TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Semester

Course Code BCV403 CIE Marks 50

Teaching Hours/Week (L:T:P: S) 3:0:2:0 SEE Marks 50
Total Hours of Pedagogy 40 hours Theory + 8-10 Lab slots Total Marks 100
Credits 04 Exam Hours
Examination nature (SEE) Theory
Course Learning objectives: This course will enable students to

 Gain knowledge of different modes of transportation systems and to learn the

introductory concepts on Highway Engineering.
 Get insight to different highway materials and pavement design elements of a
highway network.
 Realize the significance of road safety by incorporating the concepts of Traffic
Engineering.
 Understand to different aspects of geometric elements of railway system and evaluate
the material quantity required for track laying
 Gain knowledge about various components of an Airport and its runway design.

Teaching-Learning Process (General Instructions)

These are sample Strategies; which teacher can use to accelerate the attainment of the various
course outcomes.
1. Apart from conventional lecture methods various types of innovative teaching techniques
through videos, animation films may be adopted so that the delivered lesson can progress the
students in theoretical, applied and practical skills.
2. Arrange field visits to give brief information about the water and wastewater treatment plant.
3. Encourage collaborative (Group Learning) Learning in the class.
4. Ask at least three HOTS (Higher-order Thinking) questions in the class, which promotes
critical thinking and enhance the knowledge of treatment processes.
5. Adopt Problem Based Learning (PBL), which fosters students, Analytical skills, develop
thinking skills such as the ability to evaluate, generalize, and analyze information rather than
simply recall it.
6. Seminars, surprise tests and Quizzes may be arranged for students in respective subjects to
develop skills

MODULE-1
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING: Introduction, Different Modes of Transportation, M R
Jayakar Committee recommendations, Road Classifications and Road Patterns.
Highway Alignment: Factors affecting highway alignment, Engineering surveys for alignment-
conventional and modern methods.
Highway Geometric Design: Factors affecting geometric design of roads, Cross Sectional Elements,
Sight distances, Horizontal alignment- Transition curve, superelevation, Extrawidening, Vertical
alignment–gradients, summit and valley curves. (No derivations)

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 Problems on Sight distance, Super elevation, extra widening of curves, Length of transition
curve, Length of summit and valley curve. (L1,
L2)
MODULE-2
HIGHWAY MATERIALS AND PAVEMENTS: Desirable properties of aggregates, soil subgrade &
Bitumen, Application of bituminous emulsion, Desirable properties of Bituminous Mixes
Pavement Design: Factors Controlling design of highway pavements, Pavement types, component
parts of pavements and their functions; types of joints used in rigid pavement. Critical stresses in
flexible and rigid pavement.
Highway Drainage: Significance and requirements, Surface drainage system and design-Examples,
sub surface drainage system, Types of cross drainage structures their choice and location.
Problems on design of Longitudinal drain. (L2, L3)
MODULE-3
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING: Objectives and scope of Traffic Engineering. Traffic Characteristics:
Road user characteristics, vehicular characteristics – static and dynamic characteristics, Reaction
time of driver and PIEV theory, Types of traffic engineering studies-volume, spot speed, speed and
delay, parking, accident, origin & destination, objectives of studies and data collection, method of
study, analysis. PCU concept, factors affecting and PCU at different locations and applications.
Traffic signs, Signal design by IRC method; Types of intersections.
Problems on Spot speed studies, Speed and delay studies, accident studies, Signal design by IRC
method. (L2, L3)
MODULE-4
RAILWAY ENGINEERING: Permanent way and its requirements, Gauges and types, Typical cross
sections single and double-line BG track, Coning of wheels and tilting of rails, Rails-Functions-
requirements, types and defects of rails. Sleepers and Ballast: Functions, requirements, Track fitting
and fasteners, Calculation of quantity of materials required for laying a track, Points & crossings,
Railway Station and Yards. Metro train & high speed train- Design factors considered.
Problem on Quantity calculation for laying railway track. Super-elevation
(L1, L2)
MODULE-5
AIRPORT ENGINEERING: Layout of an airport with component parts and functions, Site selection
for airport, Aircraft characteristics affecting the design and planning of airport, Airport classification,
Runway orientation using wind rose with examples.
RUNWAY-Basic runway length-Corrections and examples, Runway geometrics, Taxiway-Factors
affecting the layout - geometrics of taxiway-Comparison between Runway and Highway, Design of
exit taxiway with examples.
Problems on Runway orientation, Basic Runway length, Exit taxiway design. (L2, L3)

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 PRACTICAL COMPONENT OF IPCC (May cover all / major modules)
Sl. Experiments (8-10 Lab slots)
NO
1 Tests on Aggregates
a. Crushing Strength Test b. Los Angeles abrasion test c. Impact test
d. Shape tests (combined index and angularity number) (L1, L2)
2 Tests on Bituminous Materials
a. Penetration test b. Ductility test c. Softening point test d. Specific gravity test e. Viscosity
test by tar viscometer f. Flash and fire point test (L1,
L2)
3 Tests on Soil
a. Wet sieve analysis b. CBR Test on soil (L1, L2)
4 Design of flexible pavement as per IRC 37-2018 (L2, L4)
5 Design of Rigid pavement as per IRC 58-2015 (L3, L4)
6 Bituminous Mix Design by Marshall Method (Demonstration only) (L1,
L2)
7 Traffic Engineering studies (L3, L4)
Course outcomes (Course Skill Set):
At the end of the course, the student will be able to:
1. Explain the basic principles of geometric design in the context of transportation
engineering and planning.
2. Select the appropriate pavement materials for construction and design the pavement as per
standard practices.
3. Conduct traffic studies and analyse traffic data for practical applications.
4. Identify the Components parts of Railway Track and design the suitable runway for an
Airport.
5. Able to interpret the experimental results of highway materials based on laboratory tests
and design the pavement as per IRC guidelines.

Assessment Details (both CIE and SEE)

The weightage of Continuous Internal Evaluation (CIE) is 50% and for Semester End Exam (SEE) is
50%. The minimum passing mark for the CIE is 40% of the maximum marks (20 marks out of 50)
and for the SEE minimum passing mark is 35% of the maximum marks (18 out of 50 marks). A
student shall be deemed to have satisfied the academic requirements and earned the credits allotted to
each subject/ course if the student secures a minimum of 40% (40 marks out of 100) in the sum total
of the CIE (Continuous Internal Evaluation) and SEE (Semester End Examination) taken together.

CIE for the theory component of the IPCC (maximum marks 50)
 IPCC means practical portion integrated with the theory of the course.
 CIE marks for the theory component are 25 marks and that for the practical component is 25
marks.
 25 marks for the theory component are split into 15 marks for two Internal Assessment Tests
(Two Tests, each of 15 Marks with 01-hour duration, are to be conducted) and 10 marks for other
assessment methods mentioned in 22OB4.2. The first test at the end of 40-50% coverage of the
syllabus and the second test after covering 85-90% of the syllabus.

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  Scaled-down marks of the sum of two tests and other assessment methods will be CIE marks for
the theory component of IPCC (that is for 25 marks).
 The student has to secure 40% of 25 marks to qualify in the CIE of the theory component of
IPCC.
CIE for the practical component of the IPCC
 15 marks for the conduction of the experiment and preparation of laboratory record, and 10
marks for the test to be conducted after the completion of all the laboratory sessions.
 On completion of every experiment/program in the laboratory, the students shall be evaluated
including viva-voce and marks shall be awarded on the same day.
 The CIE marks awarded in the case of the Practical component shall be based on the continuous
evaluation of the laboratory report. Each experiment report can be evaluated for 10 marks. Marks
of all experiments’ write-ups are added and scaled down to 15 marks.
 The laboratory test (duration 02/03 hours) after completion of all the experiments shall be
conducted for 50 marks and scaled down to 10 marks.
 Scaled-down marks of write-up evaluations and tests added will be CIE marks for the laboratory
component of IPCC for 25 marks.
 The student has to secure 40% of 25 marks to qualify in the CIE of the practical component of the
IPCC.
SEE for IPCC
Theory SEE will be conducted by University as per the scheduled timetable, with common question
papers for the course (duration 03 hours)
1. The question paper will have ten questions. Each question is set for 20 marks.
2. There will be 2 questions from each module. Each of the two questions under a module (with a
maximum of 3 sub-questions), should have a mix of topics under that module.
3. The students have to answer 5 full questions, selecting one full question from each module.
4. Marks scoredby the student shall be proportionally scaled down to 50 Marks
The theory portion of the IPCC shall be for both CIE and SEE, whereas the practical portion
will have a CIE component only. Questions mentioned in the SEE paper may include questions
from the practical component.
Suggested Learning Resources:
Books
1. S K Khanna and C E G Justo, “Highway Engineering”, Nem Chand Bros, Roorkee.
2. L R Kadiyali, “Highway Engineering”, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.
3. “A Text Book of Railway Engineering" by S C Saxena and S P Arora
4. “Airport Engineering” by S C Rangwala
5. “Airport Planning and Design” by Khanna Arora and Jain, Nem Chand Bros, Roorke.
6. “Roads, Railways, Bridges, Tunnels and Harbour Dock Engineering by B L Gupta, Amit
Gupta.
7. S K Khanna, C E G Justo and A Veeraragavan, “Highway Materials Testing Laboratory
Manual”, Nem Chand Bros, Roorkee.

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 Web links and Video Lectures (e-Resources):
1. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105101087
2. https://onlinemanuals.txdot.gov/txdotmanuals/rdw/horizontal_alignment.htm#BGBHGEGC
3. www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/1111_nptel/567_Grade/plain/plain.html
4. https://www.pavementinteractive.org/
5. https://www.eng.auburn.edu/research/centers/ncat/research/other-publications.html
6. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105/106/105106203/
7. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105/101/105101008
8. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105/104/105104098
9. https://www.classcentral.com/course/edx-intro-to-traffic-flow-modeling-and-
intelligenttransport-systems-12728
10. https://www.aai.aero/
11. https://www.faa.gov/
12. https://www.icao.int
Activity Based Learning (Suggested Activities in Class)/ Practical Based learning
 Visit to a road construction project

CO & PSO - PO Mapping (Individual Teacher has to fill)

Mapping of Course Outcomes and Program specific outcomes to Program Outcomes
Program Specific
Program outcomes
Course Outcomes
outcomes PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PSO PSO PSO PSO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4
CO1
CO2
CO3
CO4
CO5
Total
Average
Level 0: Not Mapped, 1: Low Mapped, 2: Moderately Mapped 3: Highly Mapped

Note: Depending on the Assessment tool used, higher order POs Can be identified by the
concerned course instructor.

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MODULE – 1
PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
INTRODUCTION

Basic Definition
A facility consisting of the means and equipment necessary for the movement of
passengers or goods. At its most basic, the term “Transportation System” is used to refer to
the equipment and logistics of transporting passengers and goods.

Importance of Transportation
The evolution and advancements in transportation facilities have been closely linked
with the development of human beings throughout the history of the world.
Role of Transportation
Transportation plays a vital role in economic development of any region of any country,
since every commodity produced, whether it may be agricultural or industrial products they
need to be transported at various stages from production to distribution. At production stage
for carrying raw materials and at distribution stage for transportation from farms and factories
to marketing centers to retailers to consumers.
Inadequate transportation facilities retard the process of socio-economic and cultural
development. Development of transportation facilities in a country indicates its economic
growth and progress in social development.
The main objective of a good transportation system is to provide a safe, economical and
efficient transportation facility for passengers and goods.

Economic Activity and Transport

These are the processes in which the products are utilized to satisfy human needs. Two
important factors well known in economic activity are
1) Production or supply
2) Consumption for human needs or demands

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Social Effects of Transportation

The progress of a nation depends on transportation facilities. The population usually
settles along the transportation routes such as road sides, river shores and railway stations.
However, in the present concept of road network planning the above said kind of ribbon
development is discouraged for the sake of high speed travel and safety. Attempts are being
made to decentralize the population away from main transportation routes.
To avoid congestion on major cities, suburbs and satellite towns are being developed and are
linked to the major cities with mass rapid transit system.
The various social effects of transportation are
a) Sectionalism and transportation
b) Concentration of population in urban area
c) Aspect of safety, law and order

a) Sectionalism and Transportation

1) Improved transportation has important implication in reducing sectionalism within the country
and also with other countries in the world
2) The living conditions and facilities of under developed colonies and tribes get improved since
the distances are apparently reduced with reduction in travel time.
3) Frequent travel to the other parts of the country and outside the country tend to increase
knowledge of the people by learning from other sections of society which results in improved
trade and cultural exchanges.
4) International understanding for the better peace and order also improves with efficient network
of transportation.

b) Concentration of Population in Urban Areas

1) Improved transportation facilities bring prosperity to the urban population
2) The employment opportunities, prosperity and superior facilities for education, medical care
etc., are available in urban areas attract the population from other areas leading to increased
economic activities
3) Adequate mass transportation facilities are needed to cater for the internal movements for daily
movements and other social needs
4) Effective rapid transportation facilities are needed for suburban and intercity long-distance
travel

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5) Inadequate transportation facilities lead to concentration of population in cities which often

results in congestion and related issues.
6) If adequate facilities are provided people tend to prefer to reside at localities away from urban
centers.

c) Aspect of safety, Law and order

1) Transportation facilities are required for rushing aid to areas affected by an emergency.
2) To maintain law and order and defend the territory of the country against external aggression
and to guard borders with foreign territory transportation facilities are needed.
3) Sometimes defense needs alone are a sufficient reason to develop transportation needs which
may not have any social and economic benefits.

Role of Transportation for the Development of rural areas in India

About 70% of population in India are living in rural areas. Therefore, development in
urban centers alone do not indicate overall development of the country. Only with the
improvements in transportation facilities in rural areas, there could be faster development of
these areas, resulting in overall development of country.

Impacts of rural roads connectivity from rural road development in India

1) Improvements in transportation services leads to improved access to market centers for the
rural producers, better availability of farm inputs at reduced prices.
2) Diversification of agricultural produce with improved market access promotes shift in favor of
cash crops and commercialization of agricultural activities.
3) Diversification of livelihood opportunities with better connectivity enhances employment
opportunity with better connectivity enhances employment opportunities in non-agricultural
sectors.
4) Improved services with improved road connectivity, inter-alia, enhances access to education,
health and financial services.
5) Increase in outreach due to improved rural roads facilities better availability of public services
and functionaries in rural areas.

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DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORTATION

Transportation has developed along three basic modes of transport
a) Land
b) Water
c) Air
Land has given scope for development of transportation by road and rail transport.
Water and air media have developed waterways and airways respectively. The roads or the
highways not only include modern highway system but also includes the urban arterials, city
streets, feeder roads and village roads catering for a wide variety of vehicles and pedestrians.
Railways have been developed both for long distance travel and also urban travel. Waterways
include transportation by oceans, rivers, canals and lakes for the movement of ships and boats.
The airways help in faster transportation by aircrafts and carriers.
Apart from these major modes of transportation, other modes include pipelines,
elevators, belt conveyors, cable cars, aerial ropeways and monorails. Pipe lines are used for the
transportation of water, other fluids and even solid particles
The four major modes of transportation are:
a) Roadways or highways for road transportation
b) Railways for rail transportation
c) Waterways for water transportation
d) Airways for air transportation

ROADWAYS
The transportation by road is the only mode which could give maximum service to one
and all. Road transport mode has the maximum flexibility for travel with reference to choice
of the route, direction, time and speed of travel. This is only mode which caters for the
movement of passengers and goods independently right from the place of origin up to the
destination of any trip along the route. The other three modes (railways; water ways; airways)
have to depend on transportation by road for the service to and from their respective terminals.
Therefore, the roadway essentially serves as a feeder network. It is possible to provide door to
door service by road transport. Ultimately, road network is therefore needed not only to serve
as feeder system for other modes of transportation and to supplement them, but also to provide
independent facility for road travel by a well-planned network of roads throughout the country

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Advantages:
1) Flexibility: It offers complete freedom to the road users.
2) It requires relatively smaller investments and cheaper in construction with respect to
other modes.
3) It serves the whole community alike the other modes.
4) For short distance travel, it saves time.
5) The road network is used by various types of vehicles.
Disadvantages:
1) Speed is related to accidents and more accidents results due to higher speed and is
usually not suitable for long distance travel
2) Power required per tonne is more.

RAILWAYS
The concept of rail transportation is movement of multiple wagons or a train of wagons
passenger’s bogies on two parallel steel rails. The resistance to traction along the railway track
for the movement of steel wheels is much lower than that along more uneven road surface for
the movement of road vehicles with rubber tyres. The transportation along the railway track
could be advantageous by railways between the stations both for the passengers and goods,
particularly for longer distances. The energy requirement to haul unit load through unit distance
by the railway is only a fraction (one fourth to one sixth) of the required by road. Hence, full
advantage of this mode of transportation should be taken for the transportation of bulk goods
along land where the railway facilities are available. The Indian railways is one of the world’s
largest Railway network in the world. It was introduced in 1853 and it is spread over 1,09,221
km covering 6906 stations.

