Computer Science

3.1 Computer Architecture:

- The central processing unit (CPU) is often installed as an integrated chip, it has the responsibility for the execution or processing of
all instructions and data in a computer application
- A microprocessor is a type of integrated circuit on a single chip
- The 3 components of the CPU: CU, ALU, and registers and buses
- The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) allows the required arithmetic or logic calculations to be carried out while a program is being
run
- The Control Unit (CU) ensures the synchronization of data flow and program instructions through the computer
- Registers and Buses are small amounts of high-speed memory contained within the CPU, they are used to store small amounts of
data needed during processing
- Buses are series of wires on a motherboard that connect all components
- The 3 types of buses are: Control Bus, Address Bus, and Data Bus
- Address Bus: Carries the memory address (Uni-Directional)
- Data bus: Carries the data (Bi-Directional)
- Control Bus: Carries the instructions (Bi-Directional)
- The Von Neumann Architecture consists of three main sections: CPU, Storage and Input and Output Devices
- Registers Include: Program Counter (PC), Memory Address Register (MAR), Memory Data Register (MDR), Current Instruction
Register (CIR), and Accumulator (ACC)
- ACC: Stores results of calculations made by the ALU
- PC: Holds memory address of the next instructions to be executed, passes next address to MAR
- MAR: Stores memory location for data or instructions needing to be fetched from/to memory
- MDR: Stores data or instructions fetched from/to memory
- CIR: Stores most recently fetched instructions while waiting to be decoded and executed
- Immediate Access Store (IAS) is also a component of the CPU and it enables the CPU to process data quicker
- THE Fetch Decode Execute Cycle (FDE)
- Fetch:
- Pc holds address of next instruction to be fetched
- Address in PC is copied into MAR
- PC is incremented
- Instruction loaded to MDR from address held in MAR
- Instruction of MDR loaded into CIR
- Decode:
- CPU needs to understand the information so the CU Decodes it
- Execution:
- Processing of the Data instruction. Carrying out of the instructions
- ____________
- Most CPU chips are multi-core (Have more than one core)
- Each core simultaneously processes different instructions through multi-threading, improving performance
- Each core processes one instruction per clock pulse
- More cores mean that instructions can be split between them
- More cores decrease the time taken to complete a task
- Clock speed: Number of pulses the clock sends in a given time interval which determines the number of cycles the CPU executes in a
given time interval
- Usually measure in Gigahertz (GHz)
- If the clock speed is increased, the execution time for instructions decreases, improving performance
- However, there is a limit for clock speed because of overheating
- Cache Memory:
- Commonly used instructions are stored in the Cache Memory are of the CPU
- If cache memory size is increased, more commonly executed instructions can be stored, and the time that the CPU needs to wait
decreases, which makes the CPU execute more cycles per Unit time, thus improving performance
- Instruction set: An instruction set is a list of all the commands that can be processed by a CPU
- Embedded System: An embedded system is used to perform a dedicated function
- Examples: domestic appliances, cars, security systems, lighting systems or vending machines.
3.2 Hardware – Input Devices

