Grammar

Clause Structures & Conjunctions

Ms: Saba Gul Ihsan Khan

● The subject of a sentence is what the sentence is about. It primarily consists
of a noun or pronoun.
● The predicate of a sentence is what describes the subject. It primarily consists
of a verb.
● A clause is a meaningful group of words made up of a subject and a
predicate.
● There are two types of clauses: independent and dependent.
● An independent clause (also called a main clause) is a clause that can exist
alone as a full sentence.
● A dependent clause (also called a subordinate clause) is a clause that can't
exist alone as a full sentence.
● A coordinating conjunction is a word that joins two words, phrases, or clauses
(like and, but, and or).
● A subordinating conjunction is a word that introduces a dependent clause (like
where, that, and which).
Simple Sentences
Sentence Structure
Simple Sentences
A sentence is a group of words that
A. contains at least one subject and one verb
B. expresses a complete thought.
There are four kinds of sentences in English:
1. simple sentences,
2. compound sentences,
3. complex sentences,
4. and compound-complex sentences.
A simple sentence has one subject-verb pair. The subject tells who or what did something. The
verb tells the action (jump, work, think) or condition (is, was, seem, appear).
Examples of Simple Sentence Structures
Subject + Verb: "He runs."

Subject + Verb + Object: "She reads books."

Subject + Verb + Complement: "He is tall."

Subject + Verb + Adverb: "They eat quickly."

Different Types of Simple Sentences
1. Declarative sentences make statements or declarations. They end with a period.
Example: "They are eating dinner."
2. Interrogative sentences ask questions. They end with a question mark.
Example: "Are you coming to the party?"
3. Imperative sentences give commands or make requests. They can end with a
period or an exclamation mark.
Example: "Please pass the salt."
4. Exclamatory sentences express strong emotion. They end with an exclamation
mark.
Example: "What a beautiful day!"
Declarative Sentence
The main goal of this type of sentence is to make a statement. Any sentence that tells us something can be attributed
to this category.

The standard order of words in such sentences is as follows:

Subject + verb + object

Example:

The girl (subject) lost (verb) her favourite doll (object).

Sentences that fit the definition for being of declarative type, can be further categorized into two groups – positive and
negative.
Interrogative Sentence
An interrogative sentence strives to receive information. According to the
interrogative sentence definition, any sentence that asks a question can be
attributed to this category and will always end with a question mark.
Unlike the other types of sentences, interrogative sentences have a different word
order:
(wh-word or how) + auxiliary verb + subject
Example:
Where (wh-word) is (auxiliary verb) Kate (subject)?
Interrogative Sentence
Similar to other types of sentences, interrogative sentences can be either positive
or negative. Here are a few interrogative sentence examples of both:

Did (auxiliary verb) he (Pronoun) play (main verb) on (preposition) a football team
(noun, object)?
Imperative Sentence
The main goal of these sentences is to tell others to do something, or, in other
words, give a command. Imperative sentences can end with either a period or an
exclamation mark.
The word order and form of such a sentence are different from other types. It often
doesn’t have a subject, because an imperative sentence, by default, speaks to the
recipient or reader (if it is a written text).
Generally, such sentences consist of a base verb + any additional details.
Example: Pass (verb) the book.
Example: Please (Adverb, polite modifier), pass (verb) the book.
Imperative Sentence
These sentences can also be negative and positive, here are a few imperative
sentence examples to help you grasp the idea:
Exclamatory Sentence
It is used to express a strong surprise of emotion and always ends with an exclamation mark.
Here are a couple of examples of how the basic order of words in such sentences might look:
What (+ adjective) + noun + subject + verb
How (+ adjective/adverb) + subject + verb
For example:
What a wonderful (adjective) weather (subject)!
How generous (adjective) you (subject) are (verb)!
How beautifully (adverb) she (subject) sings (verb)!
How quickly (adverb) they (subject) ran (verb)!
Compound Sentences
Sentence Structure
Compound Sentences with and, but, so, and or