Advantages:
1) Can transport heavy loads of goods at higher speed
2) Power required per tonne is less compared to roadways
3) Chances of accidents are less.
Disadvantages:
1) Entry and exist points are fixed
2) Requires controlling system and no freedom of movement
3) Establishment and maintenance cost is higher

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WATERWAYS
Transportation by water offers minimum resistance to traction and therefore needs
minimum energy to haul unit load through distance. The water transportation is the most energy
efficient but it is the slowest among the four modes. The highest use of this mode is for bulk
cargo of relatively low value. The transportation by water is possible between the ports on the
sea routes or along the rivers or canals where inland transportation facilities are available.
Advantages:
1) Cheapest: Cost per tonne is lowest
2) Possess highest load carrying capacity
3) Leads to the development of the industries.
Disadvantages:
1) Slow in operation and consumes more time and Depends on whether condition
2) Chances of attack by other countries on naval ships are more.
3) Ocean tides affects the loading and unloading operation and the routes are circuitous.

AIRWAYS
The transportation by air is the fastest among the four modes. Air transport provides
more comfortable and fast travel resulting in substantial saving in travel time for the passengers
between the airports. The shipment of high value freight on long hauls is possible in the shortest
time by air transport. Unlike other modes of transport, air transport allows continuous journey
over the land and water, even across inaccessible places in between two airports.
For shorter hauls helicopters are used and they were developed for their landing and
takeoff. Military aviation is also important to meet the defense needs of a country.

Advantages
1) It has highest speed.
2) Intercontinental travel is possible
3) Journey is continuous over land and water
Disadvantages
1) Highest operating cost (cost/tonne is more) and the load carrying capacity is lowest
2) Depends on whether condition
3) Should follow the flight rules.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD TRANSPORTATION
It is accepted that the fact road transport is the nearest to the people. All classes of road
vehicles consisting of both personal or public transport vehicles and also the pedestrians can
make use of the roadway system. The passengers and goods have to be first transported by road
before reaching a railway station or an airport. The far-flung border areas located in high
altitude and difficult terrains of the country and the remote villages in the under developed
villages could be served by the road network. Road network is very economical and convenient
for short road trips and even some times for longer trips.
The characteristics are of roads are as follows
1) Roads are used by various types of road vehicles like passenger, goods vehicles and
pedestrians. But the rail locomotives and wagons can only make use of the railway
track. The ships and boats can make use of only the waterways and the aircraft’s only
the airports.
2) Road transport infrastructure requires the lowest initial investments in comparison to
that for the infrastructure of other transportation modes. The cost of any class of road
of road vehicle is much lower is much lower than that of other carriers like the railways,
ships and aircrafts. The initial cost of construction and the cost of maintenance of roads
is also lesser than those for railway tracks, harbors and airports.
3) Roads offer complete freedom to the roads to the road user to make use of the roadway
facilities at any time convenient to them or to move the vehicle from a lane of the road
to the adjoining one and from one road to another, according to the need and
convenience.
4) It is possible to travel directly from the respective places of origin to the destination by
road vehicles.
5) Speed of movement is directly related with the severity of accidents. The road safety
decreases with the increasing running speed dispersion in the traffic stream. Road
transport is prone to a high rate of accidents due to the flexibility of movements offer
to the road users. However, in other modes of transport, in spite of various safety
measures and strict controls in the movements, major accidents do occur even in the
form of head on collisions and the accidents in these modes are more severe and
disastrous.
6) Road transport is the only mode that offers the facilities to the whole section of society.

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JAYAKAR COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS AND IMPLEMENTATION

RECOMMENDATIONS
Over a period after the First World War, motor vehicles using the roads increased and
this demanded a better road network which can carry mixed traffic conditions. The existing
roads when not capable to withstand the mixed traffic conditions. For the improvement of roads
in India government of India appointed Mr. Jayakar Committee to study the situations and to
recommend suitable measures for road improvement in 1927 and a report was submitted in
1928 with following recommendations
1) The road development in the country should be considered as a national interest as this
has become beyond the capacity of provincial governments and local bodies.
2) An extra tax should be levied on petrol from the road users to develop a road
development fund called ‘Central Road Fund’
3) A Semi-official technical body should be formed to pool technical know-how from
various parts of the country and to act as an advisory body on various aspects of roads.
4) A research organization should be instituted to carry out research and development
work pertaining to roads and to be available for consultations.

IMPLEMENTATIONS:
Majority of the recommendations were accepted by the government implemented by
Jayakar Committee.
Some of the technical bodies were formed such as,
1) Central Road Fund (CRF) in 1929
2) Indian Road Congress (IRC) in 1934
3) Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) in 1950.

CENTRAL RESEARCH FUND (CRF):

1) Central Research Fund (CRF) was formed on 1st March 1929
2) The consumers of petrol were charged an extra levy of 2.64 paisa/liter of petrol to build
up this road development fund.
3) From the fund collected 20 percent of the annual revenue is to be retained as meeting
expenses on the administration of the road fund, road experiments and research on road
and bridge projects of special importance.
4) The balance 80 percent of the fund to be allotted by the Central Government to th

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Various states based on actual petrol consumption or revenue collected
5) The accounts of the CRF are maintained by the Accountant General of Central
Revenues.
6) The control of the expenditure is exercised by the Roads Wings of Ministry of
Transport.

INDIAN ROAD CONGRESS (IRC):

1) It is a semi-official technical body formed in 1934. It was formed to recommend
standard specifications.
2) It was constituted to provide a forum of regular technical pooling of experience and
ideas on all matters affecting the planning, construction and maintenance of roads in
India.
3) IRC has played an important role in the formulation of the 20-year road development
plans in India.
4) Now, it has become an active body of national importance controlling specifications,
guidelines and other special publications on various aspect of Highway Engineering.

CENTRAL ROAD RESEARCH INSTITUTE (CRRI):

1) CRRI was formed in the year 1950 at New Delhi
2) It was formed for research in various aspect of highway engineering
3) It is one of the National laboratories of the Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research.
4) This institute is mainly engaged in applied research and offers technical advice to state
governments and the industries on various problems concerning roads.

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HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING
INTRODUCTION
Highway design is only one element in the overall highway development process.
Historically, detailed design occurs in the middle of the process, linking the preceding phases
of planning and project development with the subsequent phases of right-of-way acquisition,
construction, and maintenance. While these are distinct activities, there is considerable overlap
in terms of coordination among the various disciplines that work together, including designers,
throughout the process.
It is during the first three stages, planning, project development, and design, that
designers and communities, working together, can have the greatest impact on the final design
features of the project. In fact, the flexibility available for highway design during the detailed
design phase is limited a great deal by the decisions made at the earlier stages of planning and
project development. This Guide begins with a description of the overall highway planning and
development process to illustrate when these decisions are made and how they affect the
ultimate design of a facility.

Planning

Project Development

Final Design

Right of Way

Construction

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Objectives of Highway Planning
Planning if considered as pre-requisite before attempting any development program in
the present era. Highway planning is of great importance when funds available are limited
whereas the total planning is of great importance when the funds are limited whereas the total
requirement is much higher. The objectives are as follows
a) To plan the overall road network for efficient and safe traffic operations, but at
minimum cost. Here the costs of construction, maintenance and resurfacing or
strengthening of pavement layers and vehicle operation costs are taken into
consideration.
b) To arrive at the road system and the lengths of different categories of roads which could
provide maximum utility and could be constructed within the available resources during
the plan period under construction
c) To divide the overall plan into phases and to decide priorities.
d) To fix up date wise priorities for development of each road link based on utility as the
main criterion for phasing the road development program.
e) To plan for the future requirements and improvements of roads in view of anticipated
developments.
f) To work out suitable financing systems
Phases of Highway Planning
Highway planning includes the following phases
 Assessment of road length requirement for an area.
 Preparation of masterplan showing the phasing of plan in five year plans or annual
plans.

MEANING OF HIGHWAY AND ROAD

Road: A road is a thoroughfare, route or way on land between two places, which typically has
been paved or otherwise improved to allow travel by some conveyance, including a horse, cart,
or motor vehicle.
Highway: A highway is a public road, especially a major road connecting two or more
destinations. Any interconnected set of highways can be variously referred to as a "highway
system", a "highway network", or a "highway transportation system". Each country has its
own national highway system.

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CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS

Types of Roads
Basically, different types of roads can be classified into two categories namely,
a) All-weather roads and
b) Fair-weather roads.

All-weather roads: These roads are negotiable during all weather, except at major river
crossings where interruption of traffic is permissible up to a certain limit extent, the road
pavement should be negotiable during all weathers.
Fair-weather roads: On these roads, the traffic may be interrupted during monsoon season at
causeways where streams may overflow across the roads.

a) Based on the Carriage Way

 Paved Roads: These are the roads which have a hard pavement surface on the
carriage way
 Unpaved Roads: These are the roads without the hard pavement surface on
the carriage way, usually they are earthen or gravel roads.

b) Based on Surface Pavement Provided,

 Surface Roads: These roads are provided with any type of bituminous or
cement concrete surfacing.
 Unsurfaced Roads: These roads are not provided with a bituminous or cement
concrete surfacing.
Roads which are provided with bituminous surfacing are called as Black Toped Roads and
that of concrete are referred to as Concrete Roads respectively
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Methods of Classification of Roads
The roads are generally classified based on the following
a) Traffic Volume
b) Load transported of tonnage
c) Location and function
a) Based on Traffic Volume: The classification based on traffic volume or tonnage have
been arbitrarily fixed by different agencies and are classified as
 Heavy
 Medium
 Light traffic roads

b) Based on Load transported or tonnage:

 Class-I or Class-A
 Class-II or Class-B.

c) Based on location and Function:

The Nagpur Road Plan classified the roads in India into the following categories
1) National Highways (NH): The NH connects the capital cities of the states and the
capital cities to the port. The roads connecting the neighboring countries are also called
as NH. The NH are at least 2 lanes of traffic about 7.5m d wide. The NH are having
concrete or bituminous surfacing.
2) State Highways (SH): SH are the main roads within the state and connect important
towns and cities of state. The width of state highways is generally 7.5m.
3) Major District Roads (MDR): These roads connect the areas of production and
markets with either a SH or railway. The MDR should have at least metaled single lane
carriage way (i.e., 3.8m) wide. The roads carry mixed traffic.
4) Other District Roads (ODR): these roads connect the village to other village or the
nearest district road, with ghat, river etc. these roads have a single lane and carry mixed
traffic.
5) Village Roads (VR): these roads, like other district roads, connect the village or village
or nearby district road. The roads carry mixed traffic
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Modified Classification of Road System by Third Road Development Plan
The road classification system was modified in the third 20-year development plan. The
roads are now classified into three classes and are as follows
1. Primary System
 Expressways
 National Highways (NH)
2. Secondary System
 State Highways (SH)
 Major District Roads (MDR)
3. Tertiary System
 Other District Roads (ODR)
 Village Roads

Classification of Urban Roads

The road system within urban areas are classified as Urban Roads and will form a
separate category of roads taken care by respective urban authorities. The lengths of urban
roads are not included in the targets of the 3rd 20-year road development plan 1981-2001.
a) Arterial roads
b) Sub-arterial roads
c) Collector Streets
d) Local Streets
 Arterial and Sub-arterial roads are primarily for through traffic on a continuous route,
but sub-arterials have a lower level of traffic mobility than the arterials.
 Collector streets provide access to arterial streets and they collect and distribute traffic
from and to local streets which provide access to abutting property.

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ROAD PATTERNS
There are various types of road patterns and each pattern has its own advantages and
limitations. The choice of the road pattern depends upon the various factors such as:
 Locality
 Layout of the different towns, villages, industrial and production centers.
 Planning Engineer.
The various road patterns may be classified as follows:
1) Rectangular or block pattern: In this, entire area is divided into rectangular segments
having a common central business and marketing area. This area has all the services
located in the central place. This pattern is not convenient or safe from traffic operation
point of view and it results into more number of accidents at intersections. E.g.:
Chandigarh city.

2) Radial or star and block pattern: In this, roads radially emerge from the central
business area in all directions and between two built-up area will be there. The main
advantage in this, central place is easy accessible from all the directions. E.g.: Nagpur

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3) Radial or star and circular pattern: In this road radiate in all the directions and also
circular ring roads are provided.
Advantages: Traffic will not touch the heart of the city and it flows radially and reaches the
other radial road and thereby reducing the congestion in the center of the city. This ring road
system is well suited for big cities where traffic problems are more in the heart of the city. E.g.:
Connaught place in New Delhi.

4) Radial or star and grid pattern: It is very much similar to star and the circular pattern
expects the radial roads are connected by grids. In this pattern, a grid is formed around
the central point which is a business center. E.g. Nagpur road plan.

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5) Hexagonal pattern: In this entire zone of planning is divided into hexagonal zones
having separate marketing zone and central services surrounded by hexagonal pattern
of roads. Each hexagonal element is independent. At each corner of hexagon three roads
meet.

6) Minimum travel pattern: In this type, city is divided into number of nodal points
around a central portion by forming sectors. And each sector is divided again in such
a way that from each of the nodal center, the distance to the central place is minimum.

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PLANNING SURVEYS
The studies for collecting the factual data for highway planning are known as ‘Fact
Finding Studies’ or ‘Planning Surveys’. The fact-finding studies point to an intelligent
approach for planning and these studies should be carried if the highway programme is to be
protected from inconsistent and short-sighted policies. Planning based on the factual data and
analysis may be considered scientific and sound.
Objectives of Planning Surveys:
 Workout, the financial system and recommended changes in tax arrangements and
budget procedures, provide efficient, safe economics, comfortable and speedy
movement for goods and people.
 Plan a road network for efficient traffic operation at minimum cost.
 Plan for future requirements and improvements of roads in view of developments and
social needs.
 Fix up data wise priorities for development of each road link based on their utilities.

The planning surveys consist of the following studies:

a) Economic Studies
The details to be collected during the economic studies are useful in estimation of the
requirements, cost involved for the proposed highway improvement programme and economic
justification.
This study consists the following details:
a) Population and its distribution
b) Trend of population growth
c) Age and land products
d) Existing facilities
e) Per Capita income.

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b) Financial Studies
The financial studies are essential to study the various financial aspects such as sources
of income, various types of revenues from duties and taxes on products, road transport, vehicle
registration, court fees etc. and the future trends. This study involves collecting the details such
as:
a) Sources ofincome
b) Living Standards
c) Resources from local levels
d) Factor trends in financial.

c) Traffic or Road Use Studies

All the details of the existing traffic, such as classified traffic volume, growth rate of different
vehicle classes, pattern of flow or origin destination characteristics, particulars of passenger
trips and goods movements, existing facilities for mass transportation, trend in road accidents,
accidents costs etc. The detail collected are as follows
a) Classified traffic volume in vehicles per day, annual average daily traffic, peak and
design hourly volume
b) Origin and destination studies based on home interview method
c) Traffic flow pattern
d) Mass transportation facilities
e) Accidents, their causes and cost analysis
f) Future trend and growth in traffic volume and goods traffic, trend in traffic pattern
g) Growth of passenger trips and the trend in the choice of modes

d) Engineering Studies
All the details of the topography, soil and drainage characteristics, alignment of the existing
roads, deficiencies in drainage, alignments and geometrics of existing roads and requirements
of essential upgradation, identification of maintenance and problems etc.,
This involves:
a) Topographic study and Soil details
b) Location and classification of existing roads

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c) Assessment of various other developments in the area that are likely due to the proposed
highway development
d) Road life studies
e) Specific problems in drainage constructions and maintenance.

PREPARATION OF PLANS
The details collected during the planning surveys are tabulated and plotted on the maps of the
area under planning. Before finalizing the alignment and other details of the road development
program, the information collected during the fact-finding studies are presented in the form of
various plans. They are as follows
Plan-1: General area plan showing most of the existing details about the topographical details
related to existing road network, drainage, structures, towns and villages with population,
agricultural, industrial and commercial activities.
Plan-2: Plan showing the distribution of population groups in accordance with the categories
made in appropriate plan.
Plan-3: Plan showing the locations of places with their respective quantities of productivity.
Plan-4: Should indicate the existing network of roads and proposals received.
Ultimately, the Master plan is the one to be implemented.

MASTER PLAN
Master plan is referred to as road development plan of a city; district or a street or for
whole country. It is an ideal plan showing full development of the area at some future date. It
serves as the guide for the plan to improve some of the existing roads and to plan the network
of new roads.
It helps in controlling the industrial, commercial and agricultural and habitat growth in
a systematic way of that area. It gives a perceptive picture of a fully developed area in a plan
and scientific way.

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Stages in the preparation of master plan:
 Data Collection: It includes data regarding existing land use, industrial and agricultural
growth, population, traffic flow, topography, future trends.
 Preparation of draft plan and invite suggestions and comments from public
 Revision of draft plan in view of the discussions and comments from experts and public.
 Comparison of various alternate proposals of road system and finding out the sequence
in which the master plan will be implemented.
In India, targeted road lengths were fixed in various road plans, based on population,
area and agricultural and industrial products. The same way it may be taken as a guide
to decide the total length of road system in each alternate proposal while preparing a
master plan for a town or locality.

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SATURATION SYSTEM
In this system optimum road length is calculated for an area based on the concept of
attaining maximum utility per unit length of the road. This is also called as MAXIMUM
UTILITY SYSTEM.
Factors to attain maximum utility per unit length are:
a) Population served by the road network
b) Productivity served by the network
 Agricultural Products
 Industrial Products
The various steps to be taken to obtain maximum utility per unit length are:
1) Population factors or units: Since, the area under consideration consists of villages
and towns with different population these are grouped into some convenient population
range and some reasoning values of utility units to each range of population serve are
assigned.
a) Population less than 500, utility unit = 0.25
b) 501 to 1001, utility unit = 0.50
c) 1001 to 2000, utility unit = 1.00
d) 2001 to 5000, utility unit = 2.00 etc.
2) Productivity Factors or units: The total agricultural and industrial products served
by each road system are worked out and the productivity served may be assigned
appropriate values of utility units per unit weight.
3) Optimum Road length: Based on the master plan the targeted road length is fixed for
the country on the basis of area or population and production or both. And the same
may be taken as a guide to decide the total length of the road system in each proposal.

