ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics

Chapter 4: Excess Carriers in

Semiconductors
Part II

Wenjuan Zhu

Associate Professor
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 1

 Outline

• Diffusion of carriers
▪ Diffusion process
▪ Diffusion and drift of carriers; built-in fields
▪ Diffusion and recombination; the continuity equation
▪ Steady state carrier injection; diffusion length
▪ The Haynes-Shockley experiment

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 2

 Diffusion process
• particles diffuse from regions of higher
concentration to regions of lower concentration
region, due to random thermal motion

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 3

 Diffusion of a pulse of electrons

• A pulse of excess electron injected at x=0 and t=0

will spread out in time.
© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 4
 • The net number of electrons
passing 𝑥0 from left to right in
one mean free time is
1 1
(𝑛1 𝑙𝐴) − (𝑛2 𝑙𝐴)
2 2

• The rate of electron flow in the

+x direction per unit area:
𝑙
Φ𝑛 𝑥0 = (𝑛1 − 𝑛2 )
2𝜏
−𝑑𝑛(𝑥)
where 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ≈ 𝑙
𝑑𝑥

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 5

 Electron flux density

• Thus the electron flux density:

−𝑙 2 𝑑𝑛(𝑥)
Φ𝑛 𝑥0 =
2𝜏 𝑑𝑥
𝑙2
Define 𝐷𝑛 = Diffusion coefficient
2𝜏
• The electron and hole flux density:
𝑑𝑛(𝑥)
Φ𝑛 𝑥0 = −𝐷𝑛
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑝(𝑥)
Φ𝑝 𝑥0 = −𝐷𝑝
𝑑𝑥

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 6

 Diffusion current
• Electron and hole diffusion current:
𝐽𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓. 𝐽𝑝 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓.
𝑑𝑛(𝑥) 𝑑𝑝(𝑥)
= −(−𝑞)𝐷𝑛 = −(+𝑞)𝐷𝑝
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑛(𝑥) 𝑑𝑝(𝑥)
= +𝑞𝐷𝑛 = −𝑞𝐷𝑝
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 7

 Outline

• Diffusion of carriers
▪ Diffusion process
▪ Diffusion and drift of carriers; built-in fields
▪ Diffusion and recombination; the continuity equation
▪ Steady state carrier injection; diffusion length
▪ The Haynes-Shockley experiment

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 8

 Diffusion and drift current

• If an electric field is present in addition to the

carrier gradient, the electron and hole current
density:
𝑑𝑛(𝑥)
𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑞𝜇𝑛 𝑛(𝑥)ℇ(𝑥) +𝑞𝐷𝑛
𝑑𝑥
drift diffusion
𝑑𝑝(𝑥)
𝐽𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑞𝜇𝑝 𝑝(𝑥)ℇ(𝑥) −𝑞𝐷𝑝
𝑑𝑥

• The total current density:

𝐽 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑝 𝑥

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 9

Drift and diffusion directions for electrons and holes

Electron Hole

Diffusion 𝜱𝒏 (𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇. ) 𝜱𝒑 (𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇. )

𝑱𝒏 (𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇. ) 𝑱𝒑 (𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇. )

Drift 𝜱𝒏 (𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒕. ) 𝜱𝒑 (𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒕. )

𝑱𝒏 (𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒕. ) 𝑱𝒑 (𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒕. )

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 10

 Current contribution from minority
carrier
• Minority carriers can contribute significantly to the
current through diffusion, since diffusion current
is proportional to the gradient of concentration,
instead of carrier concentration.
• Minority carrier typically do not contribute much
to drift current.

𝒅𝒏(𝒙)
𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑞𝜇𝑛 𝒏(𝒙)ℇ(𝑥) +𝑞𝐷𝑛
𝒅𝒙
drift diffusion

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 11

Relation of electric field and electron energy

Electrostatic potential:
electron potential
𝑬(𝒙) energy
𝑽 𝒙 =
−𝒒

Definition of electric field:

𝒅𝑽 𝒙
ℇ=−
𝒅𝒙
𝟏 𝒅𝑬𝒄 𝟏 𝒅𝑬𝒗 𝟏 𝒅𝑬𝒊
ℇ= = =
𝒒 𝒅𝒙 𝒒 𝒅𝒙 𝒒 𝒅𝒙

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 12

 Balance of diffusion and drift at equilibrium

• At equilibrium, no net current flows in a

semiconductor, 𝐽𝑝 = 0, 𝐽𝑛 = 0:
𝑑𝑝 𝑥
𝐽𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑞𝜇𝑝 𝑝 𝑥 ℇ 𝑥 −𝑞𝐷𝑝 =0
𝑑𝑥
𝐷𝑝 1 𝑑𝑝(𝑥)
ℇ(𝑥) = Build-in electric field
𝜇𝑝 𝑝(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

using 𝑝0 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒 (𝐸𝑖−𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇

𝐷𝑝 1 𝑑𝐸𝑖 𝑑𝐸𝐹
ℇ 𝑥 = −
𝜇𝑝 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑞ℇ 𝑥 =0
© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 13
 Einstein relation

𝐷 𝑘𝑇
= Einstein relation
𝜇 𝑞

• This equation is valid for either carrier type.