In Chapter 1, you learned about simple sentences. A simple sentence has one
subject-verb combination. Another kind of sentence is a compound sentence. A
compound sentence has two or more subject-verb combinations.
Compound Sentences with and, but, so, and or
There are seven coordinating conjunctions in English:

1. and,
2. but,
3. so,
4. Or,
5. for,
6. nor,
7. and yet.
Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating Conjunctions
Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction in compound sentences only. Do
not use a comma to join two words or two phrases in a simple sentence.
Types of Compound Sentences
There are three ways to make compound sentences: coordinating conjunctions,
semicolons, and transitional expressions.
Coordinating Conjunctions: These are the most common. They are formed by joining
two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction. For example: "I like to swim,
and my brother likes to play soccer."
Semicolons: These are used to join two independent clauses that are closely related in
meaning. For example: "She is an excellent dancer; her sister is a talented singer."
Transitional Expressions or Conjunctive Adverbs: These are words or phrases that
connect two independent clauses. For example: "However, I still managed to finish my
project on time."
Examples of Compound Sentences
"I like to swim, and my brother likes to play soccer."

"She is an excellent dancer; her sister is a talented singer."

"I started it late; however, I still managed to finish my project on time."

"I have a lot of studying to do, so I can't go to the party."

"He studied hard, but he still failed the exam."

Compound Sentences with Conjunctive Adverbs
Compound Sentences with Conjunctive Adverbs:
Punctuation

Sentences constructed using conjunctive adverbs may be punctuated two ways.

1. Join the two independent clauses. Use a semicolon in front of the conjunctive
adverb and a comma after.
2. Keep the two independent clauses as separate sentences. Use a full stop
after the first sentence, capitalize the conjunctive adverb in the second
sentence, and use a comma after.
Examples of Sentences with Conjunctive Adverbs
Many of the city’s roads are in dangerous disrepair; therefore, the government really
must invest in infrastructure spending.
Many of the city’s roads are in dangerous disrepair. Therefore, the government really
must invest in infrastructure spending.
Several of our trucks now operate on electricity; in addition, we are hoping to power our
ships with hydrogen fuel by 2024.
Several of our trucks now operate on electricity. In addition, we are hoping to power our
ships with hydrogen fuel by 2024.
He never attends meetings; moreover, he never participates in team projects.
He never attends meetings. Moreover, he never participates in team projects.
Examples of Sentences with Conjunctive Adverbs
We can purchase the computers before December; alternately, we can purchase
an updated version in January.

We can purchase the computers before December. Alternately, we can purchase

an updated version in January.

We have had several meetings about our office renovation plans; nevertheless,
we never seem to agree on the execution plans.

We have had several meetings about our office renovation plans. Nevertheless,
we never seem to agree on the execution plans.
Examples of Sentences with Conjunctive Adverbs
Our manager considered operating the factory using geothermal technology;
however, the implementation costs were too high.

Our manager considered operating the factory using geothermal technology.

However, the implementation costs were too high.

Several companies are concerned about reducing their environmental footprints;

consequently, they are exploring new ways to heat their office buildings.

Several companies are concerned about reducing their environmental footprints.

Consequently, they are exploring new ways to heat their office buildings.
Complex Sentences
Sentence Structure - Complex Sentences
A complex sentence is a sentence with one independent clause and at least one
dependent clause. It works best when you need to provide more information to
explain or modify your sentence’s main point. Complex sentences are easy to
spot as they often use subordinating conjunctions like because, since, or until
to connect clauses.
Sentence Structure - Complex Sentences
Complex sentences are one of the four types of sentences based on structure (simple,
complex, compound, and compound-complex). Their distinction is that they contain a
dependent clause; only complex sentences and complex-compound sentences have
these.
A dependent clause, also known as a subordinate clause, is a clause that cannot stand
alone as a complete sentence. Without an independent clause, a dependent clause is
just a sentence fragment.