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PHASING ROAD DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA
The first attempt for proper planning of the highway development programme in India
on a long-term basis was made at the Nagpur Conference in 1943. After the completion of the
Nagpur Road Plan targets, the Second Twenty year Plan was drawn for the period 1961- 1981.
The Third Twenty Year Road Development Plan for the period 1981-2001 was approved only
by the year 1984.
The fourth 20-year road development plan of the country for the period 2001 – 2021
has not yet been approved as an official plan document, instead ‘Roads Development Vision:
2021’ has been formulated.
First 20-Year Road Plan (Nagpur Road plan)
This plan was formed in the year 1943 at Nagpur and plan period was from 1943- 1963.Two
plan formulae were finalized at the Nagpur Conference for deciding two categories of road
length for the country as a whole as well as for individual areas (like district). This was the
first attempt for highway planning in India. The two plan formulae assumed the Star and Grid
pattern of road network. Hence, the two formulae are also called “Star and Grid Formulae”.
Salient Features of Nagpur Road Plan
All the roads were classified into 5 categories namely
1) National Highways (NH)
2) State Highways (SH)
3) Major District Roads (MDR)
4) Other District Roads (ODR)
5) Village Roads (VR)
Two plan formulas were suggested for deciding the length of two categories of roads
Category – 1: Surfaced or metaled roads meant for NH/SH/MDR
Category – 2: Unsurfaced roads meant for ODR/VR
Nagpur road plan aimed at achieving a modest average road density of 16km per km2 area.
Second Twenty Year Road Plan (Bombay Road Plan):
As the target road length of Nagpur road plan was completed nearly earlier in 1961 a
long-term plan was initiated for twenty-year period which was initiated by IRC. Hence, the
second twenty year road plan came into picture which was drawn for the period of 1961-81.
The second twenty year road plan was envisaged overall road length of 10, 57,330 km by the
year 1981.
Salient Features of Second 20-year Road Plan:

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 Every town with population above 2000 in plains should be connected by a bituminous
road or metaled road, above 1000 in semi-hilly area above 500 in hilly area
 1600 km length of expressways was proposed.
 Development allowance is 5% only
 Length of railway track was not deducted.
 Five equations are given to find NH/SH/MDR/ODR/VR.

Third Twenty Year Road Plan (Lucknow Road Plan):

The Third twenty year road plan was prepared by the Road Wing of the Ministry of
Shipping and Transport with the active co-operation from a number of organizations and the
experts in the field of Highway Engineering and Transportation. This document was released
during the 45th Annual Session and the Golden Jubilee celebrations of the Indian Road
Congress in February 1985 at Lucknow. Therefore, this plan for 1981-2001 is also called as
‘Lucknow Road Plan’.

Salient Features of Second 20-year Road Plan

 The future road development should be based on the revised classification of road
system consisting of Primary, secondary and tertiary systems.
 The road network should be developed so as to preserve the rural oriented economy
and to develop small to towns with all the facilities. All the villages with population
above 500 should be connected with all-weather roads by the end of the century.
 The overall road density should be increased to 82 km per 100 sq. km area by the year
2001 and 40km for hill areas of altitude up to 2100m and 15km for altitude over 2100m.
 The NH network should be expanded to form square grids of 100km sides so that no
part of the country in more than 50km away from a NH
 The length of SH and MDR required should be decided based on the areas and no. of
towns with population above 5000 in the state or region.
 Expressway should be constructed along the major traffic corridors to provide fast
travel.
 All the towns and villages with population above 1500 should be connected by MDR
and villages with population 1000 to 1500 by ODR. There should be road within a
distance of 3km in plain and 5km in hilly terrain connecting the villages with population
less than 500.

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 Roads should be built in less industrialized areas to attract the growth of industries.
 Long term master plans for road development should be prepared at various level i.e.,
taluk, district, state and national level. The road network should be scientifically
decided to provide maximum utility.
 The existing roads should be improved by rectifying the defects in the road geometrics,
widening of the pavements, improving the riding quality of the pavement surface and
strengthening of pavement structure
 There should be improvements in environmental quality and road safety.
Road length by 3rd 20-year road development plan
a) Length of NH – 1km per 50sq. km area.
b) Length of SH
1) By total area – SH, km = Area of the state, sq.km/25
2) By total no of town and area in the state, SH, km =
(62.5 x No towns in the state – area of the state, sq. km)
50
Adopt length of SH (higher of the two criteria)
c) Length of MDR
1) By total area – MDR, km = Area of the state, sq.km/12.5
2) By total no of town and area in the state, MDR, km = 90 x No. of towns in the state.
Adopt length of SH (higher of the two criteria).

PRESENT SCENARIO OF ROAD DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

NATIONAL HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS (NHDP)

 Realizing the deficiencies in the National Highway System in the country the National
Highways Authorities of India (NHAI) took up the National Highways Development
Projects (NHDP) by the year 2000 in different phases
 The National Highways Development Project (NHDP) is a project to upgrade,
rehabilitate and widen major highways in India to a higher standard.
 The project was started in 1998 under the leadership of then Prime Minister, Atal Bihari

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Vajpayee. National Highways account for only about 2% of the total length of roads, but
carry about 40% of the total traffic across the length and breadth of the country.
 This project is managed by the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) under
the Ministry of Road, Transport and Highways.
 The NHDP represents 49,260 km of roads and highways work and construction in order
to boost economic development of the country.
 The government has planned to end the NHDP program in early 2018 and consume the
ongoing projects under a larger Bharatmala project.

Phase I: Golden Quadrilateral of total length 5846km connecting the 4 major metropolitan
cities. The four sides of the quadrilateral are Delhi – Mumbai, Mumbai – Chennai (Via
Bengaluru), Chennai – Kolkata and Kolkata- Delhi.
Phase II: North-South and East-West corridors comprising national highways connecting four
extreme points of the country. The North–South and East–West Corridor (NS-EW; 7,142 km)
connecting Srinagar in the north to Kanyakumari in the south, and Silchar in the east
to Porbandar in the west. Total length of the network is 7,142 km.
Phase III: The government on 12th April, 2007 approved NHDP-III to upgrade 12,109 km
(7,524 mi) of national highways on a Build, Operate and Transfer (BOT) basis, which takes
into account high-density traffic, connectivity of state capitals via NHDP Phase I and II, and
connectivity to centers of economic importance.
Phase IV: The government on 18th June, 2008 approved widening 20,000 km of highway that
were not part of Phase I, II, or III. Phase IV will convert existing single-lane highways into two
lanes with paved shoulders.
Phase V: As road traffic increases over time, a number of four-lane highways will need to be
upgraded/expanded to six lanes. On 5 October, 2006, the government approved for upgrade of
about 5,000 km (3,100 mi) of four-lane roads.
Phase VI: The government is working on constructing 1,000 km (620 mi) expressways that
would connect major commercial and industrial townships. It has already identified 400 km
(250 mi) of Vadodara (earlier Baroda)-Mumbai section that would connect to the existing
Vadodara (earlier Baroda)-Ahmedabad section. The World Bank is studying this project. The
project will be funded on BOT basis. The 334 km (208 mi) Expressway between Chennai—
Bangalore and 277 km (172 mi) Expressway between Kolkata—Dhanbadhas been identified
and feasibility study and DPR contract has been awarded by NHAI.

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Phase VII: This phase calls for improvements to city road networks by adding ring roads to
enable easier connectivity with national highways to important cities. In addition,
improvements will be made to stretches of national highways that require additional flyovers
and bypasses given population and housing growth along the highways and increasing traffic.
The government has planned to invest Rs. 16,680 Cr for this phase. The 19 km (12 mi)
long Chennai Port—Maduravoyal Elevated Expressway is being executed under this phase.

PRADHAN MANTRI GRAM SADAK YOJANA (PMGSY)

 An accelerated village road village road development called Pradhan Mantri Gram
Sadak Yojana was launched by the Govt. of India in Dec 2000 under the guidance of
Ex. Prime Minister Shri Atal Bihari Vajapayee to provide villages with all-weather
roads.
 The ministry of Rural Development was given the responsibility to prepare the master
plans in consultation with the State Governments.
 The objective of PMGSY was to provide connectivity to all unconnected habitations
having a population of 500 and above with all-weather roads.
 The above population limit is relaxed in the case of hills, tribal and desert areas of the
country.
 The Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) is a 100% Centrally Sponsored
Scheme. 0.75₹/ litre out of the Cess on High Speed Diesel (HSD) is earmarked for this
Programme.
PROGRAMME OBJECTIVES
1) The primary objective of the PMGSY is to provide Connectivity, by way of an All-weather
Road (with necessary culverts and cross-drainage structures, which is operable throughout
the year), to the eligible unconnected Habitations in the rural areas with a population of 500
persons and above in Plain areas.
2) In respect of the Hill States (North-East, Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir
and Uttarakhand), the Desert Areas (as identified in the Desert Development Programme),
the Tribal (Schedule V) areas and Selected Tribal and Backward Districts (as identified by
the Ministry of Home Affairs and Planning Commission).
3) The objective would be to connect eligible unconnected Habitations with a population of
250 persons and above.

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KSHIP

 The Karnataka State Highways Improvement Project (KSHIP) is an initiative of

the Public Works Department of the Government of Karnataka for improvement of road
network of the state with World Bank assistance.

 The Public Works Department carried out Strategic Option Study (SOS) during 1996
on a road network of 13,362 km comprising State Highways and Major District Roads
and the study identified 2888 km of roads for prioritized improvements.
 The World Bank have extended Technical Assistance (T.A.) Loan of US $ 3.2 million
for project preparation through the Department of Economic Affairs of Ministry of
Finance, Government of India for taking up the Project Coordinating Consultancy
(PCC) Services to investigate and prepare detailed project report on the 2888 km and
Institutional Development Strategy (IDS) Study.
 With concurrence of the World Bank, M/s. Scott Wilson Kirkpatrick, United Kingdom
were selected and appointed on 07-01-1999 to carryout PCC Services for 2505 km of
roads.
 The PCC Services were divided into Phase I & II. The PCC Consultants carried out
feasibility and social & environmental screening and identified 2271 km for prioritized
improvement. It is proposed to undertake Upgradation of 992 Km and Rehabilitation
of 1277 Km.

KRDCL
Karnataka Road Development Corporation (KRDCL) was incorporated on 21st of July 1999
as a wholly owned Government of Karnataka Company as per the Provisions of the Company's
Act, 1956
 KRDCL is a company under the Public Works, Ports & Inland Water Transport
Department. This Company was established to promote surface infrastructure by taking
up Road Works, Bridges etc., and to improve road network by taking up construction
widening and strengthening of roads, construction of bridges, maintenance of roads
etc., and to take up projects on BOT, BOOT, BOLT.
 Since inception Karnataka Road Development Corporation Limited has strived to
improve the road network and to establish connectivity to all the nook & corner of the
State.

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ROAD DEVELOPMENT PLAN: VISION 2021
 Actual achievement in terms of length of different categories of roads in the country
at the end of the 3rd 20-year road development plan period was compared with the
plan targets.
 It was observed that actual length of NH and SH achieved fell short of plan targets.
The total length of NH achieved was 57,700km as against the target of 66,000km
and that the SH achieved was 1,24,300km as against of 1,45,000km.
 This vision document has considered the need for overall development of road
system in country. The total target length of primary and secondary road system to
be achieved in the country by the year 2020 are given below
 Primary highway system consisting of 15,766km of expressway and 80,000km of
NH
 Secondary road system consisting of 1,60,000 km of SH and 3,20,000km of MDR
 The above document also has given special attention for road development needs
in North-Eastern regions and other isolated areas. In view of rapid growth rate of
urban centres, some suggestion has been made for the development of urban road
system also.
 Tertiary system of rural roads consisting of ODR and VR are to be developed in
order to provide all-weather road connectivity to all the villages of the country in a
phased manner. Considering the importance of this subject, a rural road
development plan document was prepared.
Rural Road Development Plan: Vision 2025
It was developed for the 20-year period of 2005-2025 to provide basic access to villages in
phases:
 Phase – I: Villages with population above 1000
 Phase – II: Villages with population above 500
 Phase – III: Villages with population below 500
Lower population limits were fixed for under developed regions including hills, deserts and
tribal areas.

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HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS

Introduction
The position or the layout of the central line of the highway on the ground is called the
alignment. Highway Alignment includes both
a) Horizontal alignment includes straight and curved paths, the deviations and horizontal
curves.
b) Vertical alignment includes changes in level, gradients and vertical curves.
A new road should be aligned very carefully as improper alignment will lead to increase in
construction, maintenance and vehicle operation cost. Once the road is aligned and constructed,
it is not easy to change it due to increase in cost of adjoining land and construction of costly
structures by the roadside

Requirements
The requirements of an ideal alignment are
a) Short: The alignment between two terminal stations should be short and as far as
possible be straight, but due to some practical considerations deviations may be needed.
b) Easy: The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain. It should be easy for the
operation of vehicles. So, to the maximum extend easy gradients and curves should be
provided.
c) Safe: It should be safe both from the construction and operating point of view especially
at slopes, embankments, and cutting. It should be safe for traffic operation with safe
geometric features.
d) Economical: The alignment should be economical and it can be considered so only if
the total life cycle cost considering the initial cost, maintenance cost, and vehicle
operating cost is lowest.

Department of Civil Engineering 1

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Factors Controlling Alignment

For an alignment to be shortest, it should be straight between the two terminal stations,
but this is not always possible due to various practical difficulties such as intermediate
obstructions or topography. A road which is economical with low initial investment may not
be the most economical in terms of maintenance or vehicle operation cost(VOC). Thus, is may
be seen that an alignment can fulfil all the requirements simultaneously, hence a judicial choice
is made considering all the factors.
The various factors that control the alignment are as follows:
a) Obligatory Points
b) Traffic
c) Geometric Design
d) Economics
e) Other Considerations

Obligatory Points
These are the control points governing the highway alignment. These points are
classified into two categories.
1) Points Through Which the Alignment Should Pass
2) Points Through Which the Alignment Should Not Pass.

Points Through Which the Alignment Should Pass

a) Bridge site: The bridge can be located only where the river has straight and permanent
path and also where the abutment and pier can be strongly founded. The road approach
to the bridge should not be curved and skew crossing should be avoided as possible.
Thus, to locate a bridge the highway alignment may be changed.
b) Mountain: While the alignment passes through a mountain, the various alternatives are
to either
c) Construct a tunnel or to go around the hills. The suitability of the alternative depends
on factors like topography, site conditions and construction and operation cost.
d) Intermediate town: The alignment may be slightly deviated to connect an intermediate
town or village nearby. These were some of the obligatory points through which the
alignment should pass.

Department of Civil Engineering 2

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Points Through Which the Alignment Should Not Pass.

a) Religious places: These have been protected by the law from being acquired for any
purpose. Therefore, these points should be avoided while aligning.
b) Very costly structures: Acquiring such structures means heavy compensation which
would result in an increase in initial cost. So, the alignment may be deviated not to pass
through that point.
c) Lakes/ponds etc.: The presence of a lake or pond on the alignment path would also
necessitate deviation of the alignment.
Traffic
The alignment should suit the traffic requirements. Based on the origin- destination
data of the area, the desire lines should be drawn. The new alignment should be drawn keeping
in view the desire lines, traffic flow pattern etc.
Geometric design
Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of curve, sight distance etc. also
governs the alignment of the highway. To keep the radius of curve minimum, it may be required
to change the alignment of the highway. The alignments should be finalized such that the
obstructions to visibility do not restrict the minimum requirements of sight distance. The design
standards vary with the class of road and the terrain and accordingly the highway should be
aligned.
Economics
The alignment finalized should be economical. All the three costs i.e. construction,
maintenance, and operating cost should be minimum. The construction cost can be decreased
much if it is possible to maintain a balance between cutting and filling. Also try to avoid very
high embankments and very deep cuttings as the construction cost will be very higher in these
cases.
Other Considerations
The various other factors that govern the alignment are drainage considerations,
political considerations and monotony. The vertical alignment is often guided by drainage
considerations such as sub surface drainage, water level, seepage flow, and high flood levels.
A foreign territory coming across the alignment will necessitate the deviation of the horizontal
alignment. In flat terrain, even though it is possible to have a very long stretch of road which
is absolutely straight may be monotonous for driving. Hence it is recommended to have a slight
bend or road side amenities to break monotony.

