MODULE 4

Mechanical systems and inherent problems associated with it

• In most cases, the mechanical quantity which is detected will be transduced into an
‘electrical form’.
• The output of the first stage has to be modified (signal conditioning) before it is fed to the
third or terminating stage such as indicators, recorders or control elements.
• So, the modifications are carried out in the intermediate stage commonly called as the
signal conditioning stage.
• Signal conditioning equipment used may be of mechanical, electrical or electronic.
Mechanical types (using elements such as linkages, gearing, cams, etc.) have many
limitations such as friction, inertia, non linearity, backlash, elastic deformation, etc.
• Hence electrical & electronic systems are used which are free from these drawbacks.
• Also they give large voltage & power amplifications required to drive the recording
devices.

The mechanical signals transduced into electrical signals are not only amplified but in special
types, signal conditioning may involve filtering, integration, differentiation, remote recording,
etc Inherent Problems: mechanical intermediate devices or elements pose certain problems of
considerable magnitude especially when measuring dynamic inputs. Frictional amplification,
inertial loading, elastic deformation present problems.

Mechanical Amplification
• {Mechanical advantage or Mechanical Gain}
= output displacement output velocity
input displacement input velocity

Reflected frictional amplification

• Due to mechanical gain, a small frictional force in a mechanism will reflect back as
magnified load.
• As a result of this, the input to the mechanism or mechanical system is reversed.
• This will be equal to the gain between the frictional source and the point of input of
energy to the mechanism, i.e. gain is proportional to the friction.

Total frictional drag reflected to input

Ffr=∑A.Ff
i.e., Reflected frictional amplification=gain *Ff
Ffr=total reflected frictional force at the input of the system
A=mechanical gain or amplification
Ff=frictional force at the source

Reflected inertial amplification

• [inertia-weight-mechanical system-robust construction-hence requires more input-output

loss due to more weight]
• Inertia forces also cause problems similar to those caused by frictional force.
• I.e. their effects may be considered as reflected back to the input in proportion to the
mechanical amplification existing between the source and the input signal.
 • This is referred to as reflected inertial amplification.
• Fir=∑A.Ffi
• Fir=total inertial force at the system input
• A=mechanical gain or amplification
• Ffi=frictional force at the source

Backlash/Amplification of backlash/and of Elastic deformation

• Backlash results from temporary non-constraint in a linkage caused by clearances

required in mechanical fits, where relative motion occurs.
• Backlash and elastic deformation cause a lost motion at the output signal equal to the
backlash multiplied by the amplification between the source and the output.
• Elastic deformation is brought about by loads and forces, carried by links

Temperature problems
• Cause dimensional changes and changes in the physical properties both elastic and
electric resulting in deviation referred to as “Zero shift and scale error”
• Zero –shift: Results in change in the no-input reading. This depends mainly on
temperature and also primarily a function of linear dimensional changes caused by
expansion or contraction with changing temperatures.
Examples-
Spring scale:
• The indicator on the spring scale should be set to zero whenever there are no weights in
the pan.
• If the temperature changes after the scale has been set to zero, there may be differential
dimensional change both the spring and the spring scale altering the reading.
• This change is referred to as Zero-shift

Scale error-Examples
Springs:
• Temperature changes also affect the spring scale calibration when resilient(capacity to
regain original shape and size) load carrying members are included. When temperature
changes, the coil diameter and the wire diameter will also get altered.

• These variations cause a changed spring constant hence changed load-deflection

calibration resulting in what is referred to as scale error. Also change in temperature results
in change in the resistance of the material and alters the dimensions due to expansion and
contraction

Methods to minimize temperature problems

1. Minimization through careful selection of materials and operating temperatures(Select
materials which have low coefficient of expansion)
2. Compensation: May be made in different forms depending on the basic characteristics of
the system like
• If a mechanical system is used-make use of composite construction i.e. bimetals,
composites etc
 • For electrical circuits-Strain gauges are used
3. By elimination-Efforts should be made to eliminate the temperature effects altogether. This is
the best solution.

