches. They also commenced
constructing a bridge, and every thing seemed to pronounce in
favour of the enemy. The Moslems had met with a severe check, and
the enemy was advancing upon them. For three successive days
they remained (i.e. the Moslem army) in a state of apparent
inactivity, and the enemy had nearly finished their new bridge,
when, on the fourth day, Delí Hasan Páshá, by order of the serdár,
advanced with his troops to the very edge of the enemy’s new
trenches; but finding it impracticable, from their great depth, to
penetrate them, he returned. He contrived, however, a more
effectual method; this was, to divide his men into two bodies, and
cause them to enter in at the two ends of the trenches. Never was
any thing more decisive. Out of ten thousand of the very best part of
the enemy’s troops, and which had occupied these trenches, only
about two hundred of them escaped the edge of the sword: all the
rest perished. The two hundred who did escape, made towards their
boats; but had scarcely reached the middle of the river, on their
return to the Chíl, when their boats upset and all on board sunk to
the bottom.
After these wonderful and auspicious events, the serdár, Mohammed
Páshá, raised his camp and directed his steps towards Buda; but the
enemy, not in the least awed by the heavy loss they had just
sustained, sent another body of several thousands to attack him in
the rear. Few of these returned to their camp. Mohammed Páshá,
who had fortunately received an augmentation of two thousand men
from Buda, attacked the pursuing army from two points, and utterly
defeated them. On the 12th of the month, when engaged in
throwing provisions into Buda, the enemy again advanced, in the
hope of thwarting the páshá’s purpose; but they were met with such
vigour, that they were obliged to retrace their steps as fast as they
were able. The enemy now retired upon Pest, removing, as they
advanced on that place, the bridges which they had constructed on
the Danube.
The winter season having set in, the serdár directed his thoughts
towards making arrangements for the better protection of Alba Julia
and Buda. With this view, Hasan Aghá, the túrnají báshí, was left
with a number of troops to watch the movements of the enemy. The
válí of Romeili, Murád Páshá, with his provincials, was left to
garrison Buda itself; and Delí Hasan Páshá, beglerbeg of Bosnia, was
sent to Usk. On the 14th of Rabia II. the commander-in-chief, with
the remainder of his army, returned to Belgrade, which he reached
about the end of the month. The troops were allowed to retire into
winter-quarters, and a report of the whole of the campaign was sent
off to Constantinople.
In the month of Moharrem of this year, Súfí Sinán Páshá was
recalled to Constantinople, and raised to the dignity of vezír. The
government of Shám (Syria) was conferred on Ferhád Aghá, who
had been deposed from the ágháship of the janissaries. Núh Páshá
was appointed commander-in-chief in Anatolia, and Háfiz Ahmed
Páshá was recalled from Kutahia to Constantinople. He arrived there
on the 24th of Sefer, and brought fifteen thousand ducats along with
him, which were all seized by the government. The day after his
arrival he went and took his seat in the diván; but towards the
evening of the same day, Kásim Aghá, the ághá of the janissaries,
seized him in his own palace, sealed up his effects, and conducted
him to the Seven Towers, whence, after eighteen days’ confinement,
he was set at liberty, and sent off to his own villa in the
neighbourhood of Mikhalij (Moalich). The whole of his property in
Constantinople was taken possession of in the name of the emperor.
Had it not been for the interposition of the vezír, Hasan Páshá, and
others, he certainly would have been put to death. In the month of
Moharrem, also, Sáa’tjí Hasan Páshá was appointed to the
government of Erzerúm, and was sent away during the severity of
the winter by sea to Tribazond. Núh Páshá, who had been appointed
commander-in-chief in Anatolia over the troops who were to act
against the insurgents in that quarter, was displaced by the grand
vezír, Yemishjí Hasan Páshá, in consequence of an old grudge which
he still continued to cherish against him, and Nesúh Páshá,
beglerbeg of Haleb, was appointed in his room. Nesúh Páshá was a
man of great worth, probity, and experience. He was ordered to go
to Larenda, in his native country.
The grand vezír Yemishjí Hasan Páshá is deposed.—Dies by a violent