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ENGINEERING SURVEYS FOR HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

Stages of Engineering Surveys
Before a highway alignment is finalised in a new highway project, engineering surveys
are to be carried out. These engineering surveys may be completed in the following four stages:
a) Map Study
b) Reconnaissance Survey
c) Preliminary Surveys
d) Final Location and Detailed Surveys
Map Study
It is possible to suggest the likely routes of the roads if the topographic map of the area
is available. In India, topographic maps are available from the Survey of India, with 15 or 30
metre contour intervals. The main features like rivers, hills valleys, etc. are also shown on these
maps.
The probable alignment can be located on the map from the following details available on the
map.
 Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds or lakes
 When the road has to cross a row of hills or mountains, possibility of crossing through
a mountain pass.
 Approximate location of bridge site for crossing rivers, avoiding bend of the river, if
any
 When a road is to be connected between two stations, one of the top and the other on
the foot of the hill, then alternate routes can be suggested keeping in view the design or
ruling gradient and the maximum permissible gradient
Thus, from the map study alternate routes can be suggested. It may also be possibly from map
study to drop a certain route in view of any unavoidable obstructions or undesirable ground
and map study gives a rough guidance of the routes to be further surveyed in the field.
Reconnaissance Survey
The second stage of engineering surveys for highway alignment is the reconnaissance
survey. During the reconnaissance, the engineer visits the site and examines the general
characteristics of the area before deciding the most feasible routes for detailed studies. A field
survey party may inspect a fairly broad stretch of land along the proposed alternative routes of
the map in the field, very simple survey instruments are used by the reconnaissance party to
collect additional details rapidly, but not accurately. All relevant details which are not available

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in the map are collected and noted down. Some of the details to be collected during
reconnaissance are given below
a) Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, ridge, hills, permanent structures and other
obstructions alone the route which are not available in the map
b) Approximate values of gradient, length of gradients and radius of curves of alternate
alignments.
c) Number and type of cross drainage structures, maximum flood level and natural ground
water level along the probable routes.
d) Soil type along the routes from field identification tests and observation of geological
features
e) Sources of construction materials, water and location of stone quarries
f) When the road passes through hilly or mountainous terrain, additional data regarding
the geological formation, type of rocks, dip of strata, seepage flow etc. may be observed
so as to decide the stable and unstable sides of the hill for highway alignment
A rapid reconnaissance of the area, especially when it is vast and the terrain is difficult and it
may be done by aerial survey. From the details collected during the survey the alignment
proposed may be altered or even changes completed.
Preliminary Survey
The main objectives of the preliminary survey are
 To survey the various alternate alignment proposed after the reconnaissance and to
collect all the necessary physical information and details of topography, drainage and
soil
 To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of a good alignment.
 To estimate quantity of earthwork materials and other construction aspects and to work
out the cost of alternate proposals.
The preliminary survey may be carried out by of following methods
a) Conventional approach, in which a survey party carries out surveys using the required
field equipment, taking measurements, collecting topographical and other data and
carrying out soil survey
b) Rapid approach, by aerial survey taking the required aerial photographs and by
photogrammetric methods and photo-interpretation techniques for obtaining the
necessary topographic and other maps including details of soil and geology
c) Modem techniques by use of Global Positioning System (GPS)

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The procedure of the conventional methods of preliminary survey is given in following steps:
a) Primary Traverse
b) Topographical Features
c) Levelling Work
d) Drainage Studies and Hydrological Data
e) Soil Survey
f) Material Survey
g) Traffic Studies Primary Traverse
Primary Traverse
The first step in the preliminary survey is to establish the primary traverse, following
the alignment recommended in the reconnaissance. For alternate alignments either secondary
traverses or independent primary traverses may be necessary. As these traverses are open
traverses and adjustment of errors is not possible later, the angles should be very accurately
measured using a precision theodolite.
Topographic Features
After establishing the centre lines of preliminary survey, the topographical features are
recorded. All geographical and other man-made features along the traverse and for a certain
width on either side are surveyed and plotted. The width to be surveyed is generally decided
by the survey party, but the absolute minimum width is the land width of the proposed
alignment.
Levelling work
Levelling work is also carried out side by side to give the centre line profiles and typical
cross sections. Permanent and temporary bench marks should be first established at appropriate
locations and the levels should be connected to the GTS datum. The levelling work in the
preliminary survey is kept to a minimum just sufficient to obtain the approximate earth work
in the alternate alignments. To draw contours of the strip of land to be surveyed, cross section
levels should be taken at suitable intervals, generally 100 to 200 m in plain terrain, up to 50 m
in rolling terrain and up to 30 m in hilly terrain.
Drainage Studies and Hydrological Data
Drainage investigations and hydrological data are collected so as to estimate the type,
number and approximate size of cross drainage structures. Also, the vertical alignment of the
highway, particularly the grade line is decided based on the hydrological and drainage data,
such as HFL. ponded water level, depth of water table, amount of surface runoff, etc.

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Soil Survey
Soil survey is an essential part of the preliminary survey as the suitability of the
proposed location is to be finally decided based on the soil survey data. The soil survey
conducted at this stage also helps in working out details of earth work, slopes, suitability of
materials, subsoil and surface drainage requirements and pavement type and the approximate
thickness requirements. All these details are required to make a comparative study of alternate
proposals. A detailed soil survey is not necessary. Post-hole auger or any other suitable types
of hand augers may be used depending on the soil type to collect the soil sample up to a depth
of 1 to 3 metre below the likely finished road level or the existing ground level, whichever is
lower. When the road is expected to be constructed over an embankment, the depth of
exploration should extend up to twice the height of embankment from the ground level. During
the soil exploration if the ground water table is struck, the depth from the ground surface is
also noted. The types of soils encountered along the route up to the depth under consideration
are marked on the soil profile either symbolically or by suitable colour coding.
Material Survey
The survey for naturally occurring materials like stone aggregates, soft aggregates, etc.
and identification of suitable quarries should be made. Also, availability of manufactured
materials like cement, lime, brick, etc. and their locations may be ascertained.
Traffic Survey
Traffic surveys conducted in the region form the basis for deciding the number of traffic
lanes and roadway width, pavement design and economic analysis of the highway project.
Traffic volume counts of the classified vehicles are to be carried out on all the existing roads
in the region, preferably for 24 hours per day for seven days. Origin and destination surveys
are very useful for deciding the alignment of the roads. This study may be earned out on a
suitable sample of vehicle users or drivers. In addition, the required traffic data may also be
collected so that the traffic forecast could be made for 10 to 20 year periods.
Determination of Final Centre Line
After completing the preliminary surveys and conducting the comparative studies of
alternative alignments, the final centre line of the road is to be decided in the office before the
final location survey. For this, the preliminary survey maps consisting of contour plans,
longitudinal profile and cross sections of the alternate alignments should be prepared and
carefully studied to decide the best alignment satisfying engineering aesthetic and economical
requirements. After selecting the final alignment, the grade lines are drawn and the geometric
elements of the horizontal and vertical alignments of the road are designed.

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Rapid method using aerial survey and modern technique using GPS
Aerial photographic surveys and photogrammetric methods are very much suited for
preliminary surveys, especially when the distance and area to be covered are vast, The survey
may be divided into the following steps:
Taking aerial photographs of the strips of land to be surveyed with the required longitudinal
and lateral overlaps. Vertical photographs are necessary for the preparation of mosaics.
a) The photographs are examined under stereoscopes and control points are selected for
establishing the traverses of the alternate proposals. The control points are located on
the maps
b) Using stereo-pair observations, the spot levels and subsequently contour details may be
noted down on the maps
c) Photo-interpretation methods are used to assess the geological features, soil conditions,
drainage requirements etc.

Final Location and Detailed Survey

The alignment finalised at the design office after the preliminary survey is to be first
located on the field by establishing the centre line. Next detailed survey should be carried out
for collecting the information necessary for the preparation of plans and construction details
for the highway project.
Location
The centre line of the road finalised in the drawings is to be transferred on the ground
during the location survey. This is done using a transit theodolite and by staking of the centre
line. The location of the centre line should follow, as closely as practicable, the alignment
finalised after the preliminary surveys. Major and minor control points are established on the
ground and centre pegs are driven, checking the geometric design requirements. However,
modifications in the final location may be made in the field, if found essential. The centre line
stakes are driven at suitable intervals, say at 50 metre intervals in plain and rolling terrains and
at 20 metre in hilly terrain.
Detailed Survey
 Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about 250 m and at all drainage and
under pass structures. Levels along the final centre line should be taken at all staked
points.
 Levelling work is of great importance as the vertical alignment, earth work calculations

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and drainage details are to be worked out from the level notes.
 The cross-section levels are taken up to the desired width, at intervals of 50 to 100 m
in plain terrain, 50 to 75 m in rolling terrain, 50 m in built-up areas and 20 m in hilly
terrain.
 The cross sections may be taken at closer intervals at horizontal curves and where there
is abrupt change in cross slopes.
 All river crossing, valleys etc. should be surveyed in detail up to considerable distances
on either side.
 All topographical details are noted down and also plotted using conventional signs.
Adequate hydrological details are also collected and recorded.
 A detailed soil survey is carried out to enable drawing of the soil profile. The depth up
to which soil sampling is to be done may be 1.5 to 3.0 m below the ground line or
finished grade line of the road whichever is lower. However, in case of high
embankments, the depth should be up to twice the height of the finished embankment.
The spacing of auger borings very much depends upon the soil type and its variations.
 CBR value of soils along the alignment may be determined for designing the pavement.
 The data during the detailed survey should be elaborate and complete for preparing
detailed plans, design and estimates of the project.

HIGHWAY PROJECTS
General
In a new highway project, the engineer has to plan, design and construct either a net-
work of new roads or a road link. There are also projects requiring re-design and re-alignment
of existing roads of upgrading the geometric design standards.
Once a highway is constructed, development takes place along the adjoining land and
subsequent changes in alignment or improvements in geometric standards become very
difficult. A badly aligned highway is not only a source of potential traffic hazard, but also
causes a considerable increase in transportation cost and strain on the drivers and the
passengers. Therefore, proper investigation and planning are most important in a road project,
keeping in view the present day needs as well as the future developments of the region.

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New Highway Project

The new highway project work may be divided into the following stages:
a) Selection of route, finalisation of highway alignment and geometric design details
b) Collection of materials and testing of subgrade soil and other construction materials,
mix design of pavement materials and design details of pavement layers
c) Construction stages including quality control.

Route Selection
The selection of route is made keeping in view the requirements of alignment and the
geological, topographical and other features of the locality. However special care should be
taken as regards the geometric design standards of the road for possible upgrading of speed
standards in future, without being necessary to realign the road. After the alignment if finalised,
the plans and working drawings are prepared.

Materials and Design

The soil samples collected from the selected route during the soil surveys are tested in
the laboratory in order to design the required pavement thickness and the design of
embankment and cut slopes. The basic construction materials such as selected soil, aggregates
etc. are collected from the nearest borrow pits and quarries and stacked along the road
alignment after subjecting these materials to the specified laboratory tests. In order to design
the mixes for the pavement component layers and to specify quality control test values during
road construction, mix design tests are carried out in the laboratory.
The possibility of using low-cost construction material like soil-aggregate mixes, soft
aggregates, stabilized soil and pozzolonic concrete mixes, in the sub-base or base course layers
of pavement should be fully explored. When high quality pavement materials like bituminous
mixes or cement concrete are to be used in the surface course, the mix design specification and
construction control tests should be strictly followed. The pavement thickness is designed
based on anticipated traffic, stability and drainage conditions of the subgrade and the type and
thickness of pavement layers chosen for the construction.
In India, the CBR method has been recommended by the Indian Roads Congress for
designing the thickness of flexible pavements.

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Construction
The construction of the road may be divided into two stages as follows
1) Earth Work
2) Pavement Construction.
Earth Work
It consists of excavation and construction of the embankments. During the excavation
for highway cuts, the earth slopes, their protection and construction of drainage network are
taken care of. Highway embankments may be best constructed by rolled-fill method by
compacting the soil in layers under controlled moisture and density using suitable rollers. In
the case of high embankments, the stability of the embankment foundation and slopes and the
possible settlement of the embankment with time are to be investigated.
Pavement Construction
It is subsequently taken up starting with the preparation of subgrade and the
construction of sub-base, base and surface courses of the pavement.

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Steps in a new project work

The various steps in a new highway project may be summarised as given below:
 Map Study: This is carried out with the help of available topographic maps of the area
Reconnaissance Survey: During reconnaissance survey, a general idea of a
topography and other features, field identification of soils and survey of construction
materials, by an on-the spot inspection of the site.
 Preliminary Survey: Topographic details and soil survey along alternate alignments,
consideration of geometric design and other requirements of alignment, preparation of
plans and comparison of alternate routes; economic analysis and selection of final
alignment.
 Location of Final Alignment: Transfer of the alignment from the drawings to the
ground by driving pegs along the centre line of finally chosen alignment, setting out
geometric design elements by location of tangent points, apex points, circular and
transition curves, elevation of centre line and super elevation details.
 Detailed Survey: Survey of the highway construction work or the preparation of
longitudinal and cross sections, computations of earth work quantities and other
construction material and checking details of geometric design elements.
 Materials Survey: Survey of construction materials, their collection and testing.
 Design: Design details of embankment and cut slopes, foundation of embankments and
bridges, and pavement layers and cross drainage structures.
 Earth Work: Excavations for highway cutting and drainage system, construction of
embankments.
 Pavement Construction: Preparation of subgrade, construction of sub-base, base and
surface courses.
 Construction Controls: Quality control tests during different stages of construction
and check for finished road surface such as unevenness, camber, super elevation and
extra widening of pavements at curves.
 Construction Planning and Programming: The construction planning and
programming to be carried out taking into accounts all the restraints and existing
problems. In order to minimise the construction cost and time, it is essential to resort to
appropriate approaches such as use of Critical Path Method (CPM) and Project
Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT).

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Re-Alignment Project
Necessity of Re-Alignment
Most of the present highways in India have been upgraded in stages, from the existing
local roads of the pre-automobile era. As these roads were then meant for slow traffic, they are
found deficient in the geometric design elements for the present-day automobile traffic. There
are several stretches of NH in the country having single lane carriageway, narrow bridges and
culverts and many locations with sharp horizontal curves and avoidable zigzags, steep gradients
and inadequate sight distances. These defects are to be rectified as early as possible at least in
stages, starting with roads of greater importance like NH and SH’s. It will be worth-while to
adopt more liberal values of geometric design parameters than the ruling minimum values
specified, where the conditions are favourable and the costs involved are not excessive. In such
cases, it would be possible to upgrade the highway if necessary in future by increasing the
width standards only, but without the necessity of re-aligning the road. However, in constrained
situations and in difficult terrain, it may not always be economical to improve the existing
highway geometries to the recommended design standards. In such cases appropriated speed
restrictions have to be imposed to minimise road accidents.
It has been decided as a policy that NH’s should as far as possible be able to fully cater
to the traffic moving at design speed, fulfilling the comfort and safety requirements, both for
the present and future traffic needs. To achieve this objective, it is necessary to plan
improvements in the geometries of roads wherever deficient, to the extent economically
practicable along with other improvements such as raising of the road above flood water level,
pavement resurfacing or construction of overlay for strengthening the pavement structure.

Types of Improvement
The following types of improvement in alignment of existing road may be carried out:
1) Improvement of horizontal alignment design elements such as, radius, super elevation,
transition curve, providing adequate clearance on inner side of the curve or shifting the
curve to provide adequate sight distance, elimination of reverse curve and undesirable
zigzags, etc.
2) Improvement of vertical alignment design elements like steep gradients, changes in
summit curves to increase sight distance, correction of undesirable undulations like
humps any dips, etc.

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3) Raising the level of a portion of a road which is subjected to flooding, submergence or

water-logging during monsoons.
4) Re-construction of weak and narrow bridges and culverts and changes in waterway at
locations slightly away from the existing site.
5) Construction of over-bridges or under-bridges at suitable locations across a railway line
in place of level crossing or across another road to provide grade separated
intersections.
6) Re-alignment required due to a portion of the road being submerged under water at the
reservoir area on account of construction of a new dam.
7) Construction of a bypass to avoid the road running through a town or city
8) Defence requirements.

General Principles of Re-Alignment

 While improving the horizontal alignment of roads, improvement in sharp curves and
zigzags should be done after considering the whole alignment and not on piece meal
basis. The improvement of transition curves would not generally be very costly and
therefore such deficiencies should be rectified where-ever necessary. The sight distance
available generally gets increased when the horizontal alignment is improved,
otherwise the setback distance may be increased at horizontal curves by removing or
shifting the obstruction from the inner side of the curve, up to the desired extent,
 While improving the vertical alignment, attempts should be made to provide
Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) at summit curves. On divided highways, the
overtaking distance required will be lesser than on un-divided two-way roads, as there
is no need to provide for the on-coming vehicles during overtaking operations.
However, if it is not possible to provide for OSD, at- least the safe stopping sight
distance should be available for the design speed at all locations of the road
 The corrections of minor undulations such as humps and dips may not involve high cost
and so it is desirable to provide suitable vertical transition curves for shock-free
movement of vehicles travelling at the design speed. Valley curves may be checked for
comfort condition and for visibility under the head lights of the vehicles during night
driving.
 The road stretches which remain submerged under water even for a short duration of
the year or those which are in water-logged areas should be raised before strengthening

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or widening pavement section. The formation level be raised such that the subgrade is
at least 0.6 m above the HFL. Suitable measures should be adopted against water-
logging and care should be taken to provide suitable drainage facilities including the
cross drainage works.
 While reconstructing bridges of length greater than 60 m on sites other than the existing
ones, separate surveys should be carried out for the selection of suitable sites. The
selection of site for major bridges would be governed by the river training works, sub-
soil conditions for foundation and hydraulic considerations. However, in small bridges,
the road alignment would essentially govern the bridge site selection
 The deciding factor which is being considered for providing over-bridges or under
bridges for a NH across railway level crossings is product of number of gate closures
and the intensity of traffic on the highway in tonnes per day in the design year. When
this product exceeds 50,000 or when the level crossing is within the shunting limits of
a railway station, the grade separation is justified. The location is decided keeping in
view the highway alignment, the topographic and other site conditions,
 The necessity to provide alternate routes to bypass through traffic is assessed from the
origin and destination studies. If the by-passable traffic more than the traffic terminating
at the town or built-up area then the bypass may be justified.

