STARTING AND STOPPING OF DC

LINK
Energization and Deenergization of a Bridge:
⦿ Consider N series connected bridges at a converter station. If
one of the bridges is to be taken out of service, there is need
to not only block, but bypass the bridge.
⦿ This is because of the fact that just blocking the pulses does
not extinguish the current in the pair of valves that are left
conducting at the time of blocking.
⦿ The continued conduction of this pair injects AC voltage into
the link which can give rise to current and voltage oscillations
due to lightly damped oscillatory circuit in the link formed by
smoothing reactor and the line capacitance.
74
⦿ The transformer feeding the bridge is also subjected to DC
magnetization when DC current continues to flow through the
secondary windings.
⦿ The bypassing of the bridge can be done with the help of a
separate bypass valve or by activating a bypass pair in the
bridge (two valves in the same arm of the bridge).
⦿ The bypass valve was used with mercury arc valves where the
possibility of arc backs makes it impractical to use bypass
pairs. With thyristor valves, the use of bypass pair is the
practice as it saves the cost of an extra valve.
 Suppose valves 2 & 3 are conducting when the blocking
command is given.
 1 & 4 are selected as bypass pair.
 Commutation from 2 to 4 is as usual, but commutation
from 3 to 5 is prevented.
 In case of a predetermined bypass pair, the time lapse
between the blocking command and the current
transfer to bypass path can vary from 60° to 180°.
 This time lapse can be reduced if the bypass pair
includes the lower valve number carrying current
at the instant of blocking.
 In the inverter, there is no time lag involved in
the activation of the bypass pair.
 The current from the bypass pair is shunted to a
switch S1.
 With the aid of the isolators S, the bridge can
now be isolated.
ENERGIZATION OF A BRIDGE
 Energization of a blocked bridge is done in two stages.
 First the current is diverted from S1 to the bypass pair.
 For this to happen, S1 must generate the required arc
voltage and to minimize this voltage, the ckt
inductance must be small.
 In case the bypass pair fails to take over the current, S1
must close automatically if the current in that does not
become zero after a predetermined time interval.
 AC breakers with sufficient arc voltage but reduced
breaking capacity are used as S1.
 Secondly, the current is diverted from the bypass pair.
 Rectifier: Instantaneous diversion of current
(neglecting Overlap)
 Inverter: Transition requires some time lag
START-UP WITH LONG PULSE FIRING:
1. De block inverter at about γ = 90°
2. De block rectifier at α = 85° to establish low direct
current
3. Ramp up voltage by inverter control and the
current by rectifier control.
START-UP WITH SHORT PULSE FIRING:
• The current extinction during start-up is a problem
as valve with forward bias is not put into
conduction when the current in that falls
transiently below holding current.
START-UP OF A DC LINK
1. Open bypass switch at one terminal
2. Deblock that terminal and load to minimum
current in the rectifier mode
3. Open bypass switch at the second terminal and
commutate current to the bypass pair
4. Start the second terminal also in the rectifier mode
5. The inverter terminal is put into the inversion mode
6. Ramp up voltage and current.
 The voltage is normally raised before raising the
current.
 This permits the insulation of the line to be checked
before raising the power.
 The ramping of power avoids stresses on the
generator shaft.
 The switching surges in the line are also reduced.
 The required power ramping rate depends on the
strength of the AC System.
 Weaker AC system requires fast restoration of DC
power for maintaining transient stability.
 But high ramping rates can result in large voltage
drops due to requirement of reactive power at the
converter.
 Such voltage drops may lead to commutation failure
in inverter.
 Permissible ramping rate: 2 to 10 pu per second for a
start-up time of 100 to 500 msec.
 POWER CONTROL
The current order is obtained as the quantity derived from the
power order by dividing it by the direct voltage. The limits on the
current order are modified by the voltage dependent current
order limiter (VDCOL). The objective of VDCOL is to prevent
individual thyristors from carrying full current for long periods
during commutation failures. By providing both converter
stations with dividing circuits and transmitting the power order
from the leading station in which the power order is set to the
trailing station, the fastest response to the DC line voltage
changes is obtained without undue communication requirement.
 POWER CONTROL