- Digital Cameras are input devices; they link to a computer via USB port or by Bluetooth
- The light from the image first enters the lens and is converted to digital data by the ADC (analogue to digital converter), so it can be
understood by the camera, and it will give a digital representation of the image
- 2D scanners are mostly to input paper documents, the image is converted to electronic form that can be stored on the computer
- 2D scanners are used at airports to read passports and make use of OCR to review contents of a passport
- 2D scanners can also be used for face recognition, to tell faces apart they use data such as:
- Distance between the eyes, width of the nose, shape of cheek bones, length of jawline, shape of the eyebrows
- 3D scanners scan objects from the angles x, y and z and form a digital image of the object
- These images can be used in CAD (Computer aided design) or produce a working model of the object
- CT scanner (Computerized tomography) can be used in X-Rays
- MRI (Magnetic resonance images) can be used in Radio Frequencies
- SPECT (Single Photon Emission Computer Tomography) can be used in Gamma rays
- A barcode scanner is a series of dark and light parallel lines that vary in thickness, the white lines reflect light, while the black lines
reflect little to no light
- The numbers 0-9 are each represented by a unique series of lines. Guard bares separate the right and left side of the barcode
- How does a barcode scanner work?
- 1) The barcode is read by a laser or red LED (Light emitting diode)
- 2) Light is reflected of the barcode, dark areas reflect little to no light, and white reflects light, allowing the barcode to be read
- 3) The reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells)
- 4) as the laser or LED is scanned across the barcode, a pattern is generated which is converted into digital data
- How different devices at checkouts are used:
- Keypad: To key in number of items bought, to key in weight, or to key in the number under the barcode
- Monitor/Screen: To show cost of item and other information
- Speaker: to make a beeping sound every time a barcode is read correctly, and another sound if there is an error in reading it
- Card Reader: To read the customer’s credit/debit card
- Touchscreen: To select items by touching an icon (such as fresh fruit which might be sold without packaging)
- A QR code (Quick Response Code) is an advanced type of barcode
- QR codes can hold much more data than barcodes, and have a more rapid response time. And don’t require expensive equipment
- QR codes are made up of blocks of small light and dark pixels. They currently hold up to 4296 characters or 7089 digits
- The three large squares in the corner function as a code of alignment to ensure the correct size and angle to be read
- Applications of QR codes: Advertising, Automatic access to phone number/website, storing boarding passes
- How does a QR code work?
- 1) Point the camera on the QR code
- 2) App will now process the image, converting it into readable data
- 3) The browser software automatically reads the data
- 4) User will be taken to the website/phone number
- Keyboards are the most common method used for data entry, they are input devices and is connected to many devices
- A mouse is able to work on almost any surface, the mouse has a small red LED that bounces of the surface, the CMOS generates
electric pulses to represent the reflected red light and are sent to Digital Signal Processor (DSP)
- There is no way for dirt to enter in an optical mouse, has no moving parts, don’t require a special surface, and improved tracking
resolution
- A microphone receives sound waves, and is converted to digital data by the ADC, it is then stored in computer or outputted again as
analogue through the DAC
- The three types of touchscreens are: Capacitive, Infrared and Resistive
- Capacitive touch screens are control displays that utilize the electrical properties of a human as input
- When a finger comes in contact with the screen it detects where the user has touched it, as a result capacitive touch screens can
receive accurate input from very light touches
- How does it work:
- There is a thin layer of electrodes which lies under a glass surface covered with a protective layer
- Four electrodes on the corner of the panel provide electric voltage, when a conductive material is near the film, there is a change in
electrostatic capacity, measuring these changes, the controller figures out where the touch has occurred
- The surface of the capacitive is often used on big surfaces, since the touch sensing isn’t really accurate
- Resistive touch screens were the most common type of touch screen technology. It is a low-cost solution found in many touch
screens
- The resistive screen is popular because of its relatively low price and ability to use a range of input objects (fingers, gloves, hard and
soft stylus).
- How does it work:
 - It is composed of a glass panel and a film screen, each covered with a thin metallic layer
- When a user touches the screen, the two metallic layers make contact resulting in electrical flow
- The point of contact is detected by this change in voltage
- Infrared touch screens use a glass screen with an array of sensors and infrared transmitters. It relies on the interruption of an
infrared light grid in front of the display screen
- How does it work:
- The sensors detect the infrared radiation. If any of the infrared beams are broken, the infrared radiation is reduced
- Infrared screen touched causing sensors to show reduction in infrared radiation, thus the exact position where the screen was
touched can be calculated

3.2 Hardware – Output Devices

- An Actuator is a part of a device or machine that helps it to achieve physical movement by converting energy into mechanical force
- Actuators are present in many things, from vibrators in your phone, to industrial devices and robots
- Common examples of actuators include electric motors, stepper motors and electric muscle simulators
- There are two types of projectors: Digital Light Projector (DLP) and Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
- There are two types of printers: Inkjet printer and Laser printer
- Inkjet printers are often used to print only a few pages of good quality, which only require small ink cartridges and paper trays
- Laser printers produce high quality printouts quickly. They have large toner cartridges and large paper trays
- Inkjet Printer Steps:
- 1) the data from the document is sent to a printer driver
- 2) the printer driver ensures that the data is in a format that the chosen printer can understand
- 3) a check is made by the printer driver to ensure that the chosen printer is available to
- 4) the data is then sent to the printer and it is stored in a temporary memory known as a printer buffer
- 5) a sheet of paper is then fed into the main body of the printer; a sensor detects whether paper is available in the paper feed tray
- 6) as the sheet of paper is fed through the printer, the print head moves from side to side across the paper printing the text
- 7) at the end of each full pass of the print head, the paper is advanced very slightly to allow the next line to be printed
- 8) if there is more data in the printer buffer, then the whole process from stage 5 is repeated until the buffer is finally empty
- 9) once the printer buffer is empty, the printer sends an interrupt to the CPU in the computer to request more data
- Laser Printer Steps:
- 1) the data from the document is sent to a printer driver
- 2) the printer driver ensures that the data is in a format that the chosen printer can understand
- 3) a check is made by the printer driver to ensure that the chosen printer is available to
- 4) the data is then sent to the printer and it is stored in a temporary memory known as a printer buffer
- 5) drum is given a positive charge; as this drum rotates, a laser beam is scanned across it removing the positive charge in certain
areas; this leaves negatively charged areas that exactly match the text/images of the page to be printed
- 6) the drum is then coated with positively charged and the toner will only stick to negative parts of the drum
- 7) A negatively charged piece of paper is rolled over the drum
- 8) The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to produce the image
- 9) To prevent the paper from sticking on the drum, the electric charge is removed after one rotation
- 10) The paper goes through a fuser which melts the ink so it sticks permanently to the paper
- 11) In the end, a discharge lamp removes all electric charge from the drum, making it ready to print the next page
- Both LCD and LED screens use liquid crystals to create an image
- The difference is in backlights. An LCD monitor uses fluorescent backlights; an LED monitor uses light-emitting diodes for backlights
- Each light emitting diode in an LED monitor is either red, green or blue
- LCD screens are made up of tiny liquid crystals, LCD’s don’t produce any light, therefore they are back-lit using LED
- OLED (Organic light emitting diodes) are much thinner and lighter than LCD screens
- They use organic materials (made up of carbon compounds) to create semiconductors that are flexible
- Organic films are placed between two charged electrodes (one is metallic cathode and other is a glass anode)
- When an electric field is applied to electrodes they give off light, which needs no back-lighting
- 3D printers print objects such as limbs, aerospace, fashion, and items no longer in production by printing them in layers
- Loud speakers:
- Digital Data is passed through a DAC where it is changed to electrical current
- Then it is passed through an amplifier
- This electric current is fed to the speaker where it is converted into sound
3.3 Data Storage