Steps in The Re-Alignment Project

1) Reconnaissance of the stretch of road to be re-aligned, study of the deficiencies and the
possible changes in alignment
2) Survey of existing road, recording the topographic features and all other existing
features including drainage conditions. The width of the land to be surveyed depends
on the amount of shifting anticipated when the road is re-aligned.
3) Observations of spot levels along the centre line of the road and cross section levels at
suitable intervals. The intervals should be taken at closer intervals at horizontal and
vertical curves and near cross drainage works.
4) Soil survey along the stretches of land through which the re-aligned road may pass,
preparation of typical soil profiles after testing the soil samples in the lab.
5) Finalisation of the design features of re-aligned road stretches
6) Preparation of drawings and Marking out the centre line of re-aligned road while trying
to utilise the existing road to the maximum extent possible.

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7) Earth-work and preparation of subgrade of the re-alignment road stretches, setting out
and construction of new bridges and culverts
8) Checking the geometric design elements of the newly aligned stretches of the road
9) Design and construction of the new highway pavements

Preparation of Drawing for Re-Alignment Project

The drawings for the re-alignment project should show all the existing features of the
road as well as all the proposed improvements.
The following drawings would be needed
1) Plan showing existing road, proposed re-alignment, contours and all other features of
importance.
2) Longitudinal section showing natural ground elevation, surface of the existing road and
the grade line for the re-construction
3) Cross section showing the existing highway and new roadway drawn at 250m intervals
on straights, at the beginning and end of transition curves and at the middle of circular
curves. Cross sections are drawn at 50m intervals where the new carriageway falls
entirely outside the existing one.

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HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

INTRODUCTION
The geometric design of highways deals with the dimensions and layout of visible
features of the highway such as horizontal and vertical alignments, sight distances and
intersections. The designer may be exposed to either plan a new highway network or improve
existing highway to meet the requirements of existing and the anticipated traffic.
It is possible to design and construct highway in stages but the geometric elements have
to be planned in the initial stages only it will be expensive and difficult to improve it later.
Geometric design of highways deals with following elements
a) Cross-Section Elements
b) Sight Distance Consideration,
c) Horizontal Alignment Details
d) Vertical Alignment Details
e) Intersection Elements

Design Controls and Criteria

Factors affecting the geometric designs are as follows
Design Controls and Criteria

The geometric design of highways depends on several design factors. The important
factors which control the geometric elements are:

(a) Design speed

(b) Topography or terrain

(c) Traffic factors

(d) Design hourly volume and capacity
(e) Environmental and other factors
Design speed
The design speed is the most important factor controlling the geometric design elements
of highways. The design speed is decided taking into account the overall requirements of the
highway. In India, different speed standards have been assigned depending upon the
importance or the class of the road such as National/State Highways, Major/Other District
Roads and Village Roads. Further the design speed standards are modified depending upon the
terrain or topography.

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Topography
The topography or the terrain conditions influence the geometric design of highway
significantly. The terrains are classified based on the general slope of the country across the
alignment, as plain, rolling, mountainous and steep terrains. The design standards specified for
different classes of roads, are different depending on the terrain classification. Further in hilly
terrain, it is necessary to allow for steeper gradients and sharper horizontal curves due to the
construction problems.
Traffic Factors
The factors associated with traffic that affect geometric design of road are the vehicular
characteristics and human characteristics of road users. It is difficult to decide the design
vehicle or standard traffic lane under mixed traffic flow.
Environmental and Other Factors
The environmental factors such as aesthetics, landscaping, air and noise pollution and
other local conditions should be given due considerations in the design of road geometrics.
Some of the arterial high-speed highways and expressways are designed for higher speed
standards and uninterrupted flow of vehicles by providing controlled access and grade
separated intersections.

HIGHWAY CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

Pavement Surface depends on the pavement type. The pavement surface type is decided based
on the availability of materials and funds, volume and composition of traffic, sub grade, and
climatic conditions. The important characteristics of the pavement are
1) Friction Considerations
2) Unevenness
3) Light Reflecting Characteristics
4) Drainage of Surface Water

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1) Friction
The friction of skid resistance between vehicle tyre and pavement surface is one of the
factors determining the operating speed and the minimum distance requires for stopping of
vehicles.
'Skid' occurs when the wheels slide without revolving or rotating or when the wheels partially
revolve i.e., when the path travelled along the road surface is more than the circumferential
movements of the wheels due to their rotation When the brakes arc applied, the wheels are
locked partially or fully, and if the vehicle moves forward, the longitudinal skidding takes place
which may van, from 0 to 100%.
While a vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve, if the centrifugal force is greater than the
counteracting forces (i.e. lateral friction and component of gravity due to super elevation)
lateral skidding takes place. The lateral skid is considered dangerous as the vehicle goes out of
control leading to an accident. The maximum lateral skid coefficient is generally equal to or
slightly higher than the forward skid coefficient in braking tests.
'Slip' occurs when a wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal movement along
the roads. Slipping usually occurs in the driving wheel of a vehicle when the vehicle rapidly
accelerates from stationary position or from slow speed on pavement surface which is either
slippery and wet or when the road surface is loose with mud

Factors Affecting Friction or Skid Resistance

The maximum friction offered by pavement surface or the skid resistance depend* upon
the following factors:
Type of pavement surface namely, cement concrete, bituminous, WBM. earth surface etc.
 Macro-texture of the pavement surface or its relative roughness
 Condition of pavement namely
 Type and condition of tyre
 Speed of vehicle
 Extent of brake application or brake efficiency
 Load and tyre pressure
 Temperature of tyre and pavement
For the calculation purposes, the IRC has recommended the longitudinal friction co efficient
values of 0.35 to 0.40 and lateral co efficient values of 0.15. for expressways and NH’s with
design speed of 120 and 100kmph it is 0.10 and 0.11

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2) Pavement Unevenness
The longitudinal profile of the road pavement has to he even' in order to provide a good
riding comfort to fast moving vehicles and to minimise the VOC. Presence of undulations on
the pavement surface is called pavement unevenness which results in
 Increase in Discomfort and Fatigue to Road Users
 Increase in Fuel Consumption and Tyre Wear and Increase in VOC
 Reduction in Vehicle Operating Speed and Increase in Accident Rate
The pavement surface should therefore be maintained w i t h minimum possible unevenness or
undulations so that the desired speed can be maintained m conformity w i t h other geometric
standards Loose road surface increases the resistance to traction and causes increase in fuel
consumption.
The unevenness of pavement surface is commonly measured by using a simple equipment
called 'Bump Integrator' (BI), in terms of Unevenness Index which is the cumulative
measure of vertical undulations of the pavement surface recorded per unit length of the road.
Internationally, the riding quality of a pavement surface is quantified in terms of 'roughness’
and is expressed as International Roughness Index (IRI) in units of m/km. The relation between
the unevenness measured using bump integrator in mm/km and the International Roughness
index in m/km is as follows
BI = 630 (IRI)1.12
Undulations of newly laid pavement surface are sometimes measured using a straight edge and
wedge scale, in terms of the depth and number of depressions or ruts along and across the
pavement. It may be mentioned here that there are several advanced techniques and equipment
available now to evaluate the pavement surface condition.

3) Light Reflecting Characteristics

Night visibility depends upon the colour and light reflecting characteristics of the
pavement surface. The glare caused by the reflection of head lights is considerably high on wet
pavement surface than on the dry pavement.
 Light coloured or white pavement surface give good visibility at night particularly
during rains: however white or light colour of pavement surface may produces glare
and eye strain during bright sunlight.
 Black top pavement surface on the other hand provides very poor visibility at nights,
especially when the surface is wet.

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Cross Slope or Camber

Cross slope or camber is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain off the rain water from the road surface. Drainage and quick disposal of water
from the pavement surface by providing cross slope is considered important because of the
following reasons:
1) To prevent the entry of surface water into the pavement layers and the subgrade soil
through pavement.
2) To prevent the entry of water into the bituminous pavement layers, as continued contact
with water causes stripping of bitumen from the aggregates and results in deterioration
of the pavement layer
3) To remove the rain water from the pavement surface as quickly as possible and to allow
the pavement to get dry soon after the rain.
The rate of camber or cross slope is usually designated by 1 in ‘n’ which means the transverse
slope is in ratio 1 vertical to n horizontal.
The required camber of a pavement depends on
a) Type of pavement surface
b) The amount of rainfall
It is desirable not to provide excessive camber or steep cross slope on road pavements. Only
the minimum camber needed to drain off surface water may be adopted keeping in view the
type of pavement surface and the amount of rainfall in the locality. Too steep cross slope is not
desirable because of the following reasons:
 Transverse tilt of vehicles causes uncomfortable side thrust and a drag on the steering
wheel of automobiles. Also, the thrust on the wheels along the pavement edges is more
causing unequal wear of the tyres as well as road surface
 Discomfort causing throw of vehicle when crossing the crown during overtaking
operations.
 Problems of possible toppling over of highly laden bullock carts and trucks
 Formation of cross ruts due to rapid flow of water
 Tendency of most of the vehicles to travel along the centre line

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Recommended values of camber

The values of camber recommended by the IRC for different types of road surfaces are
given in the below table.
Recommended values of camber for different types of road surfaces
Range of camber in areas of
Sl. No. Type of road surface
Heavy rainfall Low rainfall
Cement concrete and high type
1. 1 in 50 or 2.0 % 1 in 60 or 1.7%
bituminous surface
2. Thin bituminous surface 1 in 40 or 2.5 % 1 in 50 or 2.0 %
Water bound Macadam and gravel
3. 1 in 33 or 3.0 % 1 in 40 or 2.5%
pavement
4. Earth road 1 in 25 or 4.0 % 1 in 33 or 3.0 %

The cross slope for shoulders should be 0.5% steeper than the cross slope of adjoining
pavement, subject to a minimum of 3.0% and a maximum value of 5.0% for earth shoulders.
The cross slope suggested for the carriageway, paved shoulders and edge strip of expressways
with bituminous surface as well as cement concrete surface is 2.5 % in regions with annual
rain fall exceeding 1000 mm and 2.0 % in places with less than 1000 mm rain fall.

SHAPE OF CROSS SLOPE

In the field, camber of the pavement cross section is provided with a suitable shape.
Different shapes that are commonly adopted are
1) Parabolic
2) Straight Line
3) Straights with parabolic curve

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Providing Camber in the field

In order to provide the desired amount and shape of camber, templates or camber boards are
prepared with the chosen shape and specified cross slope and they can be used to check the
lateral profile of finished pavements.
a) Parabolic Camber
y = x2/a
where a = nW/2
b) Straight Line Camber
y = W/2n
W – width, n – cross slope in 1 in n

WIDTH OF PAVEMENT OR CARRIAGEWAY

The width of pavement or carriageway depends on
1) Width of Traffic Lane
2) Number of Lanes.
The portion of carriageway width that is intended for one line of traffic movement is
called a traffic lane. As different classes of vehicles travel along the same roadway generally
the lane width is decided based on a standard vehicle such as the passenger car. However, it is
also necessary to consider the maximum width of the largest vehicle class such as the heavy
commercial vehicle (HCV) which is legally permitted to use the roadway in the country.
Width of carriageway recommended by IRC
Class of Road Width of Carriageway, m

Single Lane Road 3.75

Two Lane Road, without raised kerbs 7.0

Two Lane Road, with raised kerbs 7.5

Intermediate Carriageway 5.5

Multi Lane Pavements 3.5 per lane

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Single Lane Pavement

Two Lane Pavement

MEDIANS/TRAFFIC SEPARATORS
In highways with divided carriageway, a median is provided between two sets of
traffic lanes intended to divide the traffic moving in opposite directions. The main function
of the median is to prevent head-on collision between vehicles moving in opposite
directions on adjacent lanes. The median is also called or traffic separator. The traffic
separators used may be in the form of pavement markings, physical dividers or area
separators. Pavement marking is the simplest of all these, but this will not rule out head-
on collision. The mechanical separator may be suitably designed keeping in view safety
considerations.

KERBS
Kerb indicates the boundary between the pavement and median or foot path or island
or shoulder. It is desirable to provide kerbs on urban roads. Refer Fig. There are a variety of
kerb designs. Kerbs may be mainly divided based on their functions.
a) Low or Mountable Kerbs
These types of kerbs are provided such that they encourage the traffic to remain in the through
traffic lanes and also allow the driver to enter the shoulder area with little difficulty.

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b) Semi-Barrier Type Kerbs

When the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are provided. Their height is 15 cm above the
pavement edge.
c) Barrier Type Kerbs
They are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the pavement. They are provided when
there is considerable amount of pedestrian traffic. They are placed at a height of 20 cm above
The Pavement Edge with A Steep Batter.
d) Submerged Kerbs
They are used in rural roads. The kerbs are provided at pavement edges between pavement
edge and shoulder

ROAD MARGINS
The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can be generally called
road margin. Various elements that form the road margins are given below.
Shoulders
Shoulders are provided on both sides of the pavement all along the road in the case of
undivided highway and are provided on the outer edge of the highway in divided carriage way

The important functions of shoulders are:

(a) Shoulders provide structural stability and support to the edges of the flexible
pavements.
(b) The capacity of the carriageway and the operating speeds of vehicles increase if the
shoulders are laid and maintained in good condition.
(c) Shoulders serve as emergency lanes for vehicle compelled to be taken out of the main
carriageway or roadway. Shoulders should have sufficient load bearing capacity to
support loaded truck even in wet weather
(d) Shoulders also act as service lanes for vehicles that are disabled. The width of shoulder
should be adequate to accommodate stationary vehicle fairly away from the edge of
adjacent lane.

Guard rails
Guard rails are provided at the edge of the shoulder when the road is constructed on a
fill so that vehicles are prevented from running off the embankment, especially when the
height of the fill exceeds 3 m. Guard stones (painted with black and white strips) are installed

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at suitable intervals along the outer edge of the formation at horizontal curves of roads running
on embankments along rural areas so as to provide better night visibility of the curves under
head lights of vehicles
Footpath or side-walk
In order to provide safe facility to pedestrians to walk along the roadway, foot paths or
side-walks are provided in urban areas where the pedestrian traffic is noteworthy and the
vehicular traffic is also heavy. By providing good foot path facility, the pedestrians can keep
off from the carriageway and they are segregated from the moving vehicular traffic. Thus, the
operating speeds of the vehicular traffic increases and there will be marked reduction in
accidents involving pedestrians.

Drive ways
Drive ways connect the highway with commercial establishment like fuel-stations,
service-stations etc. Drive ways should be properly designed and located, fairly away from an
intersection. The radius of the drive way curve should be kept as large as possible, but the
width of the drive way should be minimised to reduce the crossing distance for the
pedestrians.
Cycle tracks
Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas where the volume of cycle traffic on the road
is very high. A minimum width of 2 m is provided for the cycle track and the width may be
increased by 1.0 m for each additional cycle lane.
Parking lanes
Parking lanes are provided on urban roads to allow kerb parking. As far as possible
only 'parallel parking' should be allowed as it is safer for moving vehicles. For parallel parking,
the minimum lane width should be 3.0 m.
Bus bays
Bus bays may be provided by recessing the kerb to avoid conflict with moving traffic.
Bus bays should be located at least 75 m away from the intersections.
Lay-byes
Lay-byes are provided near public conveniences with guide maps to enable drivers to
stop clear off the carriageway. Lay-byes should normally be of 3.0 width and at least 30 m
length with 15 m end tapers on both sides.

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Frontage roads
Frontage roads are provided to give access to properties along an important highway
with controlled access to express way or freeway. The frontage roads may run parallel to the
highway and are isolated by a separator, with approaches to the through facility only at selected
points, preferably with grade separation.

WIDTH OF FORMATION OR ROADWAY

Width of formation or roadway is the sum of widths of pavement or carriageway
including separators, if any and the shoulders. Formation or roadway width is the top width of
the highway embankment or the bottom width of highway cutting excluding the side drains.

RIGHT OF WAY AND LAND WIDTH

Right of way is the area of land acquired for the road, along its alignment. The width
of the acquired land for right of way is known as 'land width' and it depends on the importance
of the road and possible future development. A minimum land width has been prescribed for
each category of road. A desirable range of land width has also been suggested for each
category of road. While acquiring land for a highway it is desirable to acquire more width of
land as the cost of adjoining land invariably increases as soon as the new highway is
constructed.

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SIGHT DISTANCE
Sight Distance and Importance
Sight distance is the length of road visible ahead of the driver at any instance. Sight
distance available at any location of the carriageway is the actual distance a driver with his eye
level at a specified height above the pavement surface has visibility of any stationary or moving
object of specified height which is on the carriageway ahead. The sight distance between the
driver and the object is measured along the road surface.
Restrictions to Sight Distance
Restrictions to visibility or sight distance may be caused in the following circumstances
 At horizontal curves, when the line of sight is obstructed by objects at the inner side of
the curve. Here the sight distance is measured along the centre line of the horizontal
curve when the vehicle driver is able to see another vehicle or object on the carriageway
 At a vertical curve, the line of sight is obstructed by the road surface of the summit
curve (i.e., a vertical curve of the road with convexity upwards)
 In this case also the sight distance is measured along the centre line of the vertical curve
when the vehicle driver is able to see another vehicle or object on the road
 At an uncontrolled intersection when a driver from one of the approach roads is able to
sight a vehicle from another approach road proceeding towards the intersection, Here
the sight distance for each vehicle driver is the distance from the position when the two
can see each other up to the intersection point of the two roads.