death.
The grand vezír, Yemishjí Hasan Páshá, took care to appoint skilful
commanders every where on the Turkish frontiers; succeeded in
crushing the sedition which had broken out in the city, and in
restoring tranquillity; tamed the spirit of his factious and turbulent
troops, and took ample vengeance on all his enemies. In short,
Hasan Páshá, the prime minister, was without a rival, and acted with
absolute authority. His success was his ruin. His insolent vapouring
pride and vanity grew to such a height, that even the friendship of
those who were most attached to him was turned into hatred and
enmity, and their esteem into disgust. The reverend mufti, Mustafa
Effendí, Mustafa son of Rázieh, the ághá of the janissaries, Kásim
Aghá, besides other persons of note, began now to cherish an utter
aversion towards this unsufferably proud and haughty vezír. These
great men, and others of their order and rank, ventured, at last, to
make a communication of his tyranny and misrule to the emperor;
who, on receiving it, immediately wrote to the mufti, and others
learned in the law, with regard to the nature of the misconduct
charged against his vezír, and requested their opinion. These great
and wise men acted their own part, and the result was, that both
secret and open hostility began to be exercised against the grand
vezír. It was alleged that he had the settled intention of banishing
the queen-mother; that to accomplish this he had secured the
concurrence of the janissaries, by promising to break open the
treasury-chest of St. Sophia, and distributing the money in it
amongst them. Kásim Aghá, to give this story the appearance of
veracity, pretended he was able to substantiate the whole by
credible witnesses. In short, the emperor and his mother were
thoroughly persuaded of the truth of these allegations, and the
following assertion had the effect of strengthening his majesty’s
convictions: “If your majesty,” said his accusers, “were just now to
send for the seals of office, he would refuse to deliver them up.”
One day, when the grand vezír, without entertaining the least
suspicion of what was going on against him, went to Dávud Páshá
on a visit to the emperor, and not finding the ághá of the palace, felt
some concern as to how he might be introduced to his majesty, and
therefore sent in a note intimating he had important communications
to make to his royal ear; instead of having been graciously invited to
enter, as he expected, he was coolly told, he would have an
opportunity of laying his communications before the diván. This cold
reception, as well as the answer which was returned him, he was at
no loss to interpret: he perceived at once a change had taken place
in his majesty’s mind towards him. He waited, therefore, with
anxiety for the meeting of the diván, which took place on the
Saturday following. Prior to the meeting of the diván, however, the
ághá of the janissaries wrote a note to his majesty, which insinuated
that there was great danger to be apprehended from the grand vezír,
and that if prompt measures were not immediately taken with him, a
serious tumult would most certainly ensue. In the diván, he stated
the same things at great length, and concluded by saying, “that if
instant precaution was not taken to thwart the purposes of the
proud vezír, the seditious doctrines he had sown among the
janissaries would soon, he was afraid, be felt in all their mischievous
consequences. Try,” continued the ághá, “and require him to deliver
up the seals of his vezírship, and I am willing to forfeit your
majesty’s good-will if the janissaries do not rise to a man in
resistance.” This speech excited his majesty’s anger.
In the meantime, the ketkhodá of the kapújís went to the grand
vezír, and informed him how matters stood, and of the part Kásim
Aghá had acted; and also that the military judges demanded his
presence in the diván. The grand vezír, however, did not think proper
to appear in the diván; but this ághá, bent on ruining him, did not
leave a stone unturned in trying to accomplish his purpose. Towards
evening, one Turk Ahmed Aghá, a kapújí báshí, brought the vezír a
written message, which purported to be from his majesty. On
reading this document, he set off in a sorrowful mood towards the
imperial gardens, but contrived at the same time to send word to
those ághás who were his friends, of the emperor’s purpose to
deprive him of his office; and who immediately went to stir up the
janissaries to offer resistance. They assembled themselves together
in a tumultuous manner, hastened to Kásim Aghá’s gate, and
charged him with being the cause of the emperor’s change of mind
towards the grand vezír, shut him up in one of his rooms, and made
his gate fast with locks and bars: thence they proceeded to the mufti
and military judges, and threatened that if they did not immediately
induce the emperor to restore Yemishjí Hasan Páshá to the
premiership they would burn down their dwellings, and shed the
blood of any who should venture to oppose them. They also wrote
out their own sentiments, in order to present them to his majesty,
but which they delayed sending till the following day. After having
menaced the reverend and learned gentleman above-mentioned,
they returned to pay Kásim Aghá a second visit; but he had effected
his escape, and had gone to Jeráh Mohammed Páshá. On not finding
Kásim Aghá a prisoner in his own house as they had left him, the
enraged janissaries took the seals of his ágháship, and conferred
them on Turk Ahmed Aghá. The vezírship they conferred on Sárukjí
Mustafa Páshá, who had been governor of Wán; but the seals of the
premiership they meant to confer on Yávuz Alí Páshá, who was
expected from Egypt.
Such were the transactions which took place on the above occasion,
and such the result. The diván, as a matter of prudence, was
forbidden to meet for a week.
On the following morning the infuriated janissaries, with one accord,
proceeded to the emperor’s palace, and demanded with a loud voice
that Yemishjí Hasan Páshá should be reinstated in the premiership.
This demand, however, was only made to the officers and servants
of the palace, but no doubt with the view of their communicating the
desire of the janissaries to the royal ear.
It happened that on that day the reverend mufti, and other spiritual
dignitaries, had gone with their retinue to the royal palace, where
they met the new-made ághá of the janissaries, Turk Ahmed, and
whom they earnestly exhorted to retrace his steps, and not follow
irregular courses. In short, this mode of address made an impression
on the mind of Turk Ahmed, and it seems to have communicated
itself to the rest of the mutineers; for we find the janissaries
suddenly changed their minds, and said, “It is no matter of ours who
is at the helm of affairs: the emperor may appoint whom he
pleases.” The unfortunate grand vezír’s friends among the ketkhodás
and chief chávushes, and some others, still maintained his cause,
and continued for a while longer to persevere in his behalf; but they,
too, when they saw that their perseverance would end in no good in
his behalf, followed the example of the others.
This unsettled state of things continued for the space of ten days,
when ten eunuchs, under the command of the bostán báshí, by
supreme authority suddenly seized on Yemishjí Hasan Páshá in the
royal mint, dragged him forth into the garden of Khundán Aghá, and
there despatched him, leaving his friends and followers to lament
over him. Thus ended the life and activities of Yemishjí Hasan Páshá.
It may not be improper briefly to advert here to the cause of that
enmity which excited Kásim Aghá against the grand vezír, and which
had its origin in the following circumstance.
When Háfiz Ahmed Páshá was sent to the Seven Towers, and his
property seized, that part of it which was not considered fit to be
appropriated to his majesty’s own use was ordered to be sold. Kásim
Aghá was the person appointed to execute this business in the first
instance; but the grand vezír, on the part of the diván, associated
with Kásim the son Poghacha, the third treasurer. The latter,
perceiving some disposition to purloin in the former, withstood him.
Kásim, fired with indignation, said that the emperor had committed
to him the sale of the confiscated property, and asked him, with an
air of disdain, by whose authority he had ventured to mix in matters
that did not belong to him. The other defended himself, and
maintained that it was the special duty of the defterdárs to attend to
matters of that kind, and not to ághás. “Why,” said Kásim, in wrath,
“I hope it will be my lot one day to dispose in this very way of your
property, and of the property of him who sent you hither.” The
treasurer, who was not possessed of superabundant meekness,
communicated these unguarded sayings to the grand vezír, and of
course displeased him exceedingly. When Kásim, some time
afterwards, appeared before him, he reproved him for his conduct,
and threatened to be revenged on him. This, then, was the cause of
that hostility and ill will manifested by Kásim Aghá, as above related,
and which also led him to other actions not less vindictive and cruel.
After the murder of the grand vezír had been perpetrated, he not
only got the treasurer, Altí Poghacha’s son deposed, but succeeded
also in keeping him confined in the Seven Towers for a considerable
time, and caused the whole of his property to be confiscated—thus
verifying, in part at least, the truth of his own prediction. Yemishjí
Hasan Páshá’s secretary he caused to be arrested, and made him
advance security for his future conduct. Yáishá Zádeh Hamzah
Effendí, the reïs-ul-ketáb, or reïs-effendí, was by his means sent to
prison, and the whole of his property would also have been
confiscated, had it not been for the good offices of the ághá of the
salihdárs, who interfered in his behalf. Kátibmim, the secretary to
Jeráh Mohammed Páshá, was made reïs-effendí in room of Hamza
Effendí.
This Kásim, though only an ághá, seems to have acted with as much
authority and controul, in fact, as if he had been possessed of
absolute and supreme dominion over the lives and fortunes of men.
We shall hear more of him just now, and still more afterwards.
Kásim Páshá is made Governor of Constantinople.