• At room T, 𝐷Τ𝜇 =0.026V

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 14

 Built-in electric field
At equilibrium:

𝐷𝑝 1 𝑑𝑝(𝑥)
ℇ(𝑥) =
𝜇𝑝 𝑝(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝒌𝑻 𝟏 𝒅𝒑
𝐷 𝑘𝑇 ℇ=
= 𝒒 𝒑 𝒅𝒙
𝜇 𝑞

𝒌𝑻 𝟏 𝒅𝒏
Similarly ℇ=−
𝒒 𝒏 𝒅𝒙

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 15

 Gradual-variation, Quasi-neutrality

• Majority carrier distribution does not differ much

from the donor (or acceptor) distribution, so that
the semiconductor region is nearly neutral or
quasi-neutral. 𝒏 ≈ 𝑵𝒅 , or 𝒑 ≈ 𝑵𝒂 .
• This quasi-neutrality approximation is more valid
for slowly varying dopant densities. Then built-in
field:
𝒌𝑻 𝟏 𝒅𝑵𝒂
ℇ=
𝒒 𝑵𝒂 𝒅𝒙

𝒌𝑻 𝟏 𝒅𝑵𝒅
ℇ=−
𝒒 𝑵𝒅 𝒅𝒙
16

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics

 Example

• An intrinsic Si sample is doped with donors from

−𝒙
one side such that 𝑵𝒅 =𝑵𝟎 𝒆𝒙𝒑( ).
𝝀
(a) Find an expression for the built-in field ℇ(x) at
equilibrium over the range for which 𝑵𝒅 ≫ 𝒏𝒊 ?
(b) Sketch a band diagram and indicate the
direction of ℇ

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 17

 Solution of the example

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 18

 Outline

• Diffusion of carriers
▪ Diffusion process
▪ Diffusion and drift of carriers; built-in fields
▪ Diffusion and recombination; the continuity equation
▪ Steady state carrier injection; diffusion length
▪ The Haynes-Shockley experiment

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 19

 Recall: Direct recombination and thermal
generation

𝑑𝑛(𝑡)
= 𝛼𝑟 𝑛𝑖2 − 𝛼𝑟 𝑛 𝑡 𝑝(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Carrier
Thermal Recombination rate
concentration
change rate generation rate

𝒅𝒏 𝜹𝒏 𝒕 −1 ,
=− Where 𝜏𝑛 = 𝛼𝑟 𝑝0
𝒅𝒕 𝝉𝒏
Note: in this case, assume excess carrier is uniformly distributed in the
semiconductor and there is no electric field, i.e. diffusion and drift current are
not considered.
© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 20
 Diffusion and recombination
If we consider both carrier flow by drift/diffusion and thermal
generation/recombination process, then:

# of carriers # of carriers
Rate of Thermal Recombi
hole build = (flow IN per - flow OUT
per unit
)+( generation - nation )
up unit volume rate rate
volume

𝜕𝑝 1 𝐽𝑝 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑝 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 𝛿𝑝
= ∙ −
𝜕𝑡 𝑞 ∆𝑥 𝜏𝑝

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 21

 Continuity equation for holes and
electrons
As ∆𝑥 approaches zero:

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝛿𝑝 1 𝜕𝐽𝑝 𝛿𝑝
= =− − continuity equation for holes
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝑞 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑝

𝜕𝛿𝑛 1 𝜕𝐽𝑛 𝛿𝑛
= − continuity equation for electrons
𝜕𝑡 𝑞 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑛

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 22

 Continuity equation if all things
considered
𝜕𝛿𝑝 1 𝜕𝐽𝑝 𝛿𝑝
=− − + 𝑔𝑜𝑝
𝜕𝑡 𝑞 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑝
𝜕𝛿𝑛 1 𝜕𝐽𝑛 𝛿𝑛
= − + 𝑔𝑜𝑝
𝜕𝑡 𝑞 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑛

