INTRODUCTION TO

1
ChapterNUMBER THEORY

of the student, which will Jead him

aims to preparethe background branch of
The theory of numbers related fields. Number theory is that
advanced studies in this and specifically the properties of positive
toWards more more
the properties of integers,
muthematics which deals withapproach integers is attributed to the Greeks. We
shall
scientific to the study of instead that they are already
integers. The first assuming
attempt to construct the integers axiomatically,many elementary properties about them.
make no the book is familiar with (or
eiven and that any rcader of
principle, which we discuss in Principle of Induction.
ordering
Among these, we include the well
Mathematical Induction)
1.1 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION E
the integers that we will often use implicitly, namely, the Well
We will first state an axiom of
a definition
Ordering Principle. We start with of Z. An element a e S is called a least
element
Definition: Let S be a non-empty subset
element, namely.
element) ofS ifa <b, for all b e S. For example, N has a least
(or aminimum subsets of Z, like 2Z, donot have least
element.
element. In fact, many
1. But Z has no least
sets that have a least element.
The following axiom tells us of some
Well-Ordering Principle :
nonempty set S of nonnegative integers contains a least element i.e., there is some
Every to know that, this principle is
integer a in S such that asb for all b e S. You may be surprisedwhich we now state:
actually equivalent to the Principle of Mathematical Induction,
Theorem 1.1
Let ScN such that
(i) le S, and
(ü) whenever k e S, then k + 1 e S. Then S = N.
This theorem is further equivalent to:
Theorem 1.2
Let Sc N such that
)) le S, and
(ü) if me S for all m<k, then ke S.
9.1)
Introduction to Mumber Theony
2

Then S = N, Well-Ordering Principle and Theorem 1.l and 1.2 in

equivalence of the
We will not prove the
this course. forms that we will normally use.
theorem I.I and 1.2 in the
Let us rewrite
Theorem 1.3
involving positive integer n such that
Let P(n) be a statement
ne N
() P) is true and + 1) is true, then P(n) Is true for all
some ke N. then P(k
(1) If Pk) is true for
Theorem 1.4 such that
be a statement involving positive integer n
Let P(n)
(i) P(1) is true and true.
true for all positive integers m < k, then P(k) is
(ü) If P(m) is
ThenP(n) is true for all n e N. algebra.
providing a lot of results in
are very useful for
The equivalent statements given above
Let us look at some examples :
Example 1.1
derive the formula :
Use mathernatical induction to
1, for all n 2 1.
I(1) + 2(2!) + 3(3!) t ... t nn!) = (n + 1)!-
Solution : Let S, = I(1) + 2(2!) + ... + n(n!), and
let P(n) be the statement that
S. = (n+ 1)! - 1.
Basis step: Since S, = (1+ 1)!- I
=2 -1 = I
= 1(1),
P(1) is true.
Inductive hypothesis
Let k be an integer such that k 2 1and P(A) is true ie., S, = (k + 1)! - 1.
Inductive Step :
S,.,=1(1) +2(2!) +...+k(k!) + (* +) (k+ 1)!
- S, +(k + 1) (k + 1)!
= (k+ 1)! -1+ (k+ 1l)(k + 1)!
= (k+ 1)! (k + 2) 1
- (k+ 2)!-1
= ((k +1) + 1)! 1.
Thus P(n) is true.
Therefore by the principle of induction, P(n) is true for all n e
N.
Introduction to Number Theory
Example 1.2
Prove by mathematical induction : . I zt...+ S2. ,for all nz1.
n
Solution: Let P(n) be the statement:

P(n)

=l=2- So P(1) is true.

Let P(n) be true some k e N, ie., P,: tts2
1
Now,
(k+1j'

=2
1 1
+
k(k+1) (k+1)
=2
I k+1-k
k+1 k(k +1)'

k+1) k(k+1)'
<2
k+1
Therefore, P(n) is true for n=k+ l.
for all n 2 I.
Hence, by mathematical induction, P(n) is true
Example 1.3 0, then (| + ay' >1+ na tor alln21.
tStablish the Bernoulli inequality : ifl +a>
statement : P) :(1+ a" 1+ na, for all n 21.
Solution : Let P(n) be the
it P()Lta=1+ais true for n=1.
FP)is true.
 a2T+Ka
(I +
somekeN. ie.,
be true for
Let Pn) a!-(+a'|+ a)
Now (l t
2(|+ ka)(| +a)
+ ka
- |1 +(k +l )al 0. for all n e N.
since ka 2 true
21+(k+ l)a, P(n) is
mathematicalinduction,
by
Thus, P(k + 1) is true. Hence,
1.2 - EXERCISES

a-1) integer n, using

+ ar" for any positive
Ifr 1, show that a+ar + ar +... r-1
mathematical induction.
mathematical induction :
2 Establish the following formulas by
(a) 1+2+3+..+n=
n(n+)n2l.
2

i'+2'+3+..+n'"t2) for alln>1

(b) 6

(c) I'+2' +3' +... tn' ,for all n 21.

(d) 1+3+5 +... + (2n 1)= for alt n > 1.

(e) 1.2+ 2.3+3.4 +...t n(n+1)= n(n+1)n+2) for all n21.

n4n-1) ,for all n>l.
() i+3'+ +...(2n-1) 3
(g) n!>n, for all positive integer n > 4.
(h) n! > n for every integer n 6.
"22t.*=2-Mt2
1,23 -,n21,
2
3 Prove that the cube of any integer can be written as the difference of two squares.
4 For a, b eR and n e N, prove that (aby' = a".b", using mathematical induction.
5. Find the values of n s 7, for which n! + Iis a perfect square.
1.3 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM
binomial coefficients
For any positive integer n and any integer k, satisfying 0sksn, the
can be written as
are defined by If we cancel either k! or (n k)!.