In consequence of the káímakám having been afflicted with the
gout, he found himself unable to attend his duty in the diván, and
therefore did not appear there, except on the days on which
petitions were presented to his majesty. Hamza Páshá, the lord high
chancellor, acted for him, and gave him a detail of all such matters
as usually came before that assembly.
One day, however, Kásim Páshá (very lately only an ághá) invented
some means or other of getting the reverend mufti, Mustafa Effendí,
invited to the royal palace, where the emperor conversed with him
on topics of a general nature, and afterwards suddenly adverted to
the case of the afflicted Jeráh Páshá; spoke of the excellent fitness
of Kásim Páshá for the despatch of public affairs, and so forth. It
now began to be circulated abroad that the mufti had said that Jeráh
Páshá, the most laborious and active of all the emperor’s servants,
and the most beloved among the list of vezírs, was, in consequence
of disease, unable to attend to the arduous services which his
responsible situation demanded, or even to be present in the diván.
The part which Hamza Páshá, the lord high chancellor, had acted in
the diván, was mentioned with approbation, and, in words,
encouraged; but the affairs of government, it was said, had become
so very great and numerous, that it was absolutely impossible for
him, however willing he might be, to fulfil the duties of the governor
or deputy of Constantinople; and therefore it was considered more
advantageous to the state to allow Jeráh Páshá to retire, and
appoint another able person to the deputyship. It was urged that
Kásim Páshá was a man every way qualified for the high situation,
and on the 8th of Jemadi II. Jeráh was informed that his further
continuance in office was dispensed with, and that Kásim Páshá was
appointed to succeed him.
Kásim Páshá entered on the duties of his high station with zeal and
alacrity, and, along with the mufti, attended incessantly to all the
variety of business which came before him, with the most
consummate skill and prudence. Mustafa Páshá, one of the vezírs,
on account of some impropriety which appeared in his conduct, was
sent to Anatolia, and Kúrd Páshá was appointed to fill his situation in
the diván.
The mufti and the new deputy took care, however, to get their own
friends and favourites into comfortable and snug places, by turning
others out.
Yemishjí Hasan Páshá was deposed in the month of Rabia II. and
assassinated in Jemadi II. following of this current year. In
consequence of there having been no vezír in the diván at the death
of the late grand vezír, who was considered worthy of wearing the
robes of the premier, the seals were deposited, in the meantime, in
the treasury of the Soleimáníyeh. Jeráh Páshá, the deputy of
Constantinople, and his successor Kásim Páshá, attended to the
duties peculiar to the premier’s office till a new one was appointed,
which was not long after. Yávuz Alí Páshá having been recalled from
the government of Egypt, he appointed the oldest of the emírs of
that province to act as his deputy, and immediately commenced his
journey towards Constantinople. His near approach to that city was
no sooner ascertained, than the seals of the grand vezírship were
sent him by the hands of Kúlí Dilsiz, a relation of his own. This took
place in Jemadi II., about the time the late grand vezír was
assassinated.
The commencement of a rupture with Persia.