Optical
Carrier Carrier Thermal generation rate
concentration flow in- Generation
changing rate out rate Recombination
rate

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 23

 Common simplifications

Steady state: n(x) is time invariant

Transient state: n(x) is time dependent

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 24

 Diffusion equation (transient state)
• When the current is carried by diffusion only
(negligible drift ), using diffusion current:
𝜕𝛿𝑛
𝐽𝑛 (𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓. ) = 𝑞𝐷𝑛
𝜕𝑥
• We obtain the diffusion equation for electrons:
𝜕𝛿𝑛 𝜕 2 𝛿𝑛 𝛿𝑛
= 𝐷𝑛 2 −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑛

• and similarly for holes:

𝜕𝛿𝑝 𝜕 2 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑝
= 𝐷𝑝 2 −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑝
© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 25
 Outline

• Diffusion of carriers
▪ Diffusion process
▪ Diffusion and drift of carriers; built-in fields
▪ Diffusion and recombination; the continuity equation
▪ Steady state carrier injection; diffusion length
▪ The Haynes-Shockley experiment

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 26

 Diffusion equation (steady state)
𝜕𝛿𝑛 𝜕𝛿𝑝
• At steady state, = 0, = 0, the diffusion
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
equation become:
𝑑 2 𝛿𝑛 𝛿𝑛 𝛿𝑛
2
= ≡ 2
𝑑𝑥 𝐷𝑛 𝜏𝑛 𝐿𝑛

𝑑 2 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑝
2
= ≡ 2
𝑑𝑥 𝐷𝑝 𝜏𝑝 𝐿𝑝
𝐿𝑛 ≡ 𝐷𝑛 𝜏𝑛 : electron diffusion length

𝐿𝑝 ≡ 𝐷𝑝 𝜏𝑝 : hole diffusion length

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 27

 Steady-state injection

• Consider an example under steady-state illumination:

Constant injection of holes at x=0

• Boundary condition: x = 0, 𝛿𝑝 = ∆𝑝
x = ∞, 𝛿𝑝 = 0

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 28

 Excess carrier concentration

• Solution of the diffusion equation is:

𝛿𝑝(𝑥) = ∆𝑝𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝑝

𝑳𝒑 is the average
distance a hole
diffuses before
recombining

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 29

 Steady state diffusion current and stored
charge
• The steady state distribution of excess holes
cause hole diffusion current:
𝑑𝑝 𝜕𝛿𝑝 𝐷𝑝
𝐽𝑝 𝑥 = −𝑞𝐷𝑝 = −𝑞𝐷𝑝 =𝑞 ∆𝑝𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝑝
𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝐿𝑝
𝐷𝑝
=𝑞 𝛿𝑝(𝑥)
𝐿𝑝
The diffusion current at any 𝑥 is proportional to
the excess concentration at that position.
• Total excess stored hole charge:
∞ ∞
𝑸𝒑 = 𝒒𝑨 න 𝜹𝒑 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒒𝑨∆𝒑 න 𝒆−𝒙/𝑳𝒑 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒒𝑨𝑳𝒑 ∆𝒑
𝟎 𝟎

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 30

 Example
(A) Calculate minority carrier diffusion length in germanium
with ND = 1016 cm-3 and τp = 1 μs. (B) Assuming 1015 cm-3
excess holes photogenerated at the surface, what is the
diffusion current at 1 μm depth?

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 31

 Example solution

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 32

 Outline

• Diffusion of carriers
▪ Diffusion process
▪ Diffusion and drift of carriers; built-in fields
▪ Diffusion and recombination; the continuity equation
▪ Steady state carrier injection; diffusion length
▪ The Haynes-Shockley experiment

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 33

 Drift and diffusion of a hole pulse in n type
bar

𝐿 𝑣𝑑
Drift velocity: 𝑣𝑑 = Hole mobility: 𝜇𝑝 =
𝑡𝑑 ℇ
© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 34
 Diffusion of a pulse without drift and
recombination

𝜕𝛿𝑝(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝜕 2 𝛿𝑝(𝑥, 𝑡)
Diffusion equation: = 𝐷𝑝
𝜕𝑡 𝜕2𝑥
∆𝑃 2 /4𝐷 𝑡
Solution: Gaussian distribution 𝛿𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑝
2 𝜋𝐷𝑝 𝑡

∆𝑥 2
Diffusion coefficient: 𝐷𝑝 =
16𝑡𝑑

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 35

 Haynes-Shockley experiment

𝐿
∆𝑥 = ∆𝑡
𝑡𝑑

© 2023 Wenjuan Zhu, UIUC ECE 340: Semiconductor Electronics 36