ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics

Chapter 5: Junction
Part I

Wenjuan Zhu
Associate Professor
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 1

 Outline

• Fabrication of p-n Junctions

• Equilibrium Condition
▪ The Contact Potential
▪ Equilibrium Fermi Levels
▪ Space Charge at a Junction

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 2

 Form pn junction by thermal diffusion

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 3

 Ion implantation

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 4

 Process flow for pn junction formation

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 5

 PN junction formation animation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBAKXvsaEiw

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 6

 Why do we study pn junction?
PN junction is the basic building block for:

• Transistors: computing and memory

• LEDs (light emitting diode), convert electricity to light
• Lasers: convert electricity to light
• Solar cells: convert sunlight to current
• Photodetectors: detect light
• Rectifiers: convert AC to DC current

NMOS
N+ poly-Si

N+ N+

P-type Si

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 7

 Outline
• Fabrication of p-n Junctions
• Equilibrium Condition
▪ The Contact Potential
▪ Equilibrium Fermi Levels
▪ Space Charge at a Junction

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 8

 Form PN junction
pn junction at equilibrium

Isolated n and p region

Carrier flow

Carrier diffusion → leave behind uncompensated donor (acceptor) ions →

resulting electric field→ drift current balances the diffusion current at equilibrium.

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 9

 At equilibrium

• No net electron or hole current:

𝑱𝒑 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒕 + 𝑱𝒑 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇. = 𝟎
𝑱𝒏 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒕 + 𝑱𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇. = 𝟎

• The electric field builds up to the point where the

net current is zero at equilibrium.
• The region W with left-behind uncompensated
donor (acceptor) ions called transition region.
• The potential difference 𝑉0 across W called
contact potential
𝑽𝟎 = 𝑽𝒏 − 𝑽𝒑
© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 10
 Built-in electric field

• At equilibrium:
𝑑𝑝(𝑥)
𝐽𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑞𝜇𝑝 𝑝(𝑥)ℇ(𝑥) −𝑞𝐷𝑝 =0
𝑑𝑥

𝐷 𝑘𝑇
Use Einstein relation =
𝜇 𝑞

𝒌𝑻 𝟏 𝒅𝒑
ℇ=
𝒒 𝒑 𝒅𝒙 𝒌𝑻 𝟏
𝒅𝑽 𝒙 = − 𝒅𝒑(𝒙)
𝒒 𝒑
𝒅𝑽 𝒙
Since ℇ = −
𝒅𝒙

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 11

 Contact potential
𝑽𝒏
𝒌𝑻 𝑷𝒏 𝟏
න 𝒅𝑽 = − න 𝒅𝒑
𝒒 𝑷𝒑 𝒑
𝑽𝒑

𝒌𝑻
𝑽𝒏 − 𝑽𝒑 = − 𝒍𝒏𝑷𝒑 − 𝒍𝒏𝑷𝒑
𝒒

𝒌𝑻 𝑷𝒑
𝑽𝟎 = 𝒍𝒏 Contact potential
𝒒 𝑷𝒏

𝒌𝑻 𝑵𝒂 𝒌𝑻 𝑵𝒂 𝑵 𝒅
Or 𝑽𝟎 = 𝒍𝒏 𝟐 = 𝒍𝒏
𝒒 𝒏𝒊 /𝑵𝒅 𝒒 𝒏𝟐𝒊

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 12

 Carrier concentration ratio

• The hole concentration ratio between p side and

n side at the edge of transition region:
𝑷𝒑
=𝒆𝒒𝑽𝟎 /𝒌𝑻
𝑷𝒏

Since 𝑷𝒑 𝒏𝒑 = 𝒏𝟐𝒊 = 𝑷𝒏 𝒏𝒏

𝑷𝒑 𝒏𝒏
= = 𝒆𝒒𝑽𝟎/𝒌𝑻
𝑷𝒏 𝒏𝒑

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 13

 Outline
• Fabrication of p-n Junctions
• Equilibrium Condition
▪ The Contact Potential
▪ Equilibrium Fermi Levels
▪ Space Charge at a Junction

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 14

 Equilibrium Fermi Levels
• At equilibrium, Fermi level on either sides are
equal (𝑬𝑭𝒑 = 𝑬𝑭𝒏 ), combine with

𝑷𝒑 −(𝑬𝑭𝒑 −𝑬𝒗𝒑 )/𝒌𝑻

𝒒𝑽 /𝒌𝑻
𝑵 𝒗 𝒆
=𝒆 𝟎 =
𝑷𝒏 𝑵𝒗 𝒆−(𝑬𝑭𝒏 −𝑬𝒗𝒏 )/𝒌𝑻

𝒒𝑽𝟎 = 𝑬𝒗𝒑 − 𝑬𝒗𝒏

the contact potential times q is

equal to the energy difference
between n and p region

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 15

 Outline
• Fabrication of p-n Junctions
• Equilibrium Condition
▪ The Contact Potential
▪ Equilibrium Fermi Levels
▪ Space Charge at a Junction