This year, one thousand and twelve, is recognized in the history of
the empire as a year of defection and rebellion. It was this year that
the ungracious Sháh Abbás, the king of Persia, violated his
engagements with the Sublime Porte, by stirring up rebellion and
exercising tyranny and oppression on her frontiers. The governors
and commanders on the frontier provinces had hitherto manifested
the strictest obedience and good government, but now became
tyrants through the influence of Persia. Neglecting the law of God
and despising the commands of the emperor, they began to exercise
their tyranny and oppression not only on the peasantry but even on
those in power. In short, the Persians succeeded amazingly in
perverting and corrupting the hitherto faithful Moslems on the
frontiers.
Amongst those who had been thus gained over by one means or
other to the side of the heretical Persians was one Ghází Beg, a
descendant of Sháh Kúlí of Kúrdistán, and governor of Silmás. He
and some of his followers dreading the resentment of the Sublime
Porte, wrote letters to the Persian sháh to take them under his
protection, and requested him to send them aid. The fox-like sháh,
however, cunningly put off granting them their request for some little
time, thinking it too early for bringing about the base designs he had
formed against the Osmánlís. He, however, sent to Ghází Beg, by a
hypocritical impure wretch of the name of Jemshíd, a cap, a sword,
and a shawl, flattering him with every sort of promise of support
from the sháh. Ghází Beg, thinking he had got all he wanted, began
to force the people of his government to wear caps similar to the
heretical one which was sent to him, instead of those they usually
wore. In short, Ghází Beg and his associates became complete
heretics and did not scruple to show it.
The people of Tabríz were thrown into a state of great rage and
indignation at this conduct, and determined on making Ghází Beg
and his followers to feel it. They accordingly resolved on calling to
their aid the people of Nakhcheván, a city not far from Tabríz, in the
view of bringing the people of Silmás to an account for their
infidelity and heresy. This mission was committed to the care of the
válí of the province of Tabríz, Alí Páshá, who, along with others who
had accompanied him, no sooner reached Nakhcheván, than they
made known to the citizens the purport of their embassy. Adherence
to the emperor of the Muselmans, on the one hand, and the
chastisement of the apostate sháh, on the other, was the burden of
their message and the subject of consultation. The enlightened vezír,
Sheríf Páshá, válí of Reván (Erivan), in the view of suppressing the
rising rebellion and corruption, wrote to all quarters, exhorting every
one to lend his aid to this good work; but without any good effect.
Finding his exhortations had not been attended to, he ordered his
deputy, Osmán Aghá, to march with a general army against the
heretics; but carefully warned them to show the heretics, in the first
instance, forbearance and compassion. “If they,” said the mild páshá,
“abjure their heresy and return to the bosom of Islamism again,
well; if not, then you must commence a regular war against them.”
The troops from Nakhcheván and those of Tabríz met at a place
which had been previously fixed on; but before proceeding to
extremities they, in conformity to the orders received from the
páshá, first despatched a messenger to recall the heretics in
question to their ancient faith. The proud and haughty apostates,
however, were not to be gained over in that way. They had taken
refuge in the fortress called Karní Yáruk, and from their batteries
answered the Moslem messenger with the sound of cannon and
musketry, as a token of defiance. This was enough: the means of
recalling them to the true faith had been employed, but were
contemptuously rejected; it was therefore proper to attempt their
reduction by force. The Moslem and orthodox army accordingly
advanced and environed Karní Yáruk with the view of laying siege to
it, notwithstanding its immense elevation and great strength. With
the utmost care, and avoiding, as well as possible, the showers of
bullets and arrows which were discharged from the ramparts of the
garrison, they succeeded in mounting so far as to place their
standard on its walls. After employing a whole week in scattering fire
and death among the besieged, the author of the evil began to
perceive that all further resistance would be vain, and, therefore,
leaving his wife and child, threw himself over the wall of the
garrison, and made the best of his way to the sháh. His sons and
followers maintained their resistance for a day or two longer, and
then proposed to capitulate. The orthodox permitted them to retire
to any place they chose, and to take the whole of their property
along with them; every Osmánlí having been prohibited, in the
strongest manner, laying a finger on them, or on their goods, which
they were allowed to take along with them. After this fortress and a
few others had been reduced under the Ottoman power, the troops
of Nakhcheván and of Tabríz returned to their respective homes.
The Sháh of Persia marches upon Tabríz.