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TYPES OF SIGHT DISTANCE

Sight distance required by drivers applies to geometric designs of highways and for traffic
control. Three types of sight distances are considered in the design
a) Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) or absolute minimum sight distance
b) Safe Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) or Passing Sight Distance
c) Safe Sight Distance for entering into uncontrolled intersections.
Apart from the three situations mentioned above, the following sight distances are considered
by the IRC in highway design
d) Intermediate Sight Distance
e) Head Light Sight Distance

STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE (SSD)

Factors on which visibility or sight distance depends
The minimum distance visible to a driver ahead or the sight distance available on a
highway at any spot should be of sufficient length to safely stop a vehicle travelling at design
speed, without collision with any other obstruction. Therefore, this Stopping Sight Distance
(SSD) is also called Absolute Minimum Sight Distance. This is also sometimes called Non-
Passing Sight Distance.
The sight distance available to a driver travelling on a road at any instance depends on
the following factors:
a) Features of the road ahead
b) Height of the driver's eye above the road surface
c) Height of the object above the road surface
IRC has suggested the height of eye lev el of driver as 1.2 m and the height of the object as
0.15 m above the road surface.

Factors on which stopping distance depends

The distance within which a motor vehicle can be stopped depends upon the factors listed
below
a) Total reaction time of the driver
b) Speed of vehicle
c) Efficiency of Brakes
d) Frictional Resistance between the road and the tyre

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e) Gradient of the road, if any

TOTAL REACTION TIME OF DRIVER
Reaction time of the driver is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to the
driver to the instant the brakes are effectively applied. The actual time gap or the reaction time
of the driver depends on several factors. During this period of time the vehicle travels a certain
distance at the original speed, which may be assumed to be the design speed of the road. Thus,
the stopping distance increases with increase reaction time of the driver.
The total reaction time (t) may be split up into two parts
Perception Time
It is the time required for a driver to realise that brakes must be applied. It is the time
from the instant the object comes on the line of sight of the driver to the instant he realises that
the vehicle needs to be stopped. The perception time varies from driver to driver and also
depends on several other factors such as the distance of object and other environmental
conditions.
Brake Reaction Time
It is also depending on several factors including the skill of the driver, the type of the
problems and various other environmental factors.
The total reaction time may be explained with the help of PIEV theory.
PIEV THEORY
According to PIEV theory, the total reaction time of the driver is split into four parts, viz., time
taken by the driver for
1) Perception
2) Intellection
3) Emotion
4) Volition

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The PIEV time of a driver also depends on several factors such as physical and psychological
characteristics of the driver, type of the problem involved, environmental conditions and
temporary factors.
Speed of vehicle
The stopping distance depends very much on the speed of the vehicle. First, during the
total reaction time of the driver the distance moved by the vehicle will depend on the speed.
Second, the braking distance or the distance moved by the vehicle after applying the brakes,
before coming to a stop depends also on the initial speed of the vehicle.
Efficiency of brakes
The braking efficiency is said to be 100 percent if the wheels are fully locked preventing
them from rotating on application of the brakes. This will result in 100 percent skidding which
is normally undesirable, except in utmost emergency. Also skidding is considered to be
dangerous, as it is not possible for the driver to easily control a vehicle after it starts skidding.
Frictional resistance between road and tyres
The factional resistance developed between road and tyres depends upon the 'skid
resistance' or the coefficient of friction, f between the road surface and the tyres of the vehicle.
Analysis of Stopping Distance
The stopping distance of a vehicle is the sum of
a) The distance travelled by the vehicle at uniform speed during the total reaction time, t
which is known as LAG DISTANCE.
b) The distance travelled by the vehicle after the applications of the brakes, until the
vehicles comes to a dead stop which is known as BRAKING DISTANCE.

LAG DISTANCE
During the total reaction time, t seconds the vehicle may be assumed to move forward
with a uniform speed at which the vehicle has been moving and this speed may be taken as the
design speed. If ‘v’ is the design speed in m/sec and ‘t’ is the total reaction time of the driver
in seconds, then
Lag Distance = v t
1000
If the design speed is V kmph, then the lag distance = V t x
60X60
= 0.278 V t ≈ 0.28 V t in meters

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IRC has recommended the value of reaction time t as 2.5 sec for calculation of Stopping
Distance
BRAKING DISTANCE ON LEVEL SURFACE
The coefficient of friction f depends on several factors such as the type and condition
of the pavement and the value of f decreases with the increase in speed. IRC has recommended
a set of friction co efficient values for the determination of stopping sight distance.
Speed, kmph 20 – 30 40 50 60 65 80 100 and above
Longitudinal friction
0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.36 0.35 0.35
coefficient value, f for SSD
𝟐
The braking distance, l = 𝒗
𝟐𝒈𝒇

Where l - braking distance, m

v - speed of the vehicle, m/sec
f - design coefficient of friction, f (0.40 to 0.35)
g – acceleration due to gravity – 9.8 m/sec2

STOPPING DISTANCE ON LEVEL ROAD

Stopping Distance, SD = Lag Distance + Braking Distance
𝟐
SD = v t + 𝒗
in meters
𝟐𝒈𝒇

If speed is V kmph, stopping distance

𝟐
SD = 0.278 V t + 𝑽
in meters
𝟐𝟓𝟒𝒇

STOPPING DISTANCE AT SLOPES

𝟐
SD = [v t + 𝒗
] in meters
𝟐𝒈(𝒇 ±𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝒏)

If speed is V kmph, stopping distance

𝟐
SD = 0.278 V t + 𝑽
in meters
𝟐𝟓𝟒(𝒇±𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝒏)

IRC has recommended the SSD values for different speed as follows
Design Speed, kmph 20 25 30 40 50 60 65 80 100
SSD for design, m 20 25 30 45 60 80 90 120 180

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PROBLEMS

OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE (OSD)

Over Taking Requirement
If all the vehicles travel along a road at the design speed, then theoretically there should
be no need for any overtaking. In fact, all vehicles do not move at the design speed as each
driver is free to travel at lower speeds and this is particularly true under Mixed Traffic
conditions. It is necessary for fast moving vehicle to overtake or pass the slow-moving traffic.
The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle intending to overtake
slow vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of opposite direction is known as Minimum
Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) or Safe Passing Sight Distance
The OSD is the distance measured along the centre line of the road which a driver with
his eye level at 1.2m above the road surface can see the top of an object 1.2m above the road
surface

Measurement of OSD
Factor Affecting OSD
 Speeds of
1) Overtaking Vehicle
2) Overtaken Vehicle
3) Vehicle coming from opposite direction
 Distance between the overtaking and overtaken vehicles, the minimum spacing
between vehicles depends on the speeds
 Skill and reaction time of the driver
 Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle

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 Gradient of the road

ANALYSIS OF OSD ON A 2 – WAY ROAD

Simple overtaking process on a 2 – lane highway with 2 – way traffic movement
Vehicle A travelling at the design speed v m/sec or V kmph desires to overtake another
slow-moving vehicle B moving at a speed of vb m/sec or Vb kmph. The vehicle A has to
accelerate, shift to the adjacent right-side lane, complete the overtaking manoeuvre and return
to the left lane, before oncoming vehicle C approaches the overtaking stretch.

The overtaking manoeuvre may be split up into 3 operations, thus dividing OSD into 3 parts
d1, d2 and d3.
 d1 is the distance (m) travelled by the overtaking vehicle A during the reaction time, t
(secs) of the driver from position A1 to A2 before starting to overtake the slow vehicle
B
 d2 is the distance travelled (m) travelled by the vehicle A during the actual overtaking
operation during T (secs) from position A2 to A3
 d3 is the distance (m) travelled by oncoming vehicle C during the actual overtaking
operation of A during T (secs) from position C1 to C2.
Thus, on a 2-lane road with 2-way traffic the OSD = d1 + d2 + d3 in meters

Assumptions made in the analysis

Assumptions made to calculate the values of d1,d2 and d3 (m) are given below:
 The overtaking vehicle A is forced to reduce its speed from the design speed v (m/sec)
to Vb (m/sec) of the slow vehicle B and move behind it, allowing a space s (m), till
there is an opportunity for safe overtaking operation
 When the driver of vehicle A finds sufficient clear gap ahead, decides within a reaction
time t (sec) to accelerate and overtake the vehicle B, during which the vehicle A moves
at speed vb (m/sec) through a distance d1 from position A1 to A2.

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 The vehicle A accelerates and overtakes the slow vehicle B within a distance d2 during
the overtaking time, T (sec) between the position A2 to A3
 The distance d2 is split up into three parts
a) Spacing, s (m) between A2 and B
b) Distance b (m) travelled by the slow vehicle B between B1 and B2 during the overtaking
manoeuvre of A
c) Spacing (m) between B2 and A3
 During this overtaking time T (sec), the vehicle C coming from opposite direction
travels through a distance d3 from position C1 to C2

Determination of the components of OSD

a) From position A1 to A2, the distance, d1 (m) travelled by overtaking vehicle A, at the
reduced speed vb (m/sec) during the reaction time, t (sec) = vb t (m). The IRC suggests
that this reaction time Y of the driver may be taken as 2.0 sec as an average value, as
the aim of the driver is only to find an opportunity to overtake. Therefore
d1 = 2vb
b) From position A2, the vehicle A starts accelerating, shifts to the adjoining lane,
overtakes the vehicle B, and shifts back to its original lane ahead of B in position A3
during the overtaking time, T (sec). The straight distance between position A2 and A3
is taken as d2 (m), which is further split into three parts, viz.,
d2 = (s + b + s)
c) The minimum distance between position A2 and B1 may be taken as the minimum
spacing s (m) between the two vehicles while moving with the speed v b (m/sec). The
minimum spacing between vehicles depends on their speed and is given by empirical
formula
s = (0.7 vb + 6)
d) Now the time T depends on speed of overtaken vehicle B and the average acceleration
a (m/sec2) of overtaking vehicle A. The overtaking time T (sec) may be calculated by
equating the distance d2 to (vb T + ½ a T2) using the general formula for the distance
travelled by a uniformly accelerating body with initial speed vb m/sec and a is the
average acceleration during overtaking in m/sec2
d2 = (vb T + 2s)
e) The distance travelled by vehicle C moving at design speed v (m/sec) during the

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overtaking operation of vehicle A i.e. during time T (sec) is the distance d2 (m) between
positions C1 to C2. Hence,
d3 = v T (m)

In m/sec units
OSD = (d1 + d2 + d3) = (vb t + vb T + 2s + vT)
Here
vb = initial speed of overtaking vehicle, m/s
t = reaction time of driver = 2 sec
V = speed of overtaking vehicle or design speed, kmph
4 s
T=√
a

s = spacing of vehicles = (0.7 vb + 6)

a= average acceleration during overtaking, m/sec.

In kmph units
OSD = 0.28 Vb t + 0.28 Vb T + 2s + 0.28 V T
Here
Vb = initial speed of overtaking vehicle, kmph
t = reaction time of driver = 2 sec
V = speed of overtaking vehicle or design speed, kmph

4 X 3.6 s 14.4 s
T=√ =√
A A

s = spacing of vehicles = (0.2 Vb + 6)

A = average acceleration during overtaking, kmph
In case the speed of overtaken vehicle (vb or Vb) is not given, the same may be assumed
as 4.5 m/sec or 16 kmph less than the design speed of the highway. Therefore,
vb = (v - 4.5) m/sec
Vb = (V - 16) kmph
where v is the design speed in m/sec
V is the design speed in kmph.
The acceleration of the overtaking vehicle varies depending on several factors such as the make
and model of the vehicle, its condition, load and the speed; actual acceleration also depends on

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the characteristics of the driver. The average rate of acceleration during overtaking manoeuvre
may be taken corresponding to the design speed.

Maximum overtaking acceleration at different speeds

Maximum overtaking
Speed
acceleration
V, kmph v, m/sec A, kmph/sec a, m/sec
25 6.93 5.00 1.41
30 8.34 4.80 1.30
40 11.10 4.45 1.24
50 13.86 4.00 1.11
65 18.00 3.28 0.92
80 22.20 2.56 0.72
100 27.80 1.92 0.53

Overtaking sight distance on two-lane highways for different speeds

Time component, seconds
Speed Safe overtaking sight
For overtaking For opposing
kmph Total distance (OSD), m
manoeuvre vehicle
40 9.0 6.0 15 165
50 10.0 7.0 17 235
60 10.8 7.2 18 300
65 11.5 7.5 19 340
80 12.5 8.5 21 470
100 14.0 9.0 23 640

CRITERIA FOR SIGHT DISTANCE REQUIREMENT ON HIGHWAY

Absolute Minimum Sight Distance

SSD for the design speed is the absolute mining sight distance and this should be made
available all along the road stretch irrespective of the category of road. If on any road stretch

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SSD is not available due to any reason such as obstruction to vision, immediate steps should
be taken to either remove the obstruction to the sight line or install suitable regulatory signs to
specify the speed limit along with appropriate warning signs.

Overtaking Sight Distance

It is desirable that adequate overtaking sight distance is available on most of the road
stretches such that the vehicles travelling at the design speed can overtake slow vehicles at the
earliest opportunity.
 On road stretches with two-way traffic movement, the minimum overtaking distance
should be (d1 + d2 + d3) where overtaking is not prohibited.
 On divided highways and on roads with one way traffic regulation, the overtaking
distance need be only (d1 + d2) as no vehicle is expected from the opposite direction.
 On divided highways with four or more lanes, it is not essential to provide the usual
OSD; however, the sight distance on any highway should be more than the SSD, which
is the absolute minimum sight distance.

Overtaking Zones
It is desirable to construct highways in such a way that the length of road visible ahead
at every point is sufficient for safe overtaking. This is seldom practicable and there may be
stretches where the safe overtaking distance cannot be provided. In such zones where
overtaking or passing is not safe or is not possible, sign posts should be installed indicating No
Passing or Overtaking Prohibited before such restricted zones start. However overtaking
opportunity for vehicles moving at design speed should be given at as frequent intervals as
possible. These zones which are meant for overtaking are called Overtaking Zones.
The width of carriageway and the length of overtaking zone should sufficient for safe
overtaking. Sign posts should be installed at sufficient distance m advance to indicate the start
of the overtaking zones, this distance may be equal to
 (d1 + d2) for one-way roads
 (d1 + d2 + d3) for two-way roads

The minimum length of overtaking zone = 3 (OSD)

The desirable length of overtaking zones = 5 (OSD)

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INTERMEDIATE SIGHT DISTANCE

At stretches of the road where requires OSD cannot be provided, as far as possible
intermediate Sight Distance ISD equal to twice SSD may be provided. The measurement of the
ISD may be made assuming both the height of the eye level of the driver and the object to be
metres above the road surface. Therefore
ISD = 2 SSD

Sight Distance at Uncontrolled Intersections

It is important that on all approaches of intersecting roads, there is a clear view across
the corners from a sufficient distance so as to avoid collision of vehicles. This is all the more
important at uncontrolled intersections. The sight line is obstructed by structures or other
objects at the corners of the intersections. The area of unobstructed sight formed by the lines
of vision is called the sight triangle.
The design of sight distance at intersections may be based on three possible conditions,
a) Enabling the approaching vehicle to change speed
b) Enabling approaching vehicle to stop
c) Enabling stopped vehicle to cross a main road
d) Enabling the approaching vehicle to change speed

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DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

General
Often changes in the direction are necessitated in highway alignment due to various reasons
such as topographic considerations, obligatory points. The geometric design elements
pertaining to horizontal alignment of highway should consider safe and comfortable movement
of vehicles at the designated design speed of the highway. It is therefore necessary to avoid
sudden changes in direction with sharp curves or reverse curves which could not be safely and
conveniently negotiated by the vehicles at design speed. Improper design of horizontal
alignment of roads would necessitate speed changes resulting m higher accident rate and
increase in vehicle operation cost.
Various design elements to be considered in the horizontal alignment are design speed
radius of circular curve, type and length of transition curves, super elevation, widening of
pavement on curves and required set-back distance for fulfilling sight
distance requirements.
Design Speed
The design speed is the main factor on which geometric design elements depends. In other
words, the geometric details of a highway mainly depend on the design speed. All the important
geometric elements such as sight distances, radius of horizontal curve, length of horizontal
transition curve, rate of super elevation, extra widening of pavement at horizontal curve, length
of summit and valley curves are dependent on the design speed.
The design speed of roads depends upon
1) Class of the Road
2) Terrain
The speed standards of a particular class of road thus depends on the classification of
terrain through which it passes. The terrains have been classified as plain, mountainous and
steep, depending on the cross slope of the country as given in table below
Terrain Cross slope of the
classification country, percent
Plain 0-10
Rolling 10-25
Mountainous 25-60
Steep greater than 60

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Two values of design speeds are considered at the design stage of highway geometries namely,
1) Ruling design speed
2) Minimum design speed
As a general rule, attempt should be made to design all the geometric element of the highway
for the 'ruling design speed'. This is because ruling design speeds are guiding criteria for the
geometric design. However, 'minimum design speed’ may be accepted where site conditions
or economic considerations warrant.
The ruling design speeds suggested for the National and State Highways in India passing
through plain terrain is 100 kmph and through rolling terrain is 80kmph and minimum design
speed values standardized by the IRC for of roads on different terrains in rural (non-urban)
areas are given in Table below
Design Speed in kmph
Road
Plain Rolling Mountainous Steep
Classification
Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min.
Expressway 120 100 100 80 80 60 80 60
NH and SH 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30
MDR 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20
ODR 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20
VR 50 40 40 35 25 20 25 20