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 16

Space charge at a
junction
• Depletion approximation:
assumption of carrier
depletion within W and
neutrality outside W.
• Penetration of the space
charge region:
𝑄+ = 𝑄−

𝑞𝐴𝑥𝑝0 𝑁𝑎 = 𝑞𝐴𝑥𝑛0 𝑁𝑑

𝑥𝑝0 𝑁𝑎 = 𝑥𝑛0 𝑁𝑑

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 17

 Electric field

• Poisson’s equation:
𝑑ℇ(𝑥) 𝑞
= (𝑝 − 𝑛 + 𝑁𝑑+ − 𝑁𝑎− )
𝑑𝑥 𝜖
• If neglect the contributions of
carriers in space charge, and
assume complete ionization of
impurities:
𝑑ℇ(𝑥) 𝑞
= 𝑁𝑑 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑥𝑛0
𝑑𝑥 𝜖
𝑑ℇ(𝑥) 𝑞
= − 𝑁𝑎 −𝑥𝑝0 < 𝑥 < 0
𝑑𝑥 𝜖

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 18

 Built-in electric field
Built-in field:
𝑞𝑁𝑑
ℇ 𝑥 =− (𝑥𝑛0 − 𝑥) 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑥𝑛0
𝜖
𝑞𝑁𝑎
ℇ 𝑥 = − (𝑥𝑝0 + 𝑥) −𝑥𝑝0 < 𝑥 < 0
𝜖

• The maximum electric field located at the interface of n

and p junction (x=0):
𝑞 𝑞
ℇ0 = − 𝑁𝑑 𝑥𝑛0 =− 𝑁𝑎 𝑥𝑝0
𝜖 𝜖

maximum electric field

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 19

 Potential
Define electric potential V= (𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝒊 )/𝒒
• Potential variation across the junction:
𝑞𝑁𝑑 2
𝑉 𝑥 = 𝑉𝑛 − 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑥𝑛0
2𝜖𝑠
𝑞𝑁𝑎 2
𝑉 𝑥 = 𝑉𝑝 − 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑝 −𝑥𝑝0 < 𝑥 < 0
2𝜖𝑠 𝑽𝒏
𝑽

where 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑑
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑛𝑖
𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑎
𝑉𝑝 = − 𝑙𝑛 𝑽𝒑
𝑞 𝑛𝑖
• Built-in potential (or contact potential):
𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑑 𝑁𝑎
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑛 − 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑛𝑖

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 20

 The contact potential

• The contact potential can also be obtained by

𝒅𝑽 𝒙 𝒙𝒏𝟎
ℇ(𝒙) = − or -𝑽𝟎 = ‫׬‬−𝒙 ℇ 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒙 𝒑𝟎

𝟏 𝟏𝑞
𝑽𝟎 = − ℇ0 𝑊= 𝑁𝑑 𝑥𝑛0 𝑊
𝟐 𝟐𝜖

Since 𝑥𝑝0 𝑁𝑎 = 𝑥𝑛0 𝑁𝑑 and 𝑥𝑝0 + 𝑥𝑛0 = 𝑊

𝟏 𝑞 𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑
𝑽𝟎 = 𝑊2
𝟐 𝜖 𝑁𝑎 + 𝑁𝑑

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 21

 Depletion width

• The depletion width is:

𝟏/𝟐 𝟏/𝟐
𝟐𝜖𝑽𝟎 𝑁𝑎 +𝑁𝑑 𝟐𝜖𝑽𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
𝑾= = +
𝑞 𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑 𝑞 𝑁𝑑 𝑁𝑎

𝒌𝑻 𝑵𝒂 𝑵𝒅
where 𝑽𝟎 = 𝒍𝒏
𝒒 𝒏𝟐𝒊
• The depletion width 𝑾 ∝ 𝑽𝟎 . Applying voltage
to increase or decrease the potential 𝑽𝟎 , can
modulate the depletion width of the junction.

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 22

 Penetration depth

• The penetration of the transition region into the n

and p region:
𝑁𝑑
𝑥𝑝0 =𝑊
𝑁𝑎 + 𝑁𝑑
𝑁𝑎
𝑥𝑛0 =𝑊
𝑁𝑎 + 𝑁𝑑

• The transition region extends farther into the side

with lighter doping.

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 23

 One-side junction
• If 𝑁𝑎 ≫ 𝑁𝑑 , as in a p+n junction:
𝟐𝜖𝑽𝟎
𝑾=
𝑞𝑁𝑑
𝑁𝑑
𝑥𝑝0 = 𝑊 ≈0
𝑁𝑎 + 𝑁𝑑

• What about a n+p junction?