- Data storage is a term for how information is kept in a digital format that may be retrieved in a later time
- There are two types of storage: Primary memory, and secondary storage
- Primary memory is the part of the computer memory which can be directly accessed by the CPU and can be found on the
motherboard
- This includes RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read only Memory)
- Rom stands for read-only memory and is non-volatile memory that permanently stores instructions for your computer. The content
can’t be changed or written to by the user
- RAM stands for random access memory and is volatile memory that temporarily stores the files you are working on
- Primary memory:
- Directly addressable by the CPU
- Contains RAM, ROM and cache memory
- Secondary storage:
- Not directly addressable by the CPU
- All are non-volatile devices
- Can be external or internal to the computer
- Contains HDD, SSD, DVD, Memory stick and Blu-ray stick
- In a remote controlled Sphero, which contains both ROM and RAM
- Function of RAM:
- Allow user to program in their own routines, these new instructions will be stored on the RAM chip
- The RAM chip will store data/instructions received from the remote control unit
- Function of ROM:
- Storing the factory settings such as remote control frequencies
- Storing the start-up routines when it is first turned on
- Storing of the set routines
- Secondary and off-line storage
- Magnetic storage uses platters which are divided into tracks and sectors, data is written using electromagnets. Example: HDD
- Optical storage uses lasers to create and read pit and lands. Example: CD, DVD, Blu-ray disc
- Solid state (flash memory) uses NAND or NOR technology
- ______________________________________________
Solid State Storage (SSD)
- SSDs have replaced HDDs in computers but still perform the same basic functions
- It removes the issue of latency, since it has no moving parts and all data is retrieved at the same rate by controlling the movement of
electrons with NAND or NOR chips
- The data is stored in 0s and 1s in millions of tiny transistors within the chip. This effectively produces non-volatile rewritable memory
- Magnetic Storage
- HDDs are still one of the most common methods used to store data on a computer
- When you save a document it gets written somewhere non-volatile that remains saved even when turned off
- The hard drive contains a spinning platter with a thin magnetic coating. A head moves over the platter writing 0s and 1s as tiny areas
of magnetic North or South on the platter
- To read the data back, it goes on the same spot and deduces the stored 0s and 1s from the North and South spots
- A hard drive can store over 1 trillion 0s and 1s per platter
- Optical Storage
- CDs and DVDs are optical storage devices that use a beam of laser light to read and write data on the surface of the disk
- The discs use a thin layer of metal alloy or light-sensitive organic dye to store the data. Both use a single, spiral track which runs from
the center of the disc to the edge. When the disk spins, the head moves to the point where the laser beam contacts the disk surface
and follows the spiral track from the center outwards
- CD/DVD are divided into sectors allowing direct access to data, the outer part of the disc moves faster than the inner part
- Optical Storage – Blu-ray discs
- It is a high density optical disc format similar to DVD, it is used in PlayStation and movies
- A dual-layer Blue-ray disc can store up to 50gb of data. This is five times more than the capacity of a CD
- This is because it uses a blue laser rather than a red one, to carry out and write operations
- Using blue laser light means that the pits and lands can be much smaller
- Virtual Memory
- It uses both hardware and software to enable a computer to compensate for physical memory shortages, temporarily transferring
data from RAM to disk storage
- It enables the computer to treat secondary memory as primary memory
- One of the problems associated with memory management is the case where processes run out of RAM
- If the amount of available RAM is exceeded it can cause a system crash, this can be solved by utilizing SSDs
-
- Cloud Storage
 - It is a method of data storage where data is stored on remote servers over the internet
- The same data is stored on more than one server in case of maintenance, allowing people to access data at any time, at any place
with the use of internet. This is known as data redundancy
- It is owned and managed by a hosting company and may include hundreds of servers in many locations
- Advantages:
- Users files stored on the cloud can be accessed at any time from any device anywhere in the world with internet
- here is no need for a user to carry an external storage device with them
- the cloud provides the user with remote backup of data with obvious benefits to alleviate data loss/disaster recovery
- if a user has a failure of their hard disk, cloud storage will allow recovery of their data
- the cloud system offers almost unlimited storage capacity
- Disadvantages:
- if the user has a slow or unstable internet connection, they would have many problems accessing their files
- costs can be high if large storage capacity is required; it can also be expensive to pay for high download/upload data transfer limits
the potential failure of the cloud storage company is always possible - this poses a risk of loss of all backup data