After the Kúrd, Ghází Beg, had made his escape from Karní Yáruk, as
above related, he made his way to the court of Persia, at Ispahan,
where he related the dangers he had undergone and escaped, the
success of the Osmánlís, and earnestly and vehemently urged the
Persian monarch to instant and open hostility against the Turks. He
represented the country of the fire-worshippers, especially the
principal city in it, Tabríz, as abounding with wealth, and that the
treasury of it at that moment was full of money. He said, moreover,
that the troops were very few, if any, and that that was a proper
time for pillaging it.
This representation of the Kúrd was all that was necessary for
awakening the cupidity of the perverted sháh, who at once resolved
on reducing the whole of that country under his own authority. This
avaricious sháh, regardless of treaty and common faith, thought of
nothing else but how he might succeed in the attempt. Two or three
thousand of his best troops, Mamlúks, were pushed forward from
Ispahan to Tabríz, by means of caravans, a journey of twenty days,
but which these caravans accomplished in nine, such was the mighty
haste they had made. On the 19th of Rabia II. they erected the
standard of hostility in the plains of Tabríz.
A day or two after the appearance of these invaders the treacherous
Zulfekár Khán, and a number of other rebels, to the number of
fifteen thousand, collected together at a village belonging to some
súfís, with the view of intercepting the Tabrízian army returning from
Nakhcheván; and there they proposed to give them battle as soon
as they arrived.
The Tabrízian warriors, after having parted with the Nakhchevánís,
began to retrace their steps homewards, and had reached within a
short distance of the very place where their enemies lay encamped,
with the view of intercepting them and cutting them off. Their
commander-in-chief, Alí Páshá, was made aware by letters of the
state of matters, and of the defection which the presence of the
Mamlúks had occasioned. These letters were sent him from some of
the emírs on the frontiers; but to prevent discouragement arising in
the minds of the Tabrízian warriors, and in order to keep them
together, he kept the information he had received to himself,
determined to meet the Persian heretics with his little orthodox
band, only fifteen hundred, whatever might be the number that
should oppose him.
On the morning of the 22d of the month last-mentioned, at sun-rise,
the enemy presented themselves in battle array, their unfurled
banners streaming in the air; and such was the majestic but terrific
appearance which this host of heretics showed, that it completely
awed the little band of Tabrízian troops into something like terror.
The sháh of the red heads (i.e. of the Persians) put his host,
numerous as ants, into order, and his trumpets began to be
sounded. This sight increased the terror of the Moslems; but they
were determined to meet them, whatever might be the result. They
did so, and fought the infidel host with a bravery altogether
unparalleled; the skill and management they manifested was
extraordinary. They scattered death and fury amidst the odious
heretics. By their immense ardour, their hearts burning bright with
the purest zeal, they successfully repulsed the successive assaults of
the cold-hearted heretics, and fairly despoiled them of their vain-
glorious appearance of valour. A noted rebel of the name of Gholám
Alí Oghlí, who had acted in the capacity of a cherkají báshí to the
enemy, and who had manifested great bravery among the heretics,
fell by the hands of the heroic Karah Hasan. When this circumstance
happened, the cowardly and heartless heretics began to give way;
they were evidently disheartened. It so happened, however, that at
this time one Timúrjí Oghlí, a well-known person, but whose
principles were more detestable than even those of the heretics,
though he pretended every thing valorous, went over, nevertheless,
to the enemy with a hundred of his followers; a circumstance, it
must be acknowledged, which had a powerful effect in depressing
the hearts of the faithful few.
But soon a fire broke out within them, which not only destroyed
every thorn of doubt, but also burned up all the rubbish of their
suspicious speculations, with regard to the point to be gained, when
again, with redoubled valour, they set their faces firmly to the
contest, and fought with such desperate courage as can hardly be
described. The contest, however, was most unequal: a few hundreds
against many thousands; but yet a most bloody one. Many a sultán’s
head remained bonnetless on the field of battle; many a khán’s
family was left unprotected in this most desperate struggle, which
lasted from sun-rise till mid-day. True it is that the Tabrízians are a
most bold, fierce, and heroic tribe; and yet, notwithstanding these
qualities which shone in them so conspicuously on the above
occasion, their caution and acuteness was such, that only ten or
fifteen of them tasted the cup of martyrdom, a circumstance which
seems truly wonderful. It is recorded, that a man of immense
strength, belonging to the Tabrízians, vanquished by his sword about
sixty of the enemy, the greater part of whom he made thorns and
briars for the fire of hell.
The result of the bloody contest we have to record was fatal to the
Tabrízians. The hateful heretics, like a multitude of ants, ran upon
their antagonists and overcame them by dint of numbers. On that
lamentable day, Mohammed Páshá, who had formerly been governor
of Nakhcheván, and the beglerbeg of Akhiska, Khalíl Páshá, after
having blotted out of the book of life many of the red heads, fell
martyrs on the field. Alí Páshá, himself a Tabrízian, the válí of the
province, performed, on the above day, the most incredible acts of
bravery recorded in history. The sháh himself could not help
admiring the heroism which inspired Alí Páshá, and spoke with
approbation of the wonderful feats he performed before him. In
short, the sháh himself declared that had there not been treachery
somewhere, the victory would not have been so easily won. Such of
the brave Tabrízians as had not the good fortune of falling in battle
contending with these hateful heretics were, of course, subjected to
a fate which they esteem truly vile and abject. They were made
prisoners.
The city and fortress of Tabríz, about the middle of the first Jemadi,
after a siege of twenty-two days, yielded, on the conditions of their
persons and property being respected. These the heretics promised,
but failed most shamefully in fulfilling them. As soon as they got
possession of Tabríz, they began to plunder and rob the inhabitants
without mercy, made their persons slaves, and furthermore began to
annoy them with the delirium of their heresy. The cazí effendí of the
city, not choosing to submit to heretics, fled the city, and
endeavoured to make his way to Wán, but he was pursued by some
of the red heads, who cruelly murdered him on the road.
The heretical sháh, in addition to all the other enormities he and his
despicable soldiery committed, violated also the chastity of the
females of Tabríz, without ceremony and without compunction.
After Tabríz had fallen into the hands of these heretics, its
inhabitants robbed and made slaves, and the women ravished, the
sháh turned his thoughts towards vanquishing other cities, and
accordingly sent off troops in all directions. The sháh himself
determined on the reduction of Nakhcheván, and therefore made
every preparation for the attempt. Two days were spent in the plains
of Tabríz in making them, during which time the heretics enjoyed
themselves in eating and drinking.
One of those detachments sent out by the sháh was headed by a
vile person of the name of Kesáb Hájí, a noted heretic of Urdúbád,
his native city, and famous from ancient times for its heresy and
atheism. When the Osmánlís first conquered this city, for it was at
the time we are speaking of under the Ottoman dominion, it was
wonderfully raised and exalted by means of the self-evident and
convincing doctrines of the Koran, which were introduced amongst
its inhabitants; but the wicked people, notwithstanding, turned again
to their beloved heresy. Kesáb Hájí, with the troops committed to his
charge, marched upon this city. His thorough acquaintance with the
people, and his knowledge of the country round about, pointed him
out as the most fit person for the undertaking. When this corrupted
fellow, and his no less corrupted soldiery had crossed the river near
Urdúbád, and appeared before the walls of the city, the hypocritical
and disaffected inhabitants came forth to meet them with
demonstrations of joy, and hastened to show them all the honour
and respect they were able. As a proof of the sincerity of their joy
they garnished their houses and streets, shaved their under-beard,
and changed the make of their garments. In this way, and by these
means, the city of Urdúbád, or otherwise called Sawed Kallah, was
taken.
For a day or two the Ottoman garrison in the fortress showed some
disposition to maintain the place and respect the honour of the
sultán; but the inhabitants of the country came forward to the aid of
the invaders, and with their assistance the walls were thrown down,
the arms of the garrison and also their property, whatever it was,
the conquerors distributed among themselves, and afterwards gave
themselves up to eating and drinking.
Another, of the name of Cherak Sultán, commanded a second of
those companies or cohorts sent out by the heretical sháh, and was
ordered to attack a village called Gelha, which, with the aid of its
inhabitants, he took without opposition. Mustafa Aghá, who had
been sent thither by the court of Constantinople for the purpose of
collecting and managing grain and fruit, with difficulty escaped with
his head.
Several other places were subjected in a similar manner, and the
heretics spared no means whatever in accomplishing their purposes
against the Osmánlís. Information reached Nakhcheván of the
success which had attended the enemy every where, and of the
tyranny and oppression they exercised over the lives and fortunes of
those who had been so unhappy as to fall into their hands. The
Nakhchevánís were greatly distressed, and fear seized them.
However, a reverse of fortune seemed to be awaiting the orthodox
believers. Kesáb Hájí, who had subdued Urdúbád, remained in it as
governor and commander in the name of the sháh of Persia, but his
exaltation was not of long duration. The válí of Reván, Sheríf Páshá,
an aged and experienced general, perceiving the general defection,
and that there was no end to it, was roused to indignation, and
determined on endeavouring to stop the torrent that seemed to
threaten the whole of the Osmánlí dominions in that quarter. He
accordingly deputed Mohammed Páshá, son of Khezer Páshá, to
march against Urdúbád with five or six hundred veterans and
surprise its new governor. These veterans, with the speed of
messengers of death, arrived one morning before daylight at the
place of their destination, and, as a visitation from heaven, fell upon
the wretched heretics with such sudden fury and effect, that only a
few of them escaped the edge of the sword. Those of them who did
escape the vengeance of the orthodox Moslems, fled into holes and
caves in the mountains and in the fields and hid themselves. Kesáb
Hájí, who by some means or other had been deprived of his horse,
scampered off from the scene of carnage, and, like a fox, secreted
himself in a den, leaving his associates to struggle the best way they
could: but it was to no purpose; he did not save himself; for one of
the veteran Moslems having perceived him, followed him into his
hole, and seized him. His associate in the government of Urdúbád,
one Beyendur, suffered the death due to his villany and crimes; but
Kesáb Hájí himself, though he was afterwards put to death, had the
honour of having a crown of infamy placed on his head, was
dragged by Mohammed Páshá to the residence of the válí, and along
with the whole of the severed heads of the infidels of Urdúbád, was
presented in his presence. The judicious and experienced válí failed
not to pay all due respect to the hero of the victorious Moslems.
It is worthy of remark, however, that the enemy no sooner came to
know of the movements of the Moslems, in reference to Urdúbád,
than they sent off a considerable force in the view of succouring the
heretics in it, in the event of the Moslems offering to subdue that
city. They were too late, however, to gain their object, and when
they heard of its fate they retraced their steps.
The capture of Nakhcheván.