Simple current sensitive circuit

Input Circuitry for Electrical Devices

Simple current sensitive circuit:
• This circuit uses the flow of current through a passive resistance transducer as an
indication of value of the resistance.
• The resistance of transducer changes when there is a change in physical quantity being
measured, thereby causing a change in the current.
Let Rt=maximum resistance of the transducer, kRt= Resistance of the transducer when
measuring a particular value of physical quantity,
Rm= Resistance of the measuring circuit excluding the transducer.
k represents a %age factor which may vary from 0 to 1.
Using ohm’s law, the current flowing through the circuit io (the current indicated by the
indicator) is,
ei
io =
kRt + R m

The maximum value of current occurs when k=0.

ei io Rm 1
 imax = , Rewriting, = =

R i R + kR R 
1 k
m max m t
+  t 
  Rm 
The fig shows the variation of (io/imax) ratio with k for various values of (Rt/Rm), io represents the
output signal and k depends on the input signal and hence represents the input.

• Hence the fig shows the input-output relationship for a current sensitive circuit which is non
linear which is undesirable.
• Also higher the ratio (Rt/Rm) , the greater is the output variation.

•
It can also be noted that the output io is a function of imax, which in turn is dependent on
ei .
• This means that careful control of the driving voltage is necessary if calibration has to be
maintained.
Variation of output current with input signal k for a current sensitive circuit

Ballast Circuit
A ballast circuit is only a simple variation of the current sensitive circuit. In this case a voltage
sensitive device is connected across the transducer as shown in fig. It is also called as ‘voltage
sensitive circuit’.

• A ballast resistor Rb is the resistance of the measuring circuit excluding the transducer.
• In the absence of a ballast resistor, the voltage indicator will always record the full source
voltage ei & hence some value of resistance Rb is always necessary for proper
functioning of the circuit.
• In order to analyze a ballast circuit, we assume that the voltage indicator has an infinite
resistance such that it does not draw any current

Schematic of Ballast Circuit

By Ohm's law, the output current is ,

ei
io = . If e o is the voltage across kR t , which is indicated by
Rb + kRt

the voltage indicator, then the output voltage indicated is,

 ei kRt
e o = io (kRt ) = . This can be written as,
Rb + kRt

eo kRt k Rt Rb e
= = . For a ballast circuit, o is a meausure of the output and
e i Rb + kRt  kR  ei
1+  t 
 Rb 
• Fig shows the input-output relationships for a ballast circuit.
• It may be noted that a percentage in supply voltage ei results in greater change in output
than does a similar percentage change in k, hence very careful voltage regulation must be
employed.
• Further the relationship between input & output is not linear.

Input-output relationship for Ballast Circuit

Terminating devices

TELEMETRY
RECEIVING
SYSTEM

III stage element of measuring

• Usefulness of any measuring system depends on its ability to present the measured
quantity in a form which can be understood fully by the human operator or any
controlling device.
• The primary function of a terminating device is to accept the analogous driving signal
and to provide output for the immediate reading or for recording.
•
For direct human interpretation, a terminating device provides information as;
(1) A relative displacement: For ex, a pointer moving over a scale, light beam & scale, liquid
column & scale, etc.
(2) A digital form: Examples: Odometer in an automobile speedometer, a rotating drum
mechanical counter.
(3) ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ limiting type: Ex, red oil pressure lights in automobiles, Pilot lamps on
equipments

Most of the dynamic mechanical measurements require electrical terminating devices due to poor
response characteristics of mechanical, pneumatic or optical systems.

Types of Readouts
• Readouts device is mainly of two types
1. Analog indicator
2. Digital indicator

Analog indicator
Meter indicators

Pointer & scale meters/indicators are useful for static & steady state dynamic indications, but not
suitable for transient measurements. This is due to relatively high inertia of the meter movement.
Meter indicators may be classified as:
(i) Simple D’Arsonval type meter
(ii) Ohm meters & Volt-Ohm milli ammeters
(iii) Vacuum tube voltmeters.