The recommended design speeds for different classes of urban roads

1) Arterial Roads: 80 Kmph
2) Sub-Arterial Roads: 60 Kmph
3) Collector Streets: 50 Kmph
4) Local Streets: 30 Kmph

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Horizontal Curves
A horizontal highway curve is a curve in plan to provide change in direction to the
centre line of a road. A simple circular curve may be designated by either the radius, R of the
curve in meters or the degree, D of the curve. The degree of the curve (D°) is the central angle
subtended by an arc of length 30 m and is given by the relation, RD𝜋/180 = 30. Therefore, the
relation between the radius and degree of the circular curve is given by, R = 1720 / D
When a vehicle traverses a horizontal curve, the centrifugal force acts horizontally
outwards through the centre of gravity of the vehicle. The centrifugal force developed depends
on the radius of the horizontal curve and the speed of the vehicle negotiating the curve. This
centrifugal force is counteracted by the transverse frictional resistance developed between the
tyres and the pavement which enables the vehicle to change the direction along the curve and
to maintain the stability of the vehicle. Centrifugal force P is given by the equation:
𝑾𝒗𝟐
𝑷=
𝒈𝑹
Where
P = centrifugal force, kg
W = weight of the vehicle, kg
R = radius of the circular curve, m
v = speed of vehicle, m/sec
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec
The ratio of the centrifugal force to the weight of the vehicle, P/W is known as the
'centrifugal ratio' or the 'impact factor'. Therefore, centrifugal ratio

𝑷 𝒗𝟐
=
𝑾 𝒈𝑹
The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve has the following two
effects:
1) Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outer wheels

2) Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outwards

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Overturning Effect
The overturning moment due to centrifugal force, P = P x h
This is resisted by the restoring moment due to weight of the vehicle W and is equal to (Wb/2)
𝑾𝒃 𝒃
The equilibrium condition for overturning will occur when 𝑷 𝒉 = or 𝑷
=
𝟐 𝑾 𝟐𝒉
overturning will occur
𝒃 𝒗𝟐
And for safety >
𝟐𝒉 𝒈𝑹

Transverse Skidding Effect

The centrifugal force developed has the tendency to push the vehicle outwards in the
transverse direction.
The equilibrium condition for the transverse skid resistance developed is given by
F = FA + FB
= f (RA + RB)
=fW
Where f = coefficient of friction between the tyre and the pavement surface in the transverse
direction
RA, RB = Normal Reactions at the wheels A and B
W = weight of the vehicle
𝑷 𝒗𝟐
When the centrifugal ratio = 𝒇= skidding takes place
𝑾 𝒈𝑹
𝒗𝟐
For safety 𝒇 >
𝒈𝑹

Thus, to avoid both overturning and lateral skidding on a horizontal curve, the
𝑷 𝒃
<
𝑾 𝟐𝒉

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SUPERELEVATION
In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the tendency of the
vehicle to overturn or skid, the outer edge of the pavement is raised with respect to the inner
edge, thus providing a transverse slope throughout the length of the horizontal curve. This
transverse inclination to the pavement surface is known as SUPER ELEVATION or CANT
or BANKING.
The rate of super elevation, 'e' is expressed as the ratio of the height of outer edge with
respect to the horizontal width.
𝑵𝑳 𝑬
e = tan θ = sin θ = =
𝑴𝑳 𝑩
E – Relative elevation of the outer edge
B – Width of the pavement
The general equation for design of super elevation is given by

𝒗𝟐
𝑒+𝑓 =
𝒈𝑹
e = rate of super elevation = tan θ
f = design value of lateral friction coefficient = 0.15
v = speed of the vehicle, m/sec
R = radius of the horizontal curve, m
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec2
If the speed of the vehicle is given in kmph then the equation is

(𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖𝑽)𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑒+𝑓 = =
𝟗. 𝟖𝟏𝑹 𝟏𝟐𝟕𝑹
The maximum value of super elevation is limited to 7% or 0.07 and the minimum value of
lateral friction of coefficient f for highway is 0.15
In some situations, particularly at, some intersections it is not possible to provide super
elevation and in such cases the friction counteracts the centrifugal force fully. The allowable
speed of vehicle negotiating a turn should be restricted to the condition

𝑽 = √𝟏𝟐𝟕𝒇 𝑹
The super elevation depends upon
1) Radius of the curve R,
2) Speed of the vehicle V
3) The coefficient of lateral friction f

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Steps for Super Elevation Design

The steps for the design of super elevation in India from practical considerations (as per the
IRC Guidelines) are given below:
1) The super elevation is calculated for 75% of design speed (0.75 v m/sec or 0.75 V
kmph), neglecting the friction
(𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝒗)𝟐 (𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝑽)𝟐
𝑒= 𝑜𝑟
𝒈𝑹 𝟏𝟐𝟕𝑹
𝑽𝟐
𝑒≈
𝟐𝟐𝟓𝑹

2) If the calculated value of 'e' is less than 7% or 0.07 the value so obtained provided. If
the value of 'e' as per the above equation exceeds 0.07 then provide the maximum super
elevation equal to 0.07 and proceed with steps 3 or 4
3) Check the coefficient of friction developed for the maximum value e = 0.07 at the full
value of design speed, v m/sec or V kmph
𝟐 𝟐
𝑓 = ( 𝒗 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕) 𝑜𝑟 ( 𝑽 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕)
𝒈𝑹 𝟏𝟐𝟕𝑹

If the value of f thus calculated is less than 0.15, the super elevation of 0.07 is safe for
the design speed and this is accepted as the design super elevation. If not, either the
radius of the horizontal curve has to be increased or the speed has to be restricted to the
safe value which will be less than the design speed. The restricted speed or the allowable
speed is calculated as given in step 4

4) The allowable speed or restricted speed (va m/sec or Va kmph) at the cm1' is calculated
by considering the. design coefficient of lateral friction and the maximum super
elevation. The safe allowable speed

𝒗𝒂 = √𝟎. 𝟐𝟐 𝒈 𝑹 = √𝟐. 𝟏𝟓𝟔𝑹 m/sec

or

𝑽𝒂 = √𝟐𝟕. 𝟗𝟒 𝑹 kmph

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If the allowable speed, as calculated above is higher than the design speed design, then the
design is adequate and provide a super elevation of 'e' equal to 0.07. If the allowable speed is
less than the design speed, the speed is limited to the allowable Va kmph calculated above.
If the allowable speed Va is less than the design speed V, appropriate warning signs and speed
limit signs are to be installed.
Attainment of Super elevation in the field
Introduction of super elevation on a horizontal curve in the field is an important feature
in construction. The road cross section at the straight portion is cambered with the crown at the
center of the pavement and sloping down towards both the edges. But the cross section on the
portion of circular curve of the road is super elevated with a uniform tilt sloping down from
the outer edge of the pavement up to inner edge.
Thus, the crowned camber sections at the straight before the start of the transition curve
should be changed to a single cross slope equal to the desired superelevation at the beginning
of the circular curve. This change may be conveniently attained at a gradual and uniform rate
through the length of horizontal transition curve. The full superelevation is attained by the end
of transition curve or at the beginning of the circular curve.
The attainment of superelevation may be split up into two parts:
(a) Elimination of crown of the cambered section
(b) Rotation of pavement to attain full superelevation

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RADIUS OF HORIZONTAL CURVE

Horizontal curves of highways are generally designed for the specified ruling design
speed of the highway. However, if this is not possible due to site restrictions, the horizontal
curves may be designed considering the specified minimum design speed of the highway.
For a particular speed of vehicle, the centrifugal force is dependent on the radius of the
horizontal curve. To keep the centrifugal ratio P/W or v2 /g R within a low limit, the radius of
the horizontal curve should be kept correspondingly high. The centrifugal force, P developed
due to a vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve of radius, R at a speed, v m/sec or V kmph is
counteracted by the superelevation, e and lateral friction coefficient, f.

𝑅𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
𝒗𝟐
(𝒆 + 𝒇 )𝒈
Also

𝑽𝟐
𝑅𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
𝟏𝟐𝟕 (𝒆 + 𝒇)
The minimum design speed is V’ Kmph, the absolute minimum radius of horizontal curve
𝟐
𝑽′
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝟏𝟐𝟕 (𝒆 + 𝒇)
v and V – ruling speeds in m/sec and Kmph
V’ – minimum design speed in kmph
e - rate of superelevation, (0.07)
f – co efficient of friction 0.15
g - acceleration due to gravity 9.8 m/sec2

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WIDENING OF PAVEMENT ON HORIZONTAL CURVES

Objectives
1) An automobile such as car, bus or truck has a rigid wheel base and only the front wheels
can be turned. When the vehicle takes a turn to negotiate a horizontal curve, the rear
wheels do not follow the same path as that of the front wheels. This phenomenon is
called 'off tracking'. Normally at low speeds and up to the design speed when no lateral
slipping of rear wheels take place, the rear wheels follow the inner path on the curve as
compared with those of the corresponding front wheels. This means that if inner front
wheel takes a path on the inner edge of a pavement at a horizontal curve, inner rear
wheel will be off the pavement on the inner shoulder.
The off-tracking depends on
a) The length of the wheel base of the vehicle
b) The turning angle or the radius of the horizontal curve negotiated.

2) At speeds, higher than the design speeds when the superelevation and lateral friction
developed are not fully able to counteract the outwards thrust due to the centrifugal
force, some transverse skidding may occur and the rear wheels may take paths on the
outside of those traced by the front wheels on the horizontal curves. However, this
occurs only at excessively high speeds
3) The path traced by the wheels of a trailer in the case of trailer units, is also likely to be
on either side of the central path of the towing vehicle, depending on the speed, rigidity
of the universal joints and pavement roughness
4) In order to take curved path with larger radius and to have greater visibility at curve,
the drivers have tendency not to follow the central path of the lane, but to use the outer
side at the beginning of a curve.

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5) While two vehicles cross or overtake at horizontal curve there is a psychological

tendency to maintain a greater clearance between the vehicles, than on straights for
increase safety
Thus, the required extra widening of the pavement at the horizontal curves, We depends on
a) The Length of wheel based of the vehicle l,
b) Radius of the curve negotiated R
c) The psychological factor which is a function of the speed of the vehicle and the radius
of the curve.
It has been a practice therefore to provide extra width of pavement on horizontal curves when
the radius is less than about 300 m.
Analysis of Extra Widening on Horizontal Curves
The extra widening of pavement on horizontal curves is divided into two parts.

Mechanical Widening
The widening required to account for the off-tracking due to rigidity of wheel base is
called as ‘Mechanical Widening’ (Wm) and is given by
𝒏𝒍𝟐
𝑊𝑚 =
𝟐𝑹
Psychological Widening
Widening of pavements has to be done for some psychological reasons also. There is
a tendency for the drivers to drive close to the edges of the pavement on curves. Some extra
space is to be provided for more clearance for the crossing and overtaking operations on
curves. IRC proposed an empirical relation for the psychological widening at horizontal curves.
𝑽
𝑊𝑝𝑠 =
𝟗. 𝟓√𝑹
Hence Total Widening We is given by We = Wm + Wps
𝒏𝒍𝟐 𝑽
𝑊𝑒 = +
𝟐𝑹 𝟗. 𝟓√𝑹
R – Radius of the curve
n – No of lanes
l – length of wheel base of longest vehicle, m

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Radius of Curve, m Up to 20 20 to 40 41 to 60 61 to 100 101 to 300 Above 300

Extra width on two-
1.5 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.6 Nil
lane pavement, m
Extra width on single
0.9 0.6 0.6 Nil Nil Nil
lane pavement, m

Note: For multi lane roads, the pavement widening is calculated by adding half extra width of
two lane roads to each lane of the multi lane road.

Horizontal Transition Curves

Transition curve is provided to change the horizontal alignment from straight to circular
curve gradually and has a radius which decreases from infinity at the straight end (tangent
point) to the desired radius of the circular curve at the other end (curve point)
Thus, the functions of transition curve in the horizontal alignment are given below:
 To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and the beginning
of the circular curve, avoiding sudden jerk on the vehicle. This increases the comfort of
passengers.
 To enable the driver, turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and safety
 To enable gradual introduction of the designed super elevation and extra widening of
pavement at the start of the circular curve.
 To improve the aesthetic appearance of the road

Type of transition curve

Different types of transition curves are
a) Spiral or Clothoid
b) Cubic Parabola
c) Lemniscates

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IRC recommends spiral as the transition curve because:

1) It full fills the requirement of an ideal transition, as the rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration is uniform throughout the length.
2) The geometric property of spiral is such that the calculation and setting out the curve in
the field is simple and easy.

Length of transition curve

The length of the transition curve should be determined as the maximum of the
following three criteria
1) Rate of Change of Centrifugal Acceleration
2) Rate of Change of Super Elevation
3) An Empirical Formula Given by IRC

Rate of Change of Centrifugal Acceleration

At the tangent point, radius is infinity and hence centrifugal acceleration (v2 /R) is zero,
as the radius is infinity. At the end of the transition, the radius R has minimum value Rm. Hence
the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is distributed over a length Ls
Let the length of transition curve be Ls m. If ‘t’ is the time taken in seconds to traverse
this transition length at uniform design speed of v m/sec, t = Ls/v. The maximum centrifugal
acceleration of v2/R is introduced in time t through the transition length Ls and hence the rate
of centrifugal acceleration C is given by

𝒗𝟐
𝒗𝟐 𝑹𝑳𝒔 𝒗𝟑
𝑪= = =
𝑹𝒕 𝒗 𝑳𝒔 𝑹
The IRC has recommended the following equation
𝟖𝟎
𝑪=
(𝟕𝟓 + 𝑽)
The minimum and maximum value of C are limited to 0.5 and 0.8

The length of the transition curve Ls is given by

𝒗𝟑
𝑳𝒔 =
𝑪𝑹

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If the design speed is given in kmph

𝑽𝟑
𝑳𝒔 =
𝟒𝟔. 𝟓 𝑪𝑹
C - rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, m/sec3
Ls – length of transition curve
R – radius of the circular curve, m

Rate of introduction of super-elevation

Raise (E) of the outer edge with respect to inner edge is given by
E = eB = e(W +We)
If it is assumed that the pavement is rotated about the centre line after neutralizing the camber,
then the max amount by which the outer edge is to be raised at the circular curve with respect
to the centre = E/2. Hence the rate of change of this raise from 0 to E is achieved gradually
with a gradient of 1 in N over the length of the transition curve (typical range of N is 60-150).
Therefore, the length of the transition curve Ls is given by
𝑬𝑵 𝒆𝑵
𝑳𝒔 = = (𝑾 + 𝑾𝒆)
𝟐 𝟐
However, if the pavement is rotated about the inner edge, the length of transition curve is given
by

𝑳𝒔 = 𝑬𝑵 = 𝒆𝑵 (𝑾 + 𝑾𝒆)
By Empirical Formula
According to IRC standards the length of horizontal transition curve Ls should not be less
than the value given by the following formulas for two terrain classification
a) For plain and rolling terrain

𝟐. 𝟕 𝑽𝟐
𝑳𝒔 =
𝟐
b) For mountainous and steep terrain

𝑽𝟐
𝑳𝒔 =
𝟐

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Setting out Transition Curve

Transition curves are introduced between the tangent points of the straight stretches and
the end of the circular curve on both sides. If the length of transition curve is Ls and the radius
of the circular curve is R, the shift S of the transition curve is given by the formula

𝑳𝒔𝟐
𝑺=
𝟐𝟒 𝑹
Setback Distance on Horizontal Curves
Setback distance m or the clearance distance is the distance required from the centreline
of a horizontal curve to an obstruction on the inner side of the curve to provide adequate sight
distance at a horizontal curve. The setback distance depends on:
a) Required Sight Distance, S
b) Radius of Horizontal Curve, R
c) Length of the curve, Lc which may be greater or lesser than S

a) When Lc > S
When the length of curve Lc is greater than the sight distance S, let the angle subtended
by the arc length S at the curve be α. On narrow roads such as single lane roads, the sight
distance is measured along the centre line of the road and the angle subtended at the centre, α
is equal to S/R radians. Therefore, half central angle id given by
𝑎 𝑺 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝑺
= 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔 = 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒔
𝟐 𝟐𝑹 𝟐 𝝅𝑹
The setback distance m, required from the centre line on narrow road is given by
𝑎
𝒎 = 𝑹 − 𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒔
𝟐
In case of wide roads with 2 or more lanes, if d is the distance between the centre line of the
road and the centre line of the inside lane in meters, the sight distance is measured along the
middle of the inner side lanes and the setback distance m’ is given by
𝑎′
𝒎′ = 𝑹 − (𝑹 − 𝒅)𝒄𝒐𝒔
𝟐
Where
𝑎′ 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝑺
= 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒔
𝟐 𝟐 𝝅(𝑹 − 𝒅)

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b) When Lc < S
If the length of the curve Lc is less than the required sight distance S, then the angle α subtended
at the center is determined with reference to the length of circular curve Lc and the setback
distance m’ is worked out in 2 parts
𝑎′ 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝑳𝒄
= 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒔
𝟐 𝟐 𝝅(𝑹 − 𝒅)
The setback distance is given by

𝑎′ (𝑺 − 𝑳𝒄) 𝑎′
𝒎′ = 𝑹 − (𝑹 − 𝒅)𝒄𝒐𝒔 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

Curve Resistance
When the vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve, the direction of rotation of the front and
the rear wheels are different. The front wheels are turned to move the vehicle along the curve,
whereas the rear wheels seldom turn. The rear wheels exert a tractive force T in the PQ
direction. The tractive force available on the front wheels is T cos θ in the PS direction. This is
less than the actual tractive force, T applied. Hence, the loss of tractive force for a vehicle to
negotiate a horizontal curve is:
CR = T – T cos α = T (1 – cos α)

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DESIGN OF VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

INTRODUCTION
The natural ground or the topography may be level at some places, but may have slopes
of varying magnitudes at other locations. While aligning a highway it is the common practice
to follow the general topography or profile of the land, keeping in view the drainage and other
requirements on each stretch. This is particularly with a view to minimise deep cuttings and
very high embankments. Hence the vertical profile of a road would have level stretches as well
as slopes or grades.
In order to have smooth vehicle movements on the roads, the changes in the gradient
should be smoothened out by the vertical curves. The vertical alignment is the elevation or
profile of the centre line of the road. The vertical alignment consists of grades and vertical
curves.
The vertical alignment of a highway influences
1) Vehicle Speed
2) Acceleration and Deceleration
3) Stopping Distance
4) Sight Distance
5) Comfort While Travelling at High Speeds
6) Vehicle Operation Cost.