• Generally:

𝟐𝜖𝑽𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑾= Where = + ≈
𝑞𝑁 𝑵 𝑵𝒅 𝑵𝒂 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒐𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 24

 Example 1

An abrupt silicon p-n junction has p-side NA = 1018 cm-3, and n-side ND = 5x1015 cm-
3. A) Calculate Fermi levels and built-in potential at equilibrium, B) How wide is the

depletion region C) What is the maximum electric field.

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 25

 Solution to example 1

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 26

 Arbitrarily doped semiconductor
Define electric potential 𝝓 = (𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝒊 )/𝒒, the Poisson equation can be written as:
Space charge density

𝑑2 𝜙 𝑑ℇ 𝑥 𝜌 𝑞
2
=− = − = − (𝑝 − 𝑛 + 𝑁𝑑 − 𝑁𝑎 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜖 𝜖

permittivity of the medium

𝑞𝜙 𝑞𝜙
( 𝑘𝑇 ) (− 𝑘𝑇 )
The carrier concentration: 𝑛= 𝑛𝑖 𝑒 𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒

𝑑2 𝜙 𝑞 𝑞𝜙
= (2𝑛𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ + 𝑁𝑑 − 𝑁𝑎 )
𝑑𝑥 2 𝜖 𝑘𝑇

sinh 𝑥 = (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )/2

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 27

 Two special cases

• Dopant concentration varies gradually with

position,
▪ Example: diffused n type region

• Abrupt special variations of dopant concentration

▪ PN junction

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 28

 Case I: Gradual-variation, Quasi-neutrality
• Majority carrier distribution does not differ much from the
donor (or acceptor) distribution, so that the semiconductor
region is nearly neutral or quasi-neutral. 𝒏 ≈ 𝑵𝒅 , or
𝒑 ≈ 𝑵𝒂 .
• This quasi-neutrality approximation is more valid for
slowly varying dopant densities. Then:

𝒌𝑻 𝟏 𝒅𝑵𝒂
ℇ=
𝒒 𝑵𝒂 𝒅𝒙
𝒌𝑻 𝟏 𝒅𝑵𝒅
ℇ=−
𝒒 𝑵𝒅 𝒅𝒙

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 29

 Relation between potential and carrier density
𝒅𝝓
Since ℇ𝒙 = −
𝒅𝒙

𝒌𝑻 𝒅𝒏
𝒅𝝓 =
𝒒 𝒏

𝒌𝑻 𝒏𝟑
𝝓𝟑 − 𝝓𝟐 = 𝒍𝒏
𝒒 𝒏𝟐

𝒏𝟑 𝒒 𝝓𝟑 − 𝝓 𝟐
= 𝒆𝒙𝒑
𝒏𝟐 𝒌𝑻

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 30

 Case II: steep gradient

• In steep gradient, such as pn junction, the

transition region is treated as if it were depleted
of mobile carriers, i.e depletion approximation.
• The approximation is
valid, because 𝝓 = 𝑬𝑭 − 𝑬𝒊
is small in the transition
region. Since carrier
concentration decrease
rapidly as 𝝓 becomes
small, and are,
consequently, much less
in the transition region
than in the neutral
regions.

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 31

 Case II: steep gradient, depletion approximation

• The Poisson equation can be simplified to:

𝑑ℇ 𝑥 𝑞
= (𝑁𝑑 − 𝑁𝑎 )
𝑑𝑥 𝜖

• For example:
▪ Step junction (abrupt junction)
▪ Linearly graded junction

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 32

 Step junction: electric field and potential

• The electric field:

𝑞𝑁𝑑
ℇ 𝑥 = − (𝑥𝑛0 − 𝑥) 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑥𝑛0
𝜖
𝑞𝑁𝑎
ℇ 𝑥 =− (𝑥𝑝0 + 𝑥) −𝑥𝑝0 < 𝑥 < 0
𝜖

• The potential:
𝑞𝑁𝑑 2
𝑉 𝑥 = 𝑉𝑛 − 𝑥 −𝑥 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑥𝑛0
2𝜖𝑠 𝑛 𝑽𝒏
𝑽
𝑞𝑁𝑎 2
𝑉 𝑥 = 𝑉𝑝 − 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑝 −𝑥𝑝0 < 𝑥 < 0
2𝜖𝑠

𝑽𝒑

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 33

 Linear graded junction
• The dopant concentration: 𝑁𝑑 − 𝑁𝑎 = 𝛼𝑥
• How will the field and potential vary as a function of
position in the space charge region?

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 34

 Linear graded junction
• The dopant concentration: 𝑁𝑑 − 𝑁𝑎 = 𝛼𝑥
• The field varies quadratically and the potential varies as
the third power of position in the space charge region

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 35