• Among these, D’Arsonval type meter is widely employed as the final indicating device.
• D’Arsonval type meter is the common type used for measuring either current or voltage.
• It consists of a coil assembly mounted on a pivoted shaft whose rotation is constrained
by two spiral springs, one at each end of the shaft as shown in fig. The coil assembly is
mounted in a magnetic field.
• The electric current to be measured is passed through the coil and the two interacting
magnetic fields result in a torque applied to the pivoted assembly.
• Then the resulting displacement of the pointer on scale is calibrated in terms of electric
current.
• This principle forms the basis for most of the electric meters, stylus & light beam
Oscillograph.

D’Arsonval type meter

D’Arsonval type meter

Mechanical counters
Counters are used for counting a particular event. Mechanical counters are usually of decade
drum type as used in the conventional automobile odometer. A mechanical counter consists of a
large number of small drums, each numbered from 0 to 9 round the periphery as shown in fig.

The first drum may rotate continuously. As each rotation of drum 1 is completed, a transfer
segment engages with a transfer pinion, to rotate the drum 2 by 3600. A complete rotation of
drum 2 rotates drum 3 by 3600 and so on. This device is used in automobile odometers, in
component counters, shaft revolution counters, etc.

• Alternately operation may be by an electrical solenoid, actuated by a pulse from a switch

or transducer.
• Variants of the basic counter may be used to add or subtract digits or to operate a switch
after a preset number of pulses or rotations have been counted.

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)

CRO is the most versatile readout device and display device for mechanical measurements. It is
used for measurement and analysis of waveforms and other phenomenon in electrical &
electronic circuits. CRO is a voltage sensitive instrument with an electron beam striking the
fluorescent screen. The extremely low inertia beam of electrons enables it to be used for
following the rapidly varying voltages.

The heart of the CRO is the Cathode ray tube (CRT), whose important parts are;

(1) Electron gun assembly: The electron gun assembly produces a sharply focused beam of
electrons which in turn are accelerated to high velocity.

This beam of electrons strikes the fluorescent screen with sufficient energy to cause a luminous
spot on the screen.

(2) Electron gun: An electron gun emits electrons and makes them into a beam. It consists of a
heater, cathode, grid, focusing and accelerating anodes. Electrons are emitted from an indirectly
heated cathode.

These pass through a small hole in the control grid. The grid controls the electrons emitted from
the cathode and hence the intensity of the beam. The electrons are then accelerated by
accelerating anodes.

(3) Deflection plates: These are two pairs of electrostatic plates. A voltage applied to a pair of
vertical plates moves the electron beam vertically up or down. And if the voltage is applied to the
pair of horizontal plates, the electron beam moves horizontally from one end to other end of the
screen. The CRT is evacuated so that the emitted electrons can move freely from one end of the
tube to the other.

• Usually in CRO’s, the horizontal voltage is internally developed where as the vertical
voltage is the voltage under investigation (input).
 • This voltage moves the luminous spot up & down in accordance with the instantaneous
value of voltage. In other words, it traces the ‘waveform’ of the input voltage w.r.t. time.
• CRO’s can also be used to visualize various quantities such as current,
strain, acceleration, pressure if they can be converted into voltages.

Important parts of a Cathode ray tube

 SELF STUDY
Measurement of Force and Torque

Introduction
A force is defined as the reaction between two bodies. This reaction may be in the form of a
tensile force (pull) or it may be a compressive force (push). Force is represented
mathematically as a vector and has a point of application. Therefore, the measurement of
force involves the determination of its magnitude as well as its direction. The measurement
of force may be done by any of the two methods.

i) Direct method: This involves a direct comparison with a known gravitational force on a
standard mass example by a physical balance.

ii) Indirect method: This involves the measurement of the effect of force on a body. For
example,.

a) Measurement of acceleration of a body of known mass which is subjected to force.

b) Measurement of resultant effect (deformation) when the force is applied to an elastic
member.