[Incorrect] When I grow up

[Correct] When I grow up, I’ll use complete sentences.
Independent vs. dependent clauses: What’s the
difference?
The key to using complex sentences is understanding the difference between
independent and dependent clauses. Basically, independent clauses are complete
sentences on their own, but dependent clauses are not. However, both kinds of
clause contain a subject and a verb, so why is one a complete sentence but not
the other?

The short answer is that dependent clauses always start with subordinating
conjunctions. In a way, these subordinating conjunctions turn independent clauses
into dependent ones.
Independent vs. dependent clauses: What’s the
difference?
With a subordinating conjunction, a clause becomes a description of another
clause. In this way, dependent clauses change the meaning of independent
clauses. Consider this example of an independent clause:
Example: You cannot leave the school.
That sounds scary! Alone, this independent clause means that you must remain at
school forever. Now, let’s add a dependent clause to make a complex sentence
that clarifies things further:
Example: You cannot leave the school until the bell rings.
See how the dependent clause changes the meaning of the main point?
Simple vs. Complex Sentences
The difference between simple and complex sentences is easier to explain. A
simple sentence is any sentence with only one independent clause. Any sentence
with more than one clause—including a complex sentence—cannot be a simple
sentence.

Interestingly, you can sometimes combine two simple sentences to create one
complex sentence, as long as the two sentences are logically related and you add
a subordinate conjunction.
Simple vs. Complex Sentences
Subordinating Conjunctions

A subordinating conjunction is a word or phrase that links a dependent

clause to an independent clause. This word or phrase indicates that a
clause has informative value to add to the sentence’s main idea,
signaling a cause-and-effect relationship or a shift in time and place
between the two clauses.
Subordinating Conjunctions

A dependent clause, also known as a subordinate clause, is a clause

with two specific qualities.
1. Firstly, it does not express a complete unit of thought on its own; it
cannot stand as its own sentence.
2. Secondly, it depends upon an independent clause—one that can
stand on its own as a complete sentence—to form a complete
idea.
Subordinating conjunctions showing cause and effect
The subordinating conjunction that is simplest to explain is because. Because is
a conjunction with just one purpose: to show a cause-and-effect relationship
between a subordinate clause and a main clause. On its own, a clause beginning
with because is incomplete.
Example: Because he wouldn’t wear a seat belt.
We have the sense that there is something missing here. Let’s add an
independent clause so this statement has something to lean on.
Example: Robin wasn’t allowed in the Batmobile any longer.
Now we will combine the two in a complex sentence.
Example: Robin wasn’t allowed in the Batmobile any longer because he
wouldn’t wear a seat belt.
Subordinating conjunctions showing cause and effect

Other subordinating conjunctions that can show cause-and-effect

relationships and function in the same way are for, as, since, though,
due to, provided that, because of, unless, and so/so that.
Subordinating conjunctions signaling relationships of time
or place

Another function of subordinating conjunctions is to show a relationship

between two clauses involving a transition of time or place. Some
examples of such subordinating conjunctions are once, while, when,
whenever, where, wherever, before, and after.
Subordinating conjunctions signaling relationships of time
or place
Comma placement and subordinating conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions that fall in the middle of a sentence are

generally not preceded by a comma. This is the opposite of what is done
with coordinating conjunctions, or words that join two independent clauses
(for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and sometimes so).

When a subordinate clause begins a sentence, however, the whole clause

(but not the subordinating conjunction itself) is followed by a comma.
Comma placement and subordinating conjunctions
List of Subordinating Conjunctions
because after since
before although so
by the time as supposing
even if as if than
even though as long as that
if as much as though
in case as soon as till
in order that as though unless
in the event that until
lest when
now that whenever
once where
only whereas
only if wherever
provided that whether or not
while
Examples of Complex Sentences
Dependent Clauses: Adverbial, Adjectival, Nominal
Adverbial clauses modify the verb in the independent clause, while adjectival
clauses modify the noun in the independent clause. Nominal clauses act as a
noun in the independent clause.

For example:

Adverbial clause: "After she finished her homework, she went to bed early."

Adjectival clause: "The book that I read last night was very interesting."