The fortress or city of Nakhcheván was a place of no great strength,
having been built of weak materials. Most of its buildings were made
of clay and mortar; its walls low; and ever since the time the greater
part of them were thrown down, provisions have not been very
plentiful in it. But it was near to Reván, and if it happened at any
time to be deprived of the aid of the military, and was in danger
from enemies, Reván formed a near and accessible asylum for their
families and property, and whence they might easily annoy their
enemies. Reván itself was exceedingly strong and well fortified,
having abundance of cannon and provisions within it. A river, like
Kokjeh-sú, ran under its walls, and the country every where around
it was fertile. Such at least was the account of it which its rulers, at
that time, sent to the sháh when they had reason to expect the
place was likely to be subjected to difficulties, and which was
conveyed to him by one Mohammed Aghá, an officer of the páshá.
The heretics, notwithstanding the several checks which they had
received, continued, nevertheless, to make encroachments on the
Moslem frontiers. Nakhcheván fell into their hands, and some other
places also; but though they struggled hard, for three successive
days, to reduce Reván, they were, in the end, obliged to retreat,
leaving nearly two hundred of their number on the field, whilst only
six or seven of the Moslems met their death in the contest.
When the news of the sháh’s perfidious breach of the peace, and of
the disastrous events which followed thereon, reached the court of
Constantinople, the emperor and his ministers were plunged into a
state of the greatest surprise and consternation. The
communications which had announced this unwelcome intelligence
were despatched by Sáa’tjí Hasan Páshá, who had been sent to the
government of Erzerúm, and by Sheríf Páshá, governor of
Nakhcheván and Reván. The intelligence referred to, not only spoke,
in particular, of the conquests which the sháh had gained on the
frontiers, and of his having put Alí Páshá, beglerbeg of Tabríz, in
irons; but also depicted, in the strongest and most explicit manner,
that unless a speedy and efficient reinforcement were afforded the
Moslems in Asia, not only Reván but other important cities would,
unquestionably, fall into the hands of the heretics.
Such were the alarming accounts which, at this period, troubled the
Sublime Porte; but they were no sooner received than the
káímakám, the civil and military governor of Constantinople,
immediately despatched an officer to assemble together the mufti,
the vezírs and the military judges, in order to lay these important
matters before them. This council, after having fully considered the
various topics which had been submitted to them, sent a report of
their deliberations to his august majesty, who was pleased to
express his approbation of their resolutions. Sáa’tjí Hasan Páshá
was, accordingly, appointed to the chief command in the east: and
whatever number of troops and apparatus of war he might require
for effectually repelling the heretics, were likewise ordered to be
sent to him forthwith. An imperial edict, in conformity with these
resolutions, was immediately issued to the various commanders in
the eastern provinces; but in consequence of the emperor’s
translation to another world, an event which took place soon after
the issuing of the above edict, the preparations in favour of Sáa’tjí
Hasan Páshá were necessarily postponed for awhile.
Death of Sultán Mohammed Khán, son of Murád Khán.