3.4 – Network Hardware

- Network components:
- Servers: are computers that hold data. They provide access to network resources to all the users of the network
- Network Interface Card (NIC): It prepares and sends data, receives data, and controls flow between network and computers
- Switch: A telecommunication device grouped as one of computer network components
- Router: The device used to connect a LAN with an internet connection
- LAN cable: Also known as data cable or Ethernet cable, which is a wired cable used to connect a device to the internet/devices
- _____________________________________
- IP address: A unique address that identifies a device on the internet or local network. IP stands for Internet Protocol
- Major components of a network: Bridge, Server, Modem, Router, Repeater, Switch, Hub, NIC
- IPV4 stands for Internet protocol version 4, it makes it possible for devices to connect to the web. Whenever a device accesses the
internet it is assigned a unique numerical IP address such as 99.48.227.277
- IPV6 stands for internet protocol version 6, it was developed to deal with ipv4 address exhaustion and is intended to replace it
- A solution for old IPV4 devices is network address translation (NAT) where all devices will be as one Public IP address
- IPV4 has a maximum of 2^32 addresses while IPV6 has a maximum of 2^128 addresses
- There are four types of IP addresses: Public, Private, Static and Dynamic
- Public IP: an IP address that can be accessed directly over the internet
- Private IP: addresses that are commonly used for local area networks (LAN)
- Static IP: an address that doesn’t change
- Dynamic IP: an address that an ISP lets you use temporarily, if not in use it will be assigned to a different device
- A MAC address (media access control) is a unique identifier assigned to a NIC for use as a network address
- MAC address refers to a number which uniquely identifies a device on the internet
- Refers to the NIC which is part of the device
- Usually made up of 48 bits shown as six groups of hexD
- Types of MAC address: Universally administrated mac address (UAA), Locally administrated mac address (LAA),
- UAA is most common
- Differences between MAC and IP

MAC IP
Identifies physical address of a device Identifies global address of a device
Unique for a device in the network May not necessarily be unique
Assigned by manufacturer, and is part of NIC Dynamic are assigned by ISP using DCHP each time it connects
Can be universal or local Dynamic changes, and Static doesn’t change
48 bits 32 bits (IPV4) or 128 bits (IPV6)
Can be UAA or LAA Can be Static or Dynamic
Unit 4.1 Software

System Software includes: Operating system, Utility programs, and device drivers

Application software includes: Spread sheet, word processor, data base, internet browser, games software

General features of system software

 set of programs to control and manage the operation of computer hardware

 provides a platform on which other software can run
 required to allow hardware and software to run without problems
 provides a human computer interface (HCI)
 controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources.

General features of application software

 used to perform various applications (apps) on a computer

 allows a user to perform specific tasks using the computer's resources
 may be a single program (for example, Notepad) or a suite of programs (for example, Microsoft Office)
 user can execute the software as and when they require.

Examples of typical application software

Word Processor: Used to manipulate text, some functions include, copy and paste functions, spell checkers, and import photos
and images

Spread Sheet: Spread sheet software is used to organize numerical data some functions include, producing graphs, and “what if
calculations”

Database: used to organize manipulate and analyze database made up of one or more tables, some functions include, add delete
and modify data in a table

Control and Measuring Software: Allows a computer or microprocessor to interface with sensors, some functions include measure
physical quantities (temperature) and control applications

Apps: Short for applications, typically from app stores, and some of the functions include video and music streaming, GPS and
camera facilities

Photo Editing Software: Used to manipulate digital photos stored in a computer

Video Editing Software: Used to manipulate videos to produce a new video, some functions include, adding or removing clips, and
creating transitions

Graphics Manipulation Software: Allows bitmap and vector images to be changed

Examples of Typical System Software

Complier: Translate a program written in HLL (high level language) into machine code

Linker: Converts many files into one program

Device Drivers: Enables hardware devices to communicate with the computer’s OS

Operating System: It is a software running in the background of a computer system, some of the functions include: Input/Output
operations, users communicate with the computer, error handling, managing security, and without it is impossible to work

Utilities: Designed to carry out specific tasks in a computer, they are programs that help, maintain, manage and control computer
resources

Anti-Virus: Prevents, scan, delete and detects viruses on your computer

Screen Savers: Used to supply moving and still images after a period of inactivity

Backup Software: allows schedule for backing up files

Functions of Operating System: HCI, security, multitasking, platform for running application software, management of user
accounts, managing files, hardware peripheral management memory management interrupt handling