Direct method

A body of mass “m” in the earth’s gravitational field experiences a force F which is given by

F = ma = W

Where ‘W’ is the weight of the body ‘a’ is the acceleration due to gravity. Any unknown
force may be compared with the gravitational force (ma) on the standard mass ‘m’. The
values of ‘m’ and ‘a’ should be known accurately in order to know the magnitude of the
gravitation force.

Mass is a fundamental quantity and its standard kilogram is kept at France. The other masses
can be compared with this standard with a precision of a few parts in109. On the other hand,
‘a’ is a derived quantity but still makes a convenient standard. Its value can be measured with
an accuracy of 1 part in 106. Therefore any unknown force can be compared with the
gravitational force with an accuracy of about this order of magnitude.

Analytical Balance :(Equal arm balance)

Direct comparison of an unknown force with the gravitational force can be explained with
the help of an analytical balance. The direction of force is parallel to that of the gravitational
force, and hence only its magnitude needs to be determined. The constructional details of an
analytical balance is as shown in Fig.
The balance arm rotates about the point “O” and two forces W 1 and W2 are applied at the ends
of the arm. W1 is an unknown force and W2 is the known force due to a standard mass. Point
G is the centre of gravity of the balance arm, and WB is the weight of the balance arm and the
pointer acting at G. The above figure show the balance is unbalanced position when the force
W1 and W2 are unequal. This unbalance is indicated by the angle θ which the pointer makes
with the vertical.

In the balanced position W1 = W2, and hence θ is zero. Therefore, the weight of the balance
arm and the pointer do not influence the measurements.

The sensitivity S of the balance is defined as the angular deflection per unit of unbalance is
between the two weight W1 and W2 and is given by
 
S= =
w1 − w2 W
 where, ΔW is the difference between W1 and W2. The sensitivity S can be calculated
by writing the moment equation at equilibrium as follows :

W1 (L cos θ - dB sin θ) = W2 (L cosθ + dB sinθ) + WB dG sin θ

where the distances dB , dG and L are shown in Fig. For small deflection angles sin θ = θ
and cos θ = 1 and the above equation becomes

W1 (L - dB θ) = W2 (L + dB θ) + WB dG θ
Near Equilibrium, W1 = W2 = W and hence

 L
S= =
w 2Wd B + WB d G

The sensitivity of the balance will be independent of the weight W Provided it is

designed such that dB = 0 then
L WB d G
S=
The sensitivity depends on the construction parameters of the balance arm and is independent
of the weights being compared. The sensitivity can be improved by decreasing both d G and
WB and increasing L. A compromise however, is to be struck between the sensitivity and
stability of the balance.

Unequal Arm Balance

An equal arm analytical balance suffers from a major disadvantage. It requires a set of
weights which are at least as heavy as the maximum weight to be measured. In order that the
heavier weights may be measured with the help of lighter weights, balances with unequal
arms are used.

The unequal arm balance uses two arms. One is called the load arm and the other is called
the power arm. The load arm is associated with load i.e., the weight force to be measured,
while power arm is associated with power i.e, the force produced by counter posing weights
required to set the balance in equilibrium.

Fig. shows a typical unequal arm balance. Mass ‘m' acts as power on the beam and exerts a
force of Fg due to gravity where Fg = m x g. This force acts as counterposing force against
the load which may be a test force Ft.
 Fig. Schematic of Unequal Arm Balance

The beam is pivoted on a knife edge 'q'. The test force Ft is applied by a screw or a lever
through a knife edge 'p' until the pointer indicates that the beam is horizontal.

For balance of moments, Ft x a = Fg x b

or test force Ft = Fg x b/a
= m x g x b/a
= constant x b ( provided that g is constant)

Therefore the test force is proportional to the distance 'b' of the mass from the pivot. Hence,
if mass 'm' is constant and the test force is applied at a fixed distance 'a' from the knife edge
'q' (i.e., the load arm is constant), the right hand of the beam (i.e., the power arm) may be
calibrated in terms of force Ft. If the scale is used in different gravitational fields, a
correction may be made for change in value of 'g'.