On the 22d of Jemadi II., as the emperor, Sultán Mohammed Khán,
was returning to his royal palace from some place where he had
been, he was met by an inspired person, at the head of the street
which conducted to his royal mansion, who cried out, that in fifty-six
days a very important event would happen, and then warned his
majesty to take care of himself. This extraordinary and unexpected
mode of salutation not only surprised his august majesty, as well it
might, but also the whole of the citizens. It so happened, that on the
14th of Rajab the emperor’s constitution became so very much
altered and weakened as altogether to baffle the skill and advice of
his medical advisers. Nothing that they could devise had the least
effect in affording him any relief, and in four days afterwards, on the
18th of the above month, his triumphant spirit, in the thirty-seventh
year and eighth month of his age, took its flight to the upper world;
having reigned nine years and two months.
Sultán Ahmed Khán, the heir apparent, was declared his father’s
successor, and early on the following morning, the whole of the
vezírs, emírs, and other magnates of the state, assembled in the
royal diván to express their allegiance to the new emperor, and to do
him the honours peculiar on such an occasion. The royal coffin for
the deceased monarch was brought into the court of the palace,
where an immense multitude had collected to hear the funeral
service performed by the reverend mufti, Mustafa Effendí. This
ceremony being over, the royal remains were removed and deposited
in a tomb in St. Sophia, near that of Sultán Selím.
Sultán Mohammed Khán was a prince who possessed rare talents
and acquirements. His manners were grave, and his deportment
polite and dignified, though it had something of severity in it. He
was kind, generous and benevolent, and most attentive to the duties
of religion, but at the same time most strict in the administration of
justice. He uniformly maintained a punctual regard to the appointed
or canonical hours of devotion; and, in short, was a bright example
of religion and piety to the whole of the community. The fame of his
virtues, like those of his exalted progenitors, have all been
embalmed in the poetry of his people.
Of his noble and exalted sons, Sultán Selím entered Paradise on the
3d of Ramazán 1005. The cup of martyrdom was administered to
Sultán Mahmúd on the 27th of Dhúl hijja 1011. Note. It has been
recorded that a certain sheikh had announced to Sultán Mohammed
Khán, that this young prince had formed the design of ascending the
Ottoman throne, for which reason his father, as soon as he was
made acquainted with the fact, employed the above sheikh to
deprive him of his life. The prince, however, was innocent of the
charge laid against him. He was buried in the mausoleum allotted to
the princes of the blood. Ahmed had the good fortune of succeeding
his father, as we have already noticed, and Sultán Mustafa chose a
retired life, though in the course of his eventful life he twice became
emperor. Sultán Jehángír died in infancy.
Of learned men.
Ja’fer Effendí died in 982 of the Hijrah; Haider Effendí in 988; Azemí
Effendí in 990; Nováí Effendí in 1003.