Human computer interface (HCI): Is the form of a command line interface (CLI) or a graphical user interface (GUI)
CLI requires users to type in instructions to choose options
GUI allows user to interact with computer using Icons rather than needing to type commands

Unit 5.1 – Internet and the World Wide Web

- The user will enter the url on a browser, and send a HTTP request to the server, the server will locate it and send it back to the user
- Internet:
- Massive, open network of networks
- Uses TCP/IP Protocol, which uses IP addresses to identify devices connected to the internet
- Access provided by ISP (Internet Service Provider)
- Communication used: wired, radio, satellite
- ISP:
- Internet Service Provider. Company that provides internet which provides public IP address, security services, web hosting facilities,
access to email, and online data storage
- TCP:
- Transmission control protocol. Govern transmission of data, handles transfer of data and checks that transmission is error free
- World Wide Web (WWW)
- Part of the internet that users can access using web browser software
- Collection of web pages stored on websites
- Protocols are used to transmit data across the WWW
- It is a way of accessing information using the internet
-

- https:// www.businessinsider.com / how to organize tabs in safari

-
- Protocol Domain Path Webpage
- URL:
- Uniform Resource Locator
Text-based address for a webpage, contains protocol, domain, path and webpage
- It is typed in the browser in this format: Protocol://Domain/Path/Webpage
- Domain Host: WWW Domain Name: Website name Domain Type: .com, .org
- Path: Location of the server
- HTTP and HTTPs
- HTTP: Hypertext transfer protocol
- HTTPs: Hypertext transfer protocol secure
- HTTPs is a more secure way of sending and receiving data and uses SSL and TLS
- Web Browser
- Allows a user to access and display web pages on their device screen
- Browsers interpret (translate) the HTML form websites and show the result of translation
- Main purpose is to render HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) and display web pages
- Functions:
- Storing Bookmarks and favorites
- Recording User History
- Allowing use of multiple tabs
- Storing cookies
- Providing navigation tools
- Providing an address bar
- DNS:
- Domain Name System
- System for finding IP address for a domain name given in a url
 - Eliminate the need for users to memorize IP addresses. It involves converting URL into an IP address
- The DNS process involves more than one server
- DNS serves contain a database of URLS with the matching IP addresses
- HTML:
- Hypertext Markup Language
- Structure Layer
- Language used to convey instructions, and a markup language used to create webpages
- Markup language is used in the processing
- HTML uses <tags> to bracket piece of codes
- Different intensity of colors is determined by its hexadecimal value
- Web Server:
- 1) The user opens their browser and types in the URL (www.hoddereducation.co.uk) and the browser asks the DNS server (1) for the
IP address of the website
- 2) In this case, let’s assume the DNS server can’t find www.hoddereducation.co.uk in its database or its cache, so it sends out a
request to a DNS server (2).
- 3) The DNS server (2) finds the URL and can map it to IP address is sent back to the DNS server (1) which now puts this IP address
and associated URL into its cache/database.
- 4) This IP address is then sent back to the user’s computer.
5) The computer now sets up a communication with the website server and the required pages are downloaded. HTML files are sent
from the website server to the computer. The browser interprets the HTML, which is used to structure content, and then displays
the information on the user’s computer.
- Cookies:
- Small files or code stored on a computer
- When visiting a website browser reads cookies which holds information on the user’s preferences
- Allows user tracking and maintain preferences, collected data can also be used to customize web page for each user
- Can be used to store credit card details, track items, store passwords, and can be deleted from the computer
- Two types of cookies: Session cookies and Persistent cookies
- Session Cookies:
- Used when making online purchases
- Keeps items in virtual shopping bag
- Stored in temporary memory in computer
- Removed when the user closes the tab or web browser
- Persistent cookies:
- Remembers a user’s log-in details
- Saved on user’s computer until deleted
- No need to type in log-in details and other personal information
- Cookies need to be encrypted and it is an efficient way of carrying data from one website to another
- Removes the need for servers to store data

Automated Systems:

- An Automated system is a combination of software and hardware that is designed and programmed to work
automatically without the need of any human interaction
- Industrial automation systems are systems used to control and monitor a process, machine or device in a computerized
manner that usually fulfills repetitive functions or tasks.
- They are intended to operate automatically in order to reduce and improve human work in the industry
- Some excellent examples of automation include processing and packaging of fresh eggs and dairy products.
- Intelligent Transport System (ITS) aims to achieve traffic efficiency by minimizing traffic problems. It aims to reduce time
of commuters as well as enhances their safety and comfort.
- An automated weather station is an integrated system of components that are used to measure, record, and often
transmit weather
- Automatic Street Light Control System uses transistor as a switch. It automatically switches ON lights when the sunlight
goes below the visible region of our eyes. This is done by a sensor called Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) which senses
the light actually like our eyes
-
- Industrial Applications have two types
 1) Nuclear Power Station