The set-up shown in Fig. is used for measurement of tensile force. With suitable
modifications, it can be used for compression, shearing and bending forces.

This machine can also be used for the measurement of unknown mass. Suppose force Ft is
Produced by an unknown mass mt.

Therefore Ft = mt g
Hence, for balance, m1 x g x a = m x g x b
or m1 = m x b/a = a constant x b

Therefore, the power arm b may be calibrated to read the un known mass m1 directly if ‘m’
and ‘a’ are fixed. This forms the basis of countless weighing (i.e., mass measuring) machine
Platform Balance (Multiple Lever System)

An equal and unequal arm balances are not suited for measurement of large weights. When
measurement of large weights are involved, multiple lever systems shown in Fig. are used. In
these systems, a large weight W is measured in terms of two smaller weights Wp and Wg

where, Wp = weight of poise

and Ws = Weight of Pan

The system is provided with an adjustable counterpoise which is used to get an initial
balance. Before the unknown load W is applied to the platform, the poise weight W p is set at
zero of the beam scale and counter piece is adjusted to obtain Initial zero balance.

In order to simplify the analysis it is assumed that the weight W can be replaced by two
arbitrary weights W1 and W2. Also it is assumed that the poise weight Wp is at zero and
when the unknown weight W is applied it is entirely balanced by the weight, W S in the pan.

Therefore T x b = Ws x a ….(1)

and T x c = W1 f/d e + W2 h …(2)

If the links are so proportioned that

h/e = f/d
We get : T x c = h (W1 + W2) hW ….(3)

From the above equation (3) it is clear that the weight W may be placed anywhere on the
platform and its position relative to the two knife edges of the platform is immaterial.
 T can be eliminated from equations. (l) and (3) to give

is called themultiplication ration of the scale

The multiplication ratio M, is indicative of weight that should be put in the pan to balance the
weight on the platform. Suppose the scale has a multiplication ratio of 1000. It means that a
weight of 1 kg put in the pan can balance a weight of 1000 kg put on the platform. Scales are
available which have multiplication ratios as high as 10,000.

If the beam scale is so divided that a movement of poise weight Wp by 1 scale division
represents a force of x kg, then a poise movement of y scale divisions should produce the
same result as a weight Wp placed on the pan at the end of the beam. Hence,

Wp y = x y a

Wp
or x=
a
The above equation represents a relationship that determines the required scale divisions on
the beam for any poise weight Wp

Proving Ring

This device has long been the standard for calibrating tensile testing machines and is in
general, the means by which accurate measurement of large static loads may be obtained. A
proving ring is a circular ring of rectangular cross section as shown in the Fig. which may be
subjected to tensile or compressive forces across its diameter. The force-deflection relation
for a thin ring is

16 EI
F= y
where, F is the force, E i(sth/e2yo−un4g/’sm) oduluD
s,3I is the moment of inertia of the section about
the centroidal axis of bending section. D is the outside diagram of the ring, y is the
deflection. The above equation is derived under the assumption that the thickness of the ring is
small compared to the radius. And also it is clear that the displacement is directly
proportional to the force.

The deflection is small and hence the usefulness of the proving ring as a calibration device depends
on the accuracy with which this small deflection is measured. This is done by using a precision
micrometer shown in the figure. In order to obtain precise measurements one
edge of the micrometer is mounted on a vibrating reed device which is plucked to obtain a
vibratory motion.

The micrometer contact is then moved forward until a noticeable damping of the vibration is
observed.

Proving rings are normally used for force measurement within the range of 1.5 KN to 1.5
MN. The maximum deflection is typically of the order of 1% of the outside diameter of the
ring.

Torque Measurement

The force, in addition to its effect along its line of action, may exert a turning effort relative to
any axis other than those intersecting the line of action as shown in Fig. Such a turning effect is
called torque or couple

Torque or couple = Fb1 - Fb3

= Fb2
The important reason for measuring torque is to obtain load information necessary for stress or
deflection analysis. The torque T may be computed by measuring the force F at a known radius
'r' from the following relation T=Fr.

