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Lecture Notes

Uploaded by

Gauri Solankar
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© © All Rights Reserved
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m the right relation, as well as tuples from the right relation that did not match any from

the
left relation, and adding them to the result of the join. Figure 3.35 shows the result of a full
outer join
 Given a relation scheme R such that the set D of FDs and MVDs are satisfied, consider a set
attributes X and Y where X is subset or equal to R,Y is subset or equal to Y. The reltion
scheme R is in 4NF if for all mutivalued dependencies of the form X →→Y Є D+ Either X →→Y
is a trivial MVD or X is super key of R
 A transaction is a unit of program execution that accesses and possibly updates various data
items. Usually, a transaction is initiated by a user program written in a highlevel data-
manipulation language or programming language (for example, SQL, COBOL, C, C++, or Java),
where it is delimited by statements (or function calls) of the form begin transaction and end
transaction.
 Rational purachase = ration mobility
 read(A); A := A − 50; write(A);
 Instructions li and lj of transactions Ti and Tj respectively, conflict if and only if there exists
some item Q accessed by both li and lj, and at least one of these instructions wrote Q
 Hanicppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp
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ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp
pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppe base
resumption= minus evaluation.
 For each data item Q, if transaction Ti reads the initial value of Q.
 A locking protocol is a set of rules followed by all transactions while requesting and releasing
locks. Locking protocols restrict the set of possible schedules.
 a transaction waits for a lock only for a specified amount of time. After that, the wait times
out and the transaction is rolled back.
 Alternatively one or more or so.
 Room with attribiutes r number capacity and building.
 BCD = binary coded decimal.
 The primary key is the candidate key that is chosen by the database designer as the principal
means of identifying entities with in an entity set. The remaining candidate keys if any, are
called alternate key.
 Memory allocation = static and dynamic are two types
 Remember the complexities of sorts.
 The entity-relationship data model perceives the real world as consisting of basic objects,
called entities and relationships among these objects.
 Mapping cardinalities or cardinality ratios, express the number of entities to which another
entity can be associated via a relationship set.
 The owner entity set and the weak entity set must participate in one to may relationship set.
This relationship set is called the identifying relationship set of the weak entity set.
 A database management system reduces the amount of data duplication by ensuring that a
physical piece of data is available to all programs authorized to have access to it, where as
data written by one program in a file-processing system may not be readable by another
program.
 Logical data independence is the ability to modify the conceptual scheme without making it
necessary to rewrite application programs. Such a modification might be adding a field to a
record; an application program’s view hides this change from the program
 No DBM can do without this, if there is no file manager interaction then nothing stored in
the files can be retrieved.
 The entity-relationship data model perceives the real world as consisting of basic objects,
called entities and relationships among these objects.
 The E-R data model employs three basic notions : entity sets, relationship sets and
attributes.
 Customer is an entity and its attributes are customerid, custmername, custaddress etc.
 single-valued and multi-valued attribute: The attribute having unique value is single –valued
attribute eg: empno,customerid,regdno etc. The attribute having more than one value is
multi-valued attribute eg: phone-no, dependent name, vehicle

 It is a collection of programs that enables user to create and maintain a database. In other
words it is general-purpose software that provides the users with the processes of defining,
constructing and manipulating the database for various applications.
 Many persons are involved in the design, use and maintenance of any database. These
persons can be classified into 2 types as below
 These models can be used in database design. It provides useful concepts that allow us to
move from an informal description to precise description.
  XML and XQuery standards  Automated database administration
 The information gathered in the requirements analysis step is used to develop a higher-level
description of the data.

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