Advantages Disadvantages
Much faster than any human Expensive to set up in the first place
Much safer Always possible for conditions to occur that weren’t
considered
 Likely to run under optimum conditions Always need enhanced maintenance
Less expensive Is subject to cyber attacks

 2) Manufacture of paracetamol

Advantages Disadvantages
Much faster than a human Expensive to set up in the first place
Much safer Always possible for conditions to occur that weren’t
considered
Likely to run under optimum conditions Always need enhanced maintenance
Less expensive Is subject to cyber attacks
More efficient use of materials
Higher Productivity
More consistent results

 3) Self-Parking Cars

Advantages Disadvantages
Allows cars to use fewer parking spaces Over reliance by the driver
Avoids traffic disruption in cities Faulty sensors can send false data
Cars can fit in smaller spaces Kerbing of wheels will be a problem
Fewer dents and scratches to cars Expensive option
Safer system, sensors monitor all objects Requires additional maintenance
Very consistent results

 4) Adaptive Cruise Control

Makes use of sensors, an on-board computer and actuators to allow a car to remain a safe distance from another vehicle

 5) Agriculture (Automated system used in Brazil Irrigation system)

Advantages Disadvantages
Reduced labor costs Expensive to set up
Better and more efficient control of the irrigation process Very high maintenance costs
Better control of precious resources Increases need to maintain water channels
Faster response
Safer
Growing conditions can be maintained

 6) Lighting Systems

Advantages Disadvantages
Control light sources automatically Expensive to set up in the first place
Reduced energy consumption Wireless will be less reliable than wired
Wireless connections can be chosen Requires more maintenance
Longer bulb life
Can program new light displays for occasions

 7) Chemical process in laboratory

Advantages Disadvantages
More consistent results Less flexible
Less dangerous Security risks
Faster results Equipment can be expensive
Automatic analysis of the results
Fewer high trained staff needed
 Can be monitored from anywhere

- Automated systems in gaming allow increases human interaction with the game, allows them to take actions that
simulate real events happening
- Weather systems are designed to save labor and collect information from remote regions.

Advantages of using AI in automated systems

 Ability to access and store vast amounts of facts

 Able to learn from huge amounts of available data that would overwhelm humans
 They are able to see patterns in results that could be missed by humans

Disadvantages of Using AI in automated systems

 A change in skills set

 AI is dependent on the data which trains it

Robotics

The term robot comes from the word robota which means forced labor

Robots have 3 laws:

- A robot may not injure a human through action or inaction

- A robot must obey orders given by humans, unless it comes to conflict with law 1
- A robot must protect itself unless this conflicts law 1

Robots can be found in:

Factories: wielding parts together, spray painting, fitting windscreens into cars, cutting out metal parts

Home: Floor sweepers, ironing robots, lawn mowers, pool cleaning, automatic window cleaners

Drones: used in reconnaissance, can be used to make parcel deliveries

Characteristics of a robot:

- Ability to sense their surroundings

- Have a degree of movement
- Programmable

Independent robots: Have no direct human control, can replace human activity totally

Dependent robots: Have a human who is interfacing directly with the robot, can supplement humans

Robots are used in many places, such as industry, transport, agriculture, medicine and in entertainment

Robotics
1) Industry
Control of robot is either through embedded micro-processors or directly linked to the computer system,
programming of the robot can be done in two ways
1- The robot is programmed with a sequence of instructions which allows it to carry out tasks
2- A human operator manually carries out the tasks, this can be done in two ways
i) The robot arm is guided manually by the worker
ii) The worker straps sensors to his own arm, each movement is stored as a set of
instructions in the computer.

Advantages Disadvantages
Can work in conditions that are Robots can find it difficult to do no-
hazardous to humans standard tasks
Robots can work 24/7 Can lead to higher unemployment
Less expensive in the long run A risk of deskilling
More consistent Robots are expensive in the first place
Better suited to boring repetitive tasks Factories can be move to anywhere in the
world with lower costs
Less cost in heating and lighting

2) Transport
Sensors and cameras allow the car to sense surrounding, and the microprocessors process the data given
by the cameras and sensors to perform physical actions such as, change gear, apply breaks, turn steering
wheel.

Advantages Disadvantages
Safer Very expensive to set up
Better for the environments Prone to being hacked
reduced traffic congestion Security and safety issues
Increased lane capacity Need to be maintained at all times
Reduced travel time Drivers reluctance to technology
Stress-free parking for motorists Reduction in need of taxis, will lead to
unemployment

Autonomous Trains

Autonomous trains make use of a system called LiDaR, (Light detections and ranging) LiDaR, uses lasers
which build up a 3D image of the surroundings, sensors and cameras also help control the train

Advantages Disadvantages
Improves punctuality of the train Prone to being hacked
Reduced running costs Don’t work will with busy services
Improves safety High control and operational costs
Minimizes energy consumption Ensuring passenger behavior is acceptable
during busy times
Increased frequency of trains Passenger reluctance to technology
Easier to change train scheduling No need for CCTV to monitor systems