Nominal clause: "What he said made me angry."

1. Adverbial clauses
Like a single-word adverb, an adverbial clause describes a verb (in the sentence's
main clause) and answers one of these questions

1. where?
2. why?
3. how?
4. when?
5. to what degree?

An adverbial clause begins with a subordinating conjunction, which makes the

clause subordinate (dependent).
1. Adverbial clauses
Example of adverbial clause answering when?

Example of adverbial clause answering why?

1. Adverbial clauses
Example of adverbial clause answering where?

Example of adverbial clause answering how?

1. Adverbial clauses
Example of adverbial clause answering to what degree?
2. Adjectival clauses
Like a single-word adjective, an adjectival clause describes a noun (in the sentence's main
clause) and answers one of these questions

which one? what kind?

An adjectival clause usually begins with a relative pronoun (plays the role of a noun phrase within that clause.), which
makes the clause subordinate (dependent).

Common relative pronouns: that which who whom whose

NOTE: Use who, whom, and whose to describe people.

Use that and which to describe things.

Adjectival clauses always follow the person, place, or thing they describe, usually immediately.
2. Adjectival clauses
Example of adjectival clause answering which one?

Example of adjectival clause answering what kind?

2. Adjectival clauses
Adjectival clauses may also begin with selected subordinating conjunctions:

when - to describe a time

where - to describe a place

2. Adjectival clauses
why - to describe a reason
Comma use with adjectival clauses
Comma use with adjectival clauses depends upon essentiality of the adjectival clause.

If the adjectival clause is essential (or "needed"), no commas should be used to separate it from the main
clause.

Generally, essential adjectival clauses should not begin with which.

Examples:

Since the adjectival clauses in the above examples are needed to clarify the noun that they describe, they are essential and should not be separated from the rest of the
sentence with commas.
Comma use with adjectival clauses
If the adjectival clause is nonessential (or "not needed"), commas should separate it from the
main clause.
Nonessential adjectival clauses should not begin with that.
Examples:
Note the difference between the sentences in each pair:
Note the difference between the sentences in each pair:
3. Nominal Clauses
Like a noun, a nominal clause names a person, place, thing, or idea.
Nominal clauses may begin with interrogatives:
who whom what which whoever whomever whatever when where
how why
An interrogative beginning a nominal clause has a function within the nominal clause.
Each of the following examples illustrates
1. a nominal clause
2. the function of the nominal clause within the sentence
3. the function of the interrogative within the nominal clause
3. Nominal Clauses
Nominal clause as subject in sentence

Nominal clause as subjective complement in sentence

3. Nominal Clauses
Nominal clause as object of preposition in sentence
3. Nominal Clauses
Nominal clause as direct object in sentence
3. Nominal Clauses
Nominal clause as indirect object in sentence

Nominal clause as retained object in sentence

“An object in a passive construction

that is the same as the direct

or indirect object in the

corresponding active construction.”

3. Nominal Clauses
Nominal clauses may also begin with expletives:

that whether if

An expletive beginning a nominal clause has no function within the nominal

clause.

“An expletive is a word or phrase inserted into a sentence that is not needed to
express the basic meaning of the sentence.”
3. Nominal Clauses
Nominal clause beginning with expletive that

Nominal clause beginning with expletive whether

3. Nominal Clauses
Nominal clause beginning with expletive if
Compound Complex Sentences
WHAT IS A COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE?
A compound-complex sentence is a sentence containing one or more dependent
clauses and two or more independent clauses joined by a conjunction or
semicolon. An independent clause comprises a subject and verb and is a
complete thought. A dependent clause is an incomplete thought that would not be
a full sentence on its own (it’s also referred to as a subordinate clause).
CLAUSE ORDER IN COMPOUND-COMPLEX
SENTENCES
CLAUSE ORDER IN COMPOUND-COMPLEX
SENTENCES

1. I am hungry (this is the main point of the sentence)

2. But my fridge is empty (this is why we are being told about the hunger)
3. Because I forgot to go shopping (this is an explanation of the previous clause)

Always arrange your sentences according to the importance of the ideas

expressed and try to convey your ideas logically and simply.
HOW MANY CLAUSES ARE IN A COMPOUND COMPLEX
SENTENCE?