However, torque measurement is often associated with determination of mechanical power, either
power required to operate a machine or power developed by the machine. The power is calculated
from the relation.

P = 2 π NT

where N is the angular speed in revolutions per second. Torque measuring devices used in this
connection are commonly known as dynamometers.

There are basically three types of dynamometers.

1. Absorption dynamometers: They absorb the mechanical energy as torque is measured, and
hence are particularly useful for measuring power or torque developed by power sources such as
engines or electric motors.

2. Driving dynamometers : These dynamometers measure power or torque and as well provide
energy to operate the devices to be tested. They are, therefore, useful in determining performance
characteristics of devices such as pumps, compressors etc

Transmission dynamometers : These are passive devices placed at an appropriate location within
a machine or in between machines to sense the torque at that location. They neither add nor
subtract the transmitted energy or power and are sometimes referred to as torque meters.

The first two types can be grouped as mechanical and electrical dynamometers.

Mechanical Dynamometer (Prony Brake)

These dynamometers are of absorption type. The most device is the prony brake as shown in
Fig.
 Fig. Schematic of Prony Brake

Two wooden blocks are mounted diametrically opposite on a flywheel attached to the
rotating shaft whose power is to be measured. One block carries a lever arm, and an
arrangement is provided to tighten the rope which is connected to the arm. The rope is tightened
so as to increase the frictional resistance between the blocks and the flywheel. The torque exerted
by the prony brake is.

T = F.L

where force F is measured by conventional force measuring instruments, like balances or load
cells etc. The power dissipated in the brake is calculated by the following equation.

where force F is in Newtons, L is the length of lever arm in meters, N is the angular speed in
revolution per minute, and P in watts.

The prony brake is inexpensive, but it is difficult to adjust and maintain a specific load.

Limitation : The prony brake is inherently unstable. Its capacity is limited by the following
factors.
i). Due to wear of the wooden blocks, the coefficient of friction varies between the blocks and
the flywheel. This requires continuous tightening of clamp. Therefore, the system becomes
unsuitable for measurement of large powers especially when used for long periods
ii) The use of prony brake results in excessive temperature rise which results in decrease in
coefficient of friction leading to brake failure. In order to limit the temperature rise, cooling is
required. This is done by running water into the hollow channel of the flywheel.

iii) When the machine torque is not constant, the measuring arrangement is subjected to
oscillations. There may be changes in coefficient of friction and hence the reading of force F may
be difficult to take.

Hydraulic Dynamometer
Fig. Section through a typical water brake

Fig. shows a hydraulic dynometer in its simplest form which acts as a water brake. This is a power
sink which uses fluid friction for dissipation of the input energy and thereby measures the input
torque-or power.

The capacity of hydraulic dynamometer is a function of two factors, speed and water level. The
power consumed is a function of cube of the speed approximately. The torque is measured
with the help of a reaction arm. The power absorption at a given speed may be controlled by
adjustment of the water level in the housing. This type of dynamometer may be made in
considerably larger capacities than the simple prony brake because the heat
generated can be easily removed by circulating the water into and out of the housing. Trunnion
bearings support the dynamometer housing, allowing it a freedom to rotate except for the restraint
imposed by the reaction arm.

In this dynamometer the power absorbing element is the housing which tends to rotate with the
input shaft of the driving machine. But, such rotation is constrained by a force-measuring device,
such as some form of scales or load cell, placed at the end of a reaction arm of radius r. By
measuring the force at the known radius, the torque T may be computed by the simple relation

Advantages of hydraulic dynamometers over mechanical brakes

• In hydraulic dynamometer constant supply of water running through the breaking

medium acts as a coolant.
• The brake power of very large and high speed engines can be measured.
• The hydraulic dynamometer may be protected from hunting effects by means of a
dashpot damper.
• In hydraulic dynamometer there is a flexibility in controlling the operation