Robotics

Autonomous Airplanes

Airplanes user sensors to detect turbulence, an increase in self testing, use of GPS. Use of actuators to
control for ample, throttle, flaps and the rudder

Advantages Disadvantages
 Improve passenger comfort Security aspects
Reduced running costs Emergency situations will be hard to deal
with
Improved Safety Prone to hacking in the system
Improved aerodynamics in the front Passenger reluctance to technology
Software Glitches

3) Agriculture

Harvesting and picking

- Robots have been designed to do this labor intensive work, they are more accurate
- This leads to higher yields and reduces waste, vegbot scans whether it should be harvested
- A camera guides an arm to remove lettuce from its stalk without any damage

Weed Control

- Robots remove weed between grape vines this saves on labor costs and improves growth
- Robots use GPS tracking to stay on course, to remove weed, a weed remover blade is operated by an
actuator

Phenotyping

- Phenotyping is the proves of observing physical characteristics of a plant to improve health

- Robots are equipped with sensors that can create a 3D image of the plant
- Machine learning is used to recognize any issues with the leaves
- These robots are much more accurate and faster at predicting problems

Seed-Planting drones and fertilizer distribution

- Drones can produce an aerial image of the farm

- They allow seed planting to be done more accurately
- They also allow for more efficient fertilizer-spreading to reduce waste
- Can be used in cloud seeding where it can add silver iodide crystals to force rainfall
- Use a complex camera system to target seeding and allow fertilizer spraying

The following list are all independent robots

- Grass Mowers/Cutters
- Weeding/Harvesting robots
- Seeding Robots
- Fertilizer spraying
- All of these devices use sensors and cameras to go around obstacles, or they can be programmed to
go “sleep” if the weather is bad
Robotics

Medicine

- Robots are used is surgical procedures, which makes it safer

- Can be used to monitor patients
- Disinfecting of rooms can all be done by robots
- Robots can take samples from patients (less painful, safer, doctors can be freed up)
- Can be used in target therapy
- Prosthetic limbs are now mini robots in their own right
Domestic Robots

Vacuum Cleaners

- They use sensors and cameras to avoid bumping, this allows them to cover a whole room
- They have a microprocessor to control the overall operation
- Actuators are used to control motors

Grass cutters

- These robots use the same type of sensor, camera, microprocessor, and actuator that vacuum cleaners
used

Personal Assistants

- This robot controlled by a micro processer that uses cloud connectivity to connect to the internet
- It understands voice commands and will answer any question asked
- It also makes use of an HD camera allowing it to recognize somebody’s face as well as navigate a room

Robots Used In Entertainment

- Theme parks use robots to entertain visitors, these robots can interact with visitors
- Music festival use robotic methods to control lighting, visual effects and animation
- Use of robots to control cameras, keeping them steady when moving around a scene
- Humanoid robots can perform stunt actions in movies
- Robots can produce special effects, with speed and coordination

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

- Artificial intelligence is the development of computer systems which can perform tasks that usually
require human intelligence to complete.
- Examples include: Speech recognition Translation Facial / image recognition Decision making
- The term was first used in 1956 by a computer scientist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) who was focused on trying to make computers behave like humans.
- AI is used in many areas such as game playing, expert systems, languages and robotics
- Game playing: It plays games against human players
- Expert systems: These are computers that are programmed to make decisions based on what they
are given
- Languages: Involves computers that can understand different human languages
- Robotics: It is where machines are programmed to imitate a human

- These are some of the impacts AI can have on our everyday life
- Accurate weather prediction: Predict more accurately and predict storms and issue warnings
- Increased leisure time: These robots can automatically clean while humans enjoy other things
- Safer transport: Self-parking cars and self-driving cars can reduce road accidents
- Increased personal safety: It can automatically alert police when intruders are in your home
- Improved medical care: Robotic assistants are used to quickly pass the correct surgical tools to
doctors
-
- AI can be split into three categories\

- Narrow AI: This occurs when machines have superior performance to a human in one task
- General AI This occurs when a machine has similar performance to humans in specific tasks
- Strong AI This occurs when a machine has superior performance to a human in many tasks
-
- Chat bots that interact through instant messaging, artificially replicating patterns of human interaction
using AI to respond to messages
- Facial expression recognition:
- Algorithms identify key facial landmarks such as corners of eyebrows, mouth and so on
- A combination of these marks can be used to map emotions, such as anger and fear
-
- Expert systems are a form of AI that has been developed to mimic human knowledge and
experiences. They use knowledge and inference to solve problems or answer questions that would
normally require a human expert.
- Applications of Expert Systems
- oil and mineral prospecting
- diagnosis of a patient's illness
- fault diagnostics in mechanical and electronic equipment
- tax and financial calculations
- strategy games, such as chess
- logistics (efficient routing of parcel deliveries)
- identification of plants, animals and chemical/biological compounds.