Fig 7: Power Control

 FREQUENCY CONTROL
• The frequency of a network interconnected to a larger
one by an HVDC transmission link can be controlled by
means of a frequency feedback loop acting on the DC-
link controls, such that the small network draws the
required power change from the larger one.
• The Gotland link network once started could be
operated with no power feed other than the DC link.
• Similarly, when the power rating of the DC line is
comparable with or greater than the rating of the
running generators in the AC system to which the line
is connected, the line terminal can share in the
frequency regulation or even perform it unaided.
FREQUENCY & POWER /FREQUENCY
CONTROL
• The frequency control can be used in the cases of (i)
isolated load and (ii) isolated generation.
• In the latter case, the objective is to improve the
damping and reduce the wear of generator and the
governing system.
• Nuclear power plants are very sensitive to output
power and frequency variations.
• By proper control of power, frequency variations in
steady state as well as transient conditions can be
minimized.
• Frequency bias can be used to adjust power flow over
the tie to assist the system in difficulty.
• A constant power flow, without frequency control can
overspeed a receiving system with part or no load even
if prime mover inflow is cut off.
 Similarly, a sending system can be brought to
halt, if more power is required than the
connected generators can produce.
 Thus, although there seems no benefit in
frequency control for a DC link connected
between two large power systems, it is prudent to
incorporate an element of frequency control
which in the event of a partial break up of a
system will prevent over speed or under speed
STABILITY CONTROL
 When a DC tie is connected to a system with weak AC
ties to neighboring systems, DC link power can be
varied quickly and automatically to balance the load
flows and maintain if one of the AC ties trip.
 A DC tie used in parallel with an AC tie can be
employed to damp the low frequency oscillations in
the AC ties.
 The control signal used can be the rate of change of
AC line power or current or the phase angle
difference across the tie line.
 The DC tie can also provide frequency control for one
end if the AC tie becomes disconnected and thus can
permit resynchronization of the AC tie.
REACTIVE POWER CONTROL
 Reactive power control is important especially in
weak AC systems, in reducing the dynamic over
voltages.
 In inverters, fast reactive power control can help in
allowing injection of more power at times of need to
improve receiving end AC system stability.
 In addition to shunt capacitors and filters, converter
controls can be coordinated with the reactive power
sources to provide voltage stability and eliminate
voltage flicker.
 Modulation of inverter extinction angle can help in
HVDC power modulation by regulating AC bus
voltage at the inverter.
CONVERTER FAULTS AND
PROTECTION

78
 CONVERTER FAULTS

NATURE AND TYPE OF FAULT:

⦿ AC faults at rectifier end

⦿ AC faults at inverter end Line to Line (Very

rare) / Pole to Pole
⦿ Dc line/cable faults
One pole to Ground
(Common type)
⦿ Converter station faults
 TYPES OF FAULTS

TYPES OF OCCURRENCE FAULT PROTECTION

FAULTS CURRENT
Converters and Rare 10pu Valves are
internal faults rated for small
duration of
fault occurace
DC line fault Frequent 2-3pu Force
retardation of
firing angle
Commutation Frequent 1.5-2.5pu Single self
failure clearing and
multiple beta
and control and
VDCOL
TYPES OF FAULTS

According to the origin of the malfunction, converter faults can

be divided into 3 broad categories
⦿ Faults due to malfunction of valves and controller
• Arc backs (back fire) in mercury arc valves
• Arc through(or fire through or short through)
• Quenching(arc quenching or arc chopping)
• Misfire
⦿ Commutation failure in converters i.e failure to complete
commutation before commutating EMF reverses
⦿ Short circuit within converter stations
 ARC BACK
• This refers to the conduction in the inverse voltage period of valves
and normally happens in rectifiers because the inverse voltage
period in rectifiers are more.
• It is most common and severe malfunction in mercury valves and
is random in nature. On an average it is one or two arc backs/
valve/month.
• Modern thyristors do not suffer from arc backs Factors that
increase arc backs are High PIV High voltage jump, particularly of
the jump of arc extinction.
• High rate of change of current at the end of conduction
• Factors affecting Arc Back:
a) High PIV
b) High Voltage jump especially at arc extinction
c) High rate of change of current at the end of the conduction
ARC BACK
d) Over current
e) Impurity of Anode and Grid
f) High rate of rise of inverse voltage
 Having low voltage reduces factors a & b
 Having low current reduces factors c & d