We usually define a compound-complex sentence as having at least 2 independent clauses and

1 dependent clause. That means there should be at least three clauses in the sentence.

The examples we have seen above all contained three clauses, but here’s an example with four:

Even though she bought a new computer, she kept her old one, and she still uses it because it
has some important programmes.

Here, we have four clauses:

1. Even though she bought a new computer (dependent)

2. she kept her old one (independent)
3. and she still uses it (independent)
4. because it has some important programmes (dependent)
We could expand this to five clauses:

Even though she bought a new computer, she kept her old one, and she still uses it
because it has some important programmes that she couldn’t install on the new one.

The clauses are:

1. Even though she bought a new computer (dependent)

2. she kept her old one (independent)
3. and she still uses it (independent)
4. because it has some important programmes (dependent)
5. that she couldn’t install on the new one (dependent)

This is a great way to incorporate lots of ideas into a sentence instead of using many short
sentences. However, be aware that long sentences can present new problems.

Generally, academic writing tends to include quite long sentences but you certainly want to avoid
ridiculously complicated sentences. If you make one tiny mistake, it can cause the whole
sentence to fall apart. Even if you get it right, it can be a strain for your reader. Thus,
compound-complex sentences are usually around 3-5 clauses in length.
How to Write a Compound-Complex Sentence?
Structuring your compound-complex sentences properly is imperative to avoid
run-on sentences and sentence fragments. Successfully arranging a
compound-complex can help you clearly express nuanced thoughts or
complicated ideas. Here is a quick guide on how to form a complete sentence in
the compound-complex structure.
1. Choose your main clauses. Compound-complex sentence structure always includes
two independent clauses. Your independent clauses should contain a subject and a verb
phrase, enabling them to stand on their own. “I’m going to the mall” and “I need to grab
my wallet” are two examples of simple sentences that are also independent clauses.
2. Choose your dependent clause. Attaching a dependent clause to your sentence
turns it from a compound sentence to a compound-complex sentence. Modifying the
independent clause “I need to grab my wallet” with the dependent adverbial clause
“before I go” will turn one of your clauses into a complex sentence.
3. Join the clauses with a conjunction. Coordinating conjunctions such as “for,” “yet,”
“and,” and “but” are the connectors that help link your main clauses together. “I’m going
to the mall but I need to grab my wallet before I go.”
4. Add your punctuation. A comma usually precedes the coordinating conjunction. In
this case, your coordinating conjunction is “but”, before which you will add a comma to
make the final sentence “I’m going to the mall, but I need to grab my wallet before I go.” If
the phrase starts with a dependent clause, the comma should come right after your
clause.
Types of Compound-Complex Sentences
All sentences, including compound-complex sentences, are divided into four types
based on their purpose of communication:

1. Declarative
2. Interrogative
3. Exclamatory
4. Imperative
Declarative Compound-Complex Sentence
A declarative compound-complex sentence makes a statement and ends with a
period.

Example:

I can take you home after the game is over, but Patrick will be coming too.

In this example, the two independent clauses are I can take you home and Patrick
will be coming too. The independent clauses are joined by the coordinating
conjunction but. The dependent clause is after the game is over. The sentence
makes a clear statement and ends with a period.
Interrogative Compound-Complex Sentence
An interrogative compound-complex sentence asks a question and ends with a
question mark.
Example:
Are you working the closing shift after we finish school today, or are you free to go
out with us?
In this example, the two independent clauses are are you working the closing shift
and are you free to go out with us, joined by the coordinating conjunction or. The
dependent clause is after we finish school today. The sentence asks a question
and ends with a question mark.
Exclamatory Compound-Complex Sentence
An exclamatory compound-complex sentence makes an exclamation and ends
with an exclamation point.
Example:
If you hadn't eaten the whole pie, I would have had some after work, and Ellie
would have taken some for lunch!
This example's two independent clauses are I would have had some after work
and Ellie would have taken some for lunch, joined by the conjunction and. The
dependent clause is if you hadn't eaten the whole pie. The sentence ends with an
exclamation point, signaling an exclamatory compound-complex sentence.
Imperative Compound-Complex Sentence
An imperative compound-complex sentence makes a command and ends with a
period or an exclamation point.