- Expert systems advantages:

- they offer a high level of expertise

- they offer high accuracy
- the results are consistent
- they have the ability to store vast amounts of ideas and facts
- they can make traceable logical solutions and diagnostics
- it is possible for an expert system to have multiple expertise
- they have very fast response times (much quicker than a human expert)
- they provide unbiased reporting and analysis of the facts
- they indicate the probability of any suggested solution being correct
-
- Expert systems disadvantages:
- users of the expert system need considerable training in its use to ensure the system is being used
correctly
- the set up and maintenance costs are very high
- they tend to give very 'cold' responses that may not be appropriate in certain medical situations
- they are only as good as the information/facts entered into the system
- users sometimes make the very dangerous assumption that they are infallible.
-
 - Machine learning is a sub-set of artificial intelligence (AI), in which algorithms are 'trained' and learn
from their past experiences and examples. It is possible for the system to make predictions or even take
decisions based on previous scenarios. They can offer fast and accurate outcomes due to very powerful
processing capability.
- One of the key factors is the ability to manage and analyze considerable volumes of complex data;
some of the tasks would take humans years to complete without the help of machine learning
techniques.
- One example that uses machine learning are the most sophisticated search engines:

- Difference between AI and machine learning

AI Machine Learning
Represents simulated intelligence in machines This is the practice of getting machines to make
decisions without being programmed to do so
The aim is to build machines that are capable of The aim is to make machines that learn through
thinking like humans data acquisition, so that they can solve new
problems

7.1: The Program Development Life Cycle

 The program development life cycle is made up of: Analysis, Design, Coding and testing
 The first step is Analysis:
 Requirements specifications
 Uses Abstraction and decomposition tools
 To Identify requirements
 Overall, it is to analyze what is wanted and required in the program
 Abstraction:
 Keeps the key elements required for the solution
 Discards any unnecessary details and information that is not required
 Decomposition:
  Breaks down a complex problem into smaller parts
 Which can then be subdivided into even smaller parts
 The second step is Design:
 Program specification from the analysis stage
 Show to how the program should be developed
 Documented using Structure charts, flowcharts and Pseudocode
 The third step is Coding
 Each module of the program is written using a suitable programming language
 Then is tested if it works
 Iterative Testing
 The fourth and final step is Testing
 Completed program is ran with different sets of data
 Ensures all tasks work as specified in the program design
 Test program with test data

7.2: Systems and Sub-Systems

 Systems are divided into sub-systems

 Decomposition of a computer system into a set of subsystems, then breaking each sub-system down into a set of smaller
subsystems, until each subsystem just performs a single action
 A problem is decomposed into its components parts:
 Input: What is put into the system
 Process: Actions taken to achieve a result
 Output: What is taken out of the system
 Storage: What needs to be kept for future use
 Structure Diagram:
 A hierarchical diagram that shows the decomposition of a system.
 developed by decomposing a program into its subprograms
 Flowchart:
 A way of representing the structure and flow of an algorithm

 Pseudocode:
 Text based method of describing an algorithm
 Syntax: The structure of language
 Algorithm:
 A set of commands that must be followed for a computer to perform calculations or other problem-solving equations

7.5: Validation, Verification, and Testing Data

 Validation is an automatic check to make sure data is sensible and possible

 It includes: Range check, Length check, Type check, presence check, format check, and check digit
 Range Check: Data entered must be numerical data in a range, example: 1-18
 Presence Check: Field must have data entered in it
 Length Check: Data entered has to be of a certain number of characters
 Type Check: Only certain type of data can be entered
 Format Check: Data entered has to conform to a specific format, ex: Date (dd/mm/yyyy)
 Check Digit: Checks that a series of numbers has been entered correctly by carrying out a series of calculations on the numbers
entered, such as Transportation error, Omitted or extra digits, Phonetic errors
 Verification checks that data has been correctly copied/transferred/entered into the system
 It includes: Double entry and Visual Check
 Double Entry: User enters the data twice. Both entries must match
 Visual Check: Manual check completed by the user who is entering the data

7.6: Testing Data

 There are 4 types of test Data: Normal, Abnormal, Extreme and Boundary
 Normal Test Data is data that the code is expected to accept. Example: In the range 1-5, the numbers 2,3 and 4 are normal test data
 Abnormal Test Data is data that the code should not accept. Example: In the range 1-5, the numbers 72, 36 and -42 are abnormal
test data
  Extreme Test Data Is the largest or smallest acceptable value. Example: In the range 1-5, the numbers 1 and 5 are extreme test data
 Boundary Data is the largest/smallest acceptable value and the corresponding largest/smallest rejected value. Example: In the range
1-5, the numbers 1,5,0 and 6 are boundary test data

7.7: Trace Tables:

 Trace tables show how the variables, change at each stage of a given algorithm
 Trace tables find the outputs for given sets of data to test if the flowchart or pseudocode gives the expected results
 Trace table also help check if your logic is correct and find errors