"ri1)..(k +1) n(n-1)..(n-k+1)

Introduction to Number Theory
5
For example, if n=7 and k=4, then we have 7! 7.6.5 7.6.5.4
= =35
4!3! 3 4!

Since 0! is taken as 1, we have

Among some identities connecting binomial coeflicients, we state here one identity,
as Pascal rule, which is useful in the proof of Binomial Theorem. known
Pascal's rule :

If lsks , where nis a positive integer, then

Proof : We have

n! n!
k{(n-k)! (k-1)(n-k+1)!
= 7-k+1)+k
n! n!(n+1)
k(n-k+1): k(n -k+1)!
(n+1)!
k!(n-k+1)! k
The Binomial Theorem :

k=0
...(1.3.1)

We shall prove binomial theorem by mathematical induction.

Proof of the Binomial theorem by Induction: When n =1, equation (1.3.1) reduces to

=bt a, which is true.

Assume equation (I.3.1)for n - 1.
Now, (a + by = (a + b) (a t by

-(a+») ku0 K
 Introduction to Number Theoru
6

andi =k in the second sum, we find thot

first sum
Taking i =kt lin the

(a+b)'=

=a'+

term]
[by Pascal rule, applied to the bracketed

By Induction, the theorem is now proved.

Example 1.4

Prove that for n 2 1, 1.3.5..(.2n-1),

2.4.6.(2n)
Solution: Let P(n) be the statement :

(2n)1.3.5.(2n-1),2
2.4.6.(2n)
For n = 1, L2=LHS

2-2- RHS
LHS = RHS > P) is true.

Let P(n) be true for some n =k, ie., (2k) 1.3.5.(2k -1),:
2.4.6.(2k )
Now to show that P(k) =’ P(k + 1)

(2k + 2 (2k +2)!

Then k+1 (k+1)!(k +1)!
CHtroduction to Number Theory

(2k +2)(2k + 1)(2k)!

(k +1)(k +1)*!k!
(2k +2)(2k +1)(2k

(2k +2)(2k +I) 1.3.5..(2k -1),

(k+1)(k+1) 2.4.6..(2*)
2(k+1) 1.3.5..(2k-1)(2k +1),:
(k+1)(k +1) 2.4.6.(2k)
2 13.5..(2k +1)g2
k+1 2.4.6..(2k)
4 1.3.5.(2k +),2
2k +2 2.4.6...(2k )
13.5..(2k +1)
2.4.6.(2k)(2k + 2)
So, P(k + 1) is true. Hence P(n) is true for all n2 1, by induction.
Example 1.5

For n 22, prove that

E-8-3-3-)
Solution: For n =2,

So, the given statement is true for n =2.

Assume that the given statement is true for n = k, k 2,

ie.,
-G-8---0-()
Now
-6-6--3-()
Hence the statement is true for n = k+ 1.
Thus, by mathematical induction, the given statement is true for all n 2.
 Introduction to Number Ther.
8
Example 1.6

Prove that for it and only if 0sr<lu-)

Solution: We have

n! 0sn-r-!
-r-)j:0sr, n!

ra-r) (r+I){(9
r+)! (a-r)! ,0Srsn-I
r! (n-r-1)!"
r+l<n-r,0srsn-l
0s2r<n-1

0sr<n-l
2
Example 1.7

Prove that

Solution: We have,
n! k!
k(n-k)! r{k -r)!
n!

n-k)(k-r)!
n! (n-r)!
(n-r)(n-k)(k-r!
n!
(n-r)!
ru-r)! (k-r)\n-k)!
(n-r)!

-Ca-n-r)-(k-n}
Introduction to Number Theory 9
Example 1.8

identity :
For n 2I, derive the

Solution : Using Binomial Theorem, (a +b)' = a""b,

taking a=1, n eplaced by (a - ). (1+b)" -2B.

Take b = 1, then n.2*

n!
n(n-1)! =
k(n-k-1):! k[n-(k +1)]!
n! (k+1)
R-(k+1)(k+1)

Hence, n.2"-l

Example 1.9

If2sksn- 2, show that

 Introduction to Mumber T:.

10
Solution: We have

RUS
(n-2)! (n-2)!
(n-2)! + k-1)!(n-k-I)! kn-k-2):
(k-2)!(n-k)!
k(n-k)(n-2)!
k{k-1)(n-2)! k(k-1)(n-k)(n-k-l)!
k(k -1)(k -2)(n-*)!
(n-k)(n-k-1)(n-2)!
k(n-k)(n-k-1)(n-k-2)!
k(k-1)(0-2)!,k{n-k)(n-2)!, (n-k)(n-k-1)(n-2)!
k{n-k)! k!{n-k)! k!(n-k)!

(n-2)| k-k+ 2kn -2k² +n'-2kn +k² -n+k)

k{n-k)!
(a-2)('-n)
k{n-*)!

n(n-1)(7-2)! n!
k!(n-k)! kl(n-k)!
(k- 2)! is defined if 2< k and (n - k- 2)! is defined if
n-k-2>0
1.e., n-2> k
1.e.., n-22k 2
i.e., n-222
So, the term(n - k- 2)! is i.e., n4
defined if n 4.
1.4 - EXERCISES
Derive the identities in
Exercises I to5:

C-0-3---0-*
Introduction to Number Theory 11|

4. G-O-C-..
.

6 For n > 1, verify that

t

7 Show that 2" for n>1.

8. Show that for n 2 1, is an odd integer and

9 Show that S - i(n+3).

+1).
10. For n=1,2, 3,4, 5: verify the identity "-2*n(n

11 Establish the identiy-2*.

12 Prove that
-(-C--00
13. Establish the identity:

14. Prove that

 Introduction to
12
Number The
15. Prove that for n2 1,