Example:

Please go get the mail when you get home, and take your little sister with you.

The independent clauses are please go get the mail and take your little sister with
you, joined by the conjunction and. The dependent clause is when you get home.
The sentence makes a command and ends with a period.
Compound-Complex Sentences vs. Prepositional Phrase
Many subordinating conjunctions that signal dependent clauses also function as
prepositions. Sometimes, these words disguise prepositional phrases as
dependent clauses.

Example:

This is not a compound-complex sentence:

I'm not hungry, but I'll want to eat something before work.
Compound-Complex Sentences vs. Prepositional Phrase
In this example, before work seems like a dependent clause. Notice, though, that it
doesn't contain a verb. Because it doesn't have a predicate, before work is a
prepositional phrase, not a dependent clause. Without a dependent clause, this is
not a compound-complex sentence.

Example:

If this example were a compound-complex sentence, it would look like this:

I'm not hungry, but I'll want to eat something before I go to work.

Before I go to work has both a subject and a predicate, making it a clause.

Compound-Complex Sentence vs. Compound Subject
Coordinating conjunctions join two independent clauses, but they also join other
sentence elements. In this example, a coordinating conjunction joins two subjects,
not two independent clauses.
Example:
This is not a compound-complex sentence:
Your friend Mady and I are in the same class, if I remember correctly.
The coordinating conjunction and connects Mady and I, forming a compound
subject. The subjects belong to just one independent clause. With only one
independent clause, this is not a compound-complex sentence.
Compound-Complex Sentence vs. Compound Subject
As a compound-complex sentence, this example would look like this:

Example:

Your friend Mady is in this class, and I'm also in this class, if I remember correctly.

The predicate is now repeated for each subject, separating a single clause into
two independent clauses.
Compound-Complex Sentence vs. Compound Predicate
Like compound subjects, compound predicates are easily confused with
independent clauses.
Example:
This is not a compound-complex sentence:
She just jumped out of the bus and rode away on her bike, all while balancing a
book on her head!
At a glance, she just jumped out of the bus and rode away on her bike seem like
two independent clauses. But there is one issue. The subject she appears before
jumped out of the bus, but not before rode away on her bike. Because the two
verb phrases share one subject, they are part of the same clause. With just one
independent clause, this sentence can't be compound-complex.
Compound-Complex Sentence vs. Compound Predicate
This example as a true compound-complex sentence would look like this:

Example:

She just jumped out of the bus, and she rode away on her bike, all while balancing
a book on her head!

The subject she now appears before jumped off the bus and before rode away on
her bike, forming two distinct, independent clauses.
Identifying a Compound-Complex Sentence:
If you're unsure whether a sentence is compound-complex, follow these steps:

● Identify every clause by asking yourself, "does this group of words include
both a subject and a predicate?"
● Determine whether each clause is dependent or independent.
● Count the dependent and independent clauses. If there are at least two
independent clauses and at least one dependent clause, the sentence is
compound-complex.
Examples of Compound-Complex Sentences
● He finished his report for work, but he still needs to fill out the accompanying
presentation even though he should have had it done last quarter.
● While waiting for the bus, Angela played games on her phone, and Lizzy read a
book.
● After all this time, I still can't fathom why he had to make such a big deal of it, but I
guess he had his reasons.
● Cameron and Jennifer had only known each other for 3 weeks, but they decided to
travel the world together before starting work, and they never regretted the decision.
● As I put the kettle on, I looked in the jar for biscuits, but I couldn't see any in there.
● While Jessica likes rom-coms, Sarah likes thrillers, but Ellie only watches
documentaries.