 These reduce power handling capacity of the

valve, thus increases the cost.
 Factors b & c can be reduced by using small α, β,
γ & δ. But they are momentarily larger for
control operation.
 Factor f is minimized by using RC damper in
parallel to each valve.
 Factor c can be minimized by using high value of
‘u’.
 This fault generates line to line and 3-phase
short circuit faults. It also produces some
harmonics
ARC THROUGH
• It occurs during the blocking period of the valve when the
voltage across it is positive. Since the valve voltage is more
positive in inverter, this malfunction is more common on
inverter side. It is similar to commutation failure.
• This malfunction is mainly due to Failure of negative grid
pulse, early occurrence of positive grid pulse Sufficiently high
positive transient over voltage on grid or anode
• It reduces delay angle. It introduces DC component in
transformer current. It changes harmonic components. Thus
short circuit will persist till arc through is removed and bridge
is bypassed.
MISFIRE
⦿ Failure of valve to conduct during conduction period is misfire
whereas arc through is the failure of valve to be blocked during
schedule non conducting period.
⦿ It can occur in rectifier or inverters but is more severe in inverters.
⦿ It may be due to negative gate pulse or positive anode to cathode
voltage or fault in valves
⦿ The effect of misfire in inverters is same as commutation failure
and arc through
⦿ Suppose valve 6 and 1 are conducting and valve 2 fails to ignite.
Now 3 will start conducting and there will be a DC short circuit
which happens for small durations
⦿ There is small jump in voltage at the beginning of short circuit an
a large jump at the end of it.
QUENCHING
This happened mostly in the mercury arc valves. It is the
premature extinction of the valve in the normal conduction
period. This malfunction has the same effect as misfire and
causes a Dc short at terminal.
COMMUTATION FAILURE
 This fault, which is more common in the inverter,
is the result of failure of incoming valve, due to
insufficient extinction time, to take over the direct
current before the commutating voltage reverses
its polarity.
 Thereafter, the direct current is shifted back from
incoming valve to outgoing valve.
 It is not due to malfunction of the valve, but due
to AC DC condition outside the bridge. It is due to
high DC current , low AC voltage (due to AC
short circuit), late ignition or combination of
these.
 Nearly all inverter valve faults lead to results
similar to commutation failure.
⦿ The failure of two successive commutations in one cycle is
double commutation failure.
⦿ Let us take an example that valve 1 and 2 are conducting and 3
is to be ignited and is to take complete current of valve 1which
is upper limb of converter.
⦿ If current in incoming valve 3 diminishes to zero after full
conduction, the current in valve 1 will continue to carry full Dc
link current.
⦿ Firing of valve 4 (in next sequence) will result in short across
bridge, as both valve in same valve will conduct.
⦿ If the commutation from valve 2 to 4 is successful then only
valve 1 and 4 will conduct.
⦿ Firing of valve 5 (in sequence) will be unsuccessful since the
voltage across it will be negative and 1 and 4 will continue to
conduct.
⦿ If successful commutation from 1 to 3 and back to 1 is
completed before 4 fires and if the condition that caused first
failure persists a second failure may occur in the commutation
from 2 to 4 causing DC current back to 2.Now 1 and 2 will be
conducting.
⦿ After commutation failure, the succeeding commutation is
carried out by CEA control and is usually sucessful.
⦿ If caused by low AC voltage, the reappearance on normal
voltage helps preventing the further failures.In the event that
commutation failure persists, the bridge where it is happening
should be bypassed or blocked.
PROTECTION SCHEMES

Desirable features of protection Protections of AC system

Selective Discriminative Reliable Speed Backup Protections of AC

system
⦿ Over voltage protection (using o/h wires, protective gaps, LA)
⦿ Over current protection (using CB, fuses, relays, current
limiting reactors)
PROTECTION OF HVDC SYSTEM

⦿ Over voltage protection (similar to ac system with some

differences)
⦿ Over current protection (using some control of valves)
⦿ Damper circuits
⦿ DC reactors
⦿ Over voltages in converter stations
⦿ Due to disturbance originating on the AC side
⦿ Due to disturbance originating on the DC side
⦿ Due to internal faults in converter
TYPES OF EXTERNAL VOLTAGE IN
HVDC
⦿ Switching over voltages due to initiation and clearing of faults
⦿ Temporary over voltages (lasting few secs) due to load
rejection in weak AC systems
⦿ Steep front over voltages due to lightning
⦿ Disturbance in DC side
⦿ Steep front surges due to lightning strokes(external)Switching
surges due to ground fault on the pole producing over
voltages in the normal pole
⦿ voltage can also arise from current and voltage oscillations
CAUSED BY SUDDEN JUMPS in converter voltage due to
converter faults and commutation failures
TYPES OF EXTERNAL VOLTAGE IN
HVDC
⦿ Switching of DC filters and parallel connection of poles
⦿ Switching surges originating from AC system, transmitted to
the DC side.
⦿ Series connection of valve groups multiplies the over voltages
by the number of groups
⦿ Sudden loss of load on rectifier
⦿ Increased overshoot of DC voltage of bridge at the end of each
commutation due to short overlap.
DISTURBANCES DUE TO INTERNAL CONVERTER s
FAULT
⦿ Due to energization of DC lines
⦿ Due to stay capacitances and inductances
⦿ Due to converter faults
⦿ Means of reducing the over voltages
⦿ Lightening arrestors or surge diverters
⦿ Plain gap and shield of O/H lines
⦿ Converter control system
⦿ Damping circuit
⦿ DC reactors
⦿ Surge capacitors
 DC LINE ARRESTORS

⦿ The current through arrestor does not have natural zero to aid
in resealing the arrester against sustained DC voltage
⦿ Voltage is buffered by huge lumped inductance (through
smoothing reactors and transformers)
⦿ Special LA are built for DC
OVER CURRENT PROTECTION IN HVDC

⦿ Main features of converter protection is that it is possible to

clear faults by fast control action (less than 20 ms)
⦿ Differential protection is employed because of its fast
detection and selectivity
⦿ Over current protection is used a s backup
⦿ The level of over current required to trip must be higher than
the valve group differential protection
⦿ Pole differential protection is used to detect ground faults
 DC REACTORS

⦿ It limits di/dt rise to prevent commutation failure in inverter of

one bridge when the voltage across other bridge collapses
⦿ It reduces the incidence of commutation failure in inverters
during AC dip
⦿ It reduces harmonic voltage and current in DC linkIt reduces
current ripples
⦿ It limits crest of SC current in DC line