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Library o f Congress Catalog Card Number 91-072908

Preface to the First Edition xvii

1 The Evaluation of Library Services: An Introduction 1

2 The Effects of Accessibility and Convenience on Library Use 27

3 Collection Evaluation: Materials -Centered Approaches 39

4 Collection Evaluation: Use-Centered Approaches 79

5 Evaluation of In-House Use 123

6 Evaluation of Materials Availability 143

7 Evaluation of Catalog Use 181

8 Evaluation of Reference Services: Question Answering 229

9 Evaluation of Reference Services: Database Searching 273

10 The Relevance of Standards to the Evaluation of Library Services 321

11 The Range and Scope of Library Services 335

12 User Studies in Libraries 369

1-1 Organization of a library to serve the interface function. 10

3*10 Example of quantitative data collected for courses in religion

7- 1 Student use of an online versus a traditional catalog. 184

8 -1 Steps in the reference interview process. 231

9-1 Anticipated use of search results by academic and

1 1-6 Portion from the IAMC interview guide used in studying

Further, the book serves as a practical guide to performing evaluations

In the past 10 years, librarians, in common with other professionals, have

I would like to express my appreciation to Walter Allen, Michael Buckland,

THE EVALUATION OF LIBRARY

WHY IS EVALUATION NEEDED?

• Continue a program. For example, should a junior high school library

Evaluation may also help establish a benchmark by showing the level of

WHY ISN'T MORE EVALUATION DONE?

A third barrier to library evaluation is the prevalence of staff with humanities

suggestions for improvement and thus to increased utilization of evaluation

LEVELS AND TYPES OF EVALUATION

Libraries can improve the cost-effectiveness of a service by holding costs

UNIVERSE Selection and Acquisition Collection

EXHIBIT 1-1 Organization of a library to serve the Interface function.

PRINCIPAL FUNCTIONAL COMPONENT PUBLIC MANIFESTATION

Presentation Staff Services

EXHIBIT 1-2 Major library functions and manifestations of these functions.

success or failure of a program. For example, in a literacy program presented by

LIBRARY FUNCTIONS AND OBJECTIVES

Acquisition Organization Presentation

TECHNICAL SERVICES PUBLIC SERVICES

Role of the 2 7 Role of the

EXHIBIT 1-4 The transfer of Information by published documents. Adapted

Assimilation, the stage at which a user is informed by a publication, could lead

EXHIBIT 1-5 The interface function of libraries.

1. Books are for use.

recognized a secondary goal: to increase the number of actual library users.

• Coverage of the collection (or database)— the scope of the collection in

Coverage and recall relate directly to the accessibilily/exposure missions of