Gradient
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the
horizontal. It is expressed as a ratio of 1 in x (1 vertical unit to x horizontal units). The gradient
is also expressed as percentages such as n%, the slope being n vertical units to 100 horizontal
units
Types of gradient
a) Ruling Gradient
b) Limiting Gradient
c) Exceptional Gradient
d) Minimum Gradient

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Ruling gradient
The ruling gradient or the design gradient is the maximum gradient with which the
designer attempts to design the vertical profile of the road. This depends on the terrain, length
of the grade, speed, pulling power of the vehicle and the presence of the horizontal curve. In
plain terrain, it may be possible to provide at gradients, but in hilly terrain it is not economical
and sometimes not possible also.
The IRC has recommended ruling gradient values of
a) 1 in 30 on plain and rolling terrain
b) 1 in 20 on mountainous terrain
c) 1 in 16.7 on steep terrain.

Limiting gradient
Where topography of a place compels adopting steeper gradient than the ruling
gradient, 'limiting gradient' is used in view of enormous increase in cost in constructing roads
with gentler gradients. However, the length of continuous grade line steeper than ruling
gradient should be limited. On rolling terrain and on hill roads, it may be frequently necessary
to exceed ruling gradient and adopt limiting gradient, but care should be taken to separate such
stretches of steep gradients by providing either a level road or a road with easier grade.

Exceptional gradient
In some extra ordinary situations, it may be unavoidable to provide still steeper
gradients than limiting gradient at least for short stretches and in such cases the steeper gradient
up to 'exceptional gradient' may be provided. However, the exceptional gradient should be
strictly limited only for short stretches not exceeding about 100 m at a stretch.

Minimum gradient
This is important only at locations where surface drainage is important. Camber will
take care of the lateral drainage. But the longitudinal drainage along the side drains requires
some slope for smooth flow of water.
The road with zero gradient passing through level land and open side drains are provided
with a gradient of 1 in 400.A minimum of 1 in 500 may be sufficient to drain water in concrete
drains or gutter, on inferior surface of drains 1 in 200 or 0.5%, on kutcha open drains steeper
slope up to 1 in 100 or 1 % may be provided

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Gradient for roads in different terrains

Type of Terrain Ruling Limiting Exceptional
Gradient Gradient Gradient
Plain or Rolling 3.3 %, 1 in 30 5 %, 1 in 20 6.7 %, 1 in 15
Mountainous terrain and steep terrain 5 %, 1 in 20 6 %, 1 in 16.7 7 %, 1 in 14.3
having elevation more than 3000 m
above the mean sea level
Steep terrain up to 3000 m height above 6 %, 1 in 16.7 7 %, 1 in 14.3 8 %, 1 in 12.5
mean sea level

Grade Compensation on Horizontal Curve

When sharp horizontal curve is to be introduced on a road which has already the
maximum permissible gradient, then the gradient should be decreased to compensate for the
loss of tractive effort due to curve. This reduction in gradient at the horizontal curve is called
Grade compensation or compensation in gradiebt at the horizontal curve, which is intended to
off-set the extra tractive effort involved at the curve. This is calculated from the below equation
𝟑𝟎+𝑹
Grade Compensation % =
𝑹
The max value of grade compensation is limited to 75/R, where R is the radius of the circular
curve in m
As per IRC the grade compensation is not necessary for gradients flatter than 4.0 %,
and therefore when applying grade compensation correction, the gradients need not be eased
beyond 4 %. The compensated gradient = Ruling Gradient – Grade Compensation

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Vertical Curves
Due to changes in grade in the vertical alignment of highway, it is necessary to
introduce vertical curve at the intersections of different grades to smoothen out the vertical
profile and thus ease off the changes in gradients for the fast moving vehicles.
The vertical curves used in highway may be classified into two categories:
(a) Summit curves or crest curves with convexity upwards
(b) Valley curves or sag curves with concavity upwards
Summit curves
Summit curves with convexity upwards are formed in any one of the cases as given below
a) When a positive gradient meets another positive gradient
b) When positive gradient meets a at gradient
c) When an ascending gradient meets a descending gradient.
d) When a descending gradient meets another descending gradient

The deviation angle, N between the two intersecting gradients is equal to the algebraic
difference between them. Among all the cases, the deviation angle will be maximum when an
ascending gradient, (+ n1) meets with a descending gradient, (- n2).
Therefore, deviation angle, N= n1 - (- n2) = (n1 + n2)
When a fast moving vehicle travels along a summit curve, the centrifugal force will act
upwards, against gravity and hence a part of the self-weight of the vehicle is relieved resulting
in reduction in pressure on the tyres and on the suspension springs of the vehicle suspensions.
So there is no problem of discomfort to passengers on summit curves, particularly because the
deviation angles on roads are quite small. Also if the summit curve is designed to have adequate

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sight distance, the length of the summit curve would be long enough to ease the shock due to
change in gradients.

Type of Summit Curve

Many curve forms can be used with satisfactory results; the common practice has been
to use parabolic curves in summit curves. This is primarily because of the ease with it can be
laid out as well as allowing a comfortable transition from one gradient to another.

LENGTH OF THE SUMMIT CURVE

The important design aspect of the summit curve is the determination of the length of
the curve which is parabolic. As noted earlier, the length of the curve is guided by the sight
distance consideration.
Length of the summit curve for SSD
a) When L > SSD
The equation for length L of the parabolic curve is given by
𝑵𝑺𝟐
𝑳= 𝟐
(√𝟐𝑯 + √𝟐𝒉)
Here
L – length of summit curve, m
S – SSD, m
N – Deviation angle, equal to algebraic difference in grades, radians, or tangent of deviation
angle
H - Height of eye level of driver above road surface, m = 1.2m
h – Height of subject above the pavement surface, m = 0.15m

As per IRC

𝑵𝑺𝟐
𝑳=
𝟒. 𝟒

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b) When L < SSD

The equation for length L of the parabolic curve is given by
𝟐
(√𝟐𝑯 + √𝟐𝒉)
𝑳 = 𝟐𝑺 −
𝑵
As per IRC
𝟒. 𝟒
𝑳 = 𝟐𝑺 −
𝑵
The minimum radius of parabolic summit curve is given by R/N

Length of the summit curve for OSD or ISD

a) When L > OSD or ISD
The equation for length L of the parabolic curve is given by
𝑵𝑺𝟐
𝑳=
𝟖𝑯

As per IRC

𝑵𝑺𝟐
𝑳=
𝟗. 𝟔
S – OSD or ISD, m

b) When L < OSD or ISD

The equation for length L of the parabolic curve is given by
𝟖𝑯
𝑳 = 𝟐𝑺 −
𝑵
As per IRC
𝟗. 𝟔
𝑳 = 𝟐𝑺 −
𝑵

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Valley curve

Valley curve or sag curves are vertical curves with convexity downwards. The deviation
angle, N between the two intersecting gradients is equal to the algebraic difference between
them. Among all the cases, the deviation angle will be maximum when a descending gradient,
(- n1) meets with an ascending gradient, (+ n2).
Therefore, deviation angle, N= - n1 - (+ n2) = - (n1 + n2)
They are formed when two gradients meet as illustrated in figure below in any of the
following four ways:
1) When a descending gradient meets another descending gradient
2) When a descending gradient meets a at gradient
3) When a descending gradient meets an ascendinggradient
4) When an ascending gradient meets another ascending gradient

Length of the valley curve

The length of the valley transition curve is designed to fulfil two criteria
a) Allowable rate change of centrifugal acceleration
b) The required HSD for night driving

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Length of transition curve for Comfort condition

The equation for length L of the parabolic curve is given by
𝟏
𝑵𝒗𝟑 𝟐 𝟏
𝑳 = 𝟐[ ] = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖(𝑵𝑽𝟑)𝟐
𝑪
Where
L – Total length of valley curve = 2Ls
N – Deviation angle, equal to algebraic difference in grades, radians, or tangent of deviation
angle
C – the allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, the value of C may be taken as
0.6m/sec3
v – Design speed in m/s
V – design speed in kmph
𝑳𝒔 𝑳
The minimum radius of cubic parabolic valley curve is given by 𝑹= =
𝑵 𝟐𝑵
Length of the summit curve for OSD or ISD
a) When L > OSD or ISD
If the valley curve is assumed to be parabolic shape, with equation y = a x 2, where a = N/2L
The equation for length L of the parabolic curve is given by

𝑵𝑺𝟐
𝒉𝟏 + 𝑺 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝑎 = 𝒂 𝑺𝟐 =
𝟐𝑳
Where
h1 – the average height of head light = 0.75m
α - 1º, the beam angle
𝑵𝑺𝟐
𝑳=
(𝟏. 𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟓𝑺)
L – Total length of valley curve, m
S – OSD or ISD, m
N - Deviation angle = (n1 + n2), with slopes – n1 and + n2

b) When L < OSD or ISD

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The equation for length L of the parabolic curve is given by

𝑳
𝒉𝟏 + 𝑺 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝑎 = (𝑺 − )𝑵
𝟐
Where
h1 – the average height of head light = 0.75m
α - 1º, the beam angle

(𝟏. 𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟓𝑺)
𝑳 = 𝟐𝑺 −
𝑵

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PAVEMENT

Pavement is the durable surface material laid down on an area intended to sustain vehicular
load or foot traffic, such as a road or walkway.
 Pavement means surfacing layer only.
 In terms of highway design, it means the total thickness of road including surfacing,
base & surface, if any.
 Thus pavement includes all the structural layers of road structure lying on subgrade of
the road.

It is of two types
 Flexible pavement or bituminous pavement or black top pavement
 Rigid pavement or cement concrete pavement or white surface pavement

Requirements of a pavement
An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:
 Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the sub-
grade soil,
 Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it,
 Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles,
 Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,
 Produce least noise from moving vehicles,
 Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing visibility,
 Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and
 Long design life with low maintenance cost.

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Types of pavements
The pavements can be classified based on the structural performance into two,
 Flexible pavements and
 Rigid pavements.
In flexible pavements or bituminous pavement or black top pavement, wheel loads are
transferred by grain-to-grain contact of the aggregate through the granular structure. The
flexible pavement, having less flexural strength, acts like a flexible sheet (e.g. bituminous
road). On the contrary, in rigid pavements or cement concrete pavement or white surface
pavement, wheel loads are transferred to sub-grade soil by flexural strength of the pavement
and the pavement acts like a rigid plate (e.g. cement concrete roads). In addition to these,
composite pavements are also available. A thin layer of flexible pavement over rigid
pavement is an ideal pavement with most desirable characteristics. However, such pavements
are rarely used in new construction because of high cost and complex analysis required.
Important Points on Flexible pavement:
 Design of flexible pavement is based on the principle that the wheel loads of vehicle
are dissipated to the natural soil through successive layers of granular materials
 The intensity of load decreases with depth as the area of dissipation is increased.
Hence the higher quality of material is placed at top.
 The strength of the subgrade decides the thickness of flexible pavement.
 WBM roads, stabilized roads, earth roads, gravel roads etc. consist of layers of road
making materials compacted to from an elastic bed are grouped under flexible
pavements.

COMPARISON OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT & RIGID PAVEMENT

The comparisons are:
i) Design precision
A cement concrete pavement is amerable to a much more precise structural analysis
than a flexible pavement. Flexible pavements designs are mainly empirical. Computer aided
analysis of layered system is making the flexible pavement design more exact than hitherto.
ii) Life
• Cement concrete slabs of a thin section constructed in the early 1940’s are still in
existence in India though many of them have cracked badly and a few of them have
been ripped open and rebuilt in recent ties.

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• A major project in cement concrete road construction between Agra and Mathura. It
can safely be said that a well-designed concrete slab has a life of about 40 years.
• Compared to this the life of a flexible pavement generally varies from 10 to 20 years.
iii) Maintenance:
• A well-designed cement concrete pavement needs very little maintenance. The only
maintenance needed is I respect of joints.
• The surface is unaffected by spillage of oil and lubricants, bituminous surfaces on the
other hand, need great inputs in maintenance.
• The surface is affected by spillage of oil and lubricants. The surface is also affected
by natural weathering agents like air, water ad temperature changes.
• A cement concrete pavement on the other hand needs a small amount for maintaining
joints.
iv) Initial cost:
• The argument so far used against a cement concrete slab is that it is much more costly
than a flexible pavement.
• The latter specifications no doubt represent the rock-bottom needs of a road in India,
but these specifications can hardly provide a smooth and durable surface.
v) Stage construction:
• Road construction is generally done adopting a policy of stage construction especially
for low volume roads. As traffic grows, additional layers in the form of water bound
macadam and superior surfacing are added on.
• Initial outlay is minimum and additional outlays are in keeping with traffic growth.
This is a great advantage when dealing with new roads in an atmosphere of austerity.
vi) Availability of materials:
• Cement, bitumen, stone aggregates and gravel/sand are the major materials involved
in pavement Construction. Cement has been in serious short supply in the country for
the past many decades.
• Bitumen is also not available plentifully in India. There is also the danger of the entire
oil reserves in the world shrinking during the next two or three decades.
• In locations where stone aggregates are scarce, cement concrete may have an
advantage for flexible pavements
vii) Surface characterstics:
• A good cement concrete surface is smooth and free from rutting, potholes and
corrugations. In a bituminous surface it is only the asphaltic concrete surface that can give

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comparable rideablity.
• A well-constructed cement concrete pavement surface can have a permanent nonskid
surface. A bituminous surface can also be designed to have a good skid resistant surface.
viii) Utility location:
• In cement concrete slabs, proper thought has to be given to locate utilities, such as
water pipes, telephone lines and electric cables.
• It is difficult to rip open the slab and restore it to be the original condition ,if any
changes in the utilities lines are to be made.
ix) Glame and night visibility:
• Concrete pavements have a gray color which can cause glam under sunlight. Colored
cement can reduce the grave.
• On the other hand, bituminous roads need more street lighting.
x) Traffic dislocation during construction:
• A cement concrete pavement requires 28 days before it can be thrown open to traffic.
On the other hand, a bituminous surface can be thrown open to traffic shortly after it
is rolled.
xi) Environmental considerations during construction:
• The process of heating of bitumen and aggregates and mixing them together on hot
mix plants, can prove to be much more hazardous to the environment than cement
concrete construction where no heating of any material is involved.
xii) Overall economy on a life cycle basis:
• A good road is costly to construct but once constructed such a road requires little
maintenance and results in savings in vehicle operating costs.
• The comparative economy of a flexible pavement and a rigid pavement has proved
that on overall economic considerations.

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Properties Flexible Rigid

Design principle Empirical method based on load Designed and analyzed by using
distribution characteristics of the the elastic theory
components.
Material Granular material Made of cement concrete either
plan, reinforced or pre-stressed
concrete
Flexural strength Low or negligible flexible strength Associated with rigidity or
flexural strength or slab action so
the load is distributed over a wide
area of subgrade soil.
Normal loading Elastic deformation Acts as beam or cantilever
Excessive loading Local depression Causes cracks
Stress Transmits vertical and Tensile stress and Temperature
compressive stresses to the layers increase
Design practice Constructed in number of layers Laid in slabs with steel
reinforcement
Temperature No stress is produced Stress is produced
Force of friction Less. Deformation in the sub grade Friction force is high.
is not transferred to the upper
layers.
Opening to traffic Road can be used for traffic within Road cannot be used until 14 days
of curing.
24 hours.
Surfacing Rolling of the surfacing is needed. Rolling of the surfacing is not
needed.

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT RIGID PAVEMENT

1. Have low flexural strength 1. Have more flexural strength

2. Load is transferred by grain to grain contact 2. No such phenomenon of grain to grain load
3. Surfacing cannot be laid directly on the sub
transfer exists
grade but a sub base is needed 3. Surfacing can be directly laid on the sub
4. No thermal stresses are induced
grade

5.expansion joints are not needed 4. Thermal stresses are induced

6.Design life 10-15 years 5.expansion joints are needed

7.Initial cost of construction is low 6.Design life 20-30 years

8.Maintenance cost is high 7.Initial cost of construction is high

9. Road can be used for traffic within 24

8.Less maintenance cost
hours 9. Road cannot be used until 14 days of curing
10. Damaged by Oils and Certain Chemicals 10. No Damage by Oils and other chemicals

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Flexible pavements
Flexible pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain-to-grain
transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure as shown in figure 3.1. The
wheel load acting on the pavement will be distributed to a wider area, and the stress decreases
with the depth. Taking advantage of this stress distribution characteristic, flexible pavements
normally has many layers. Hence, the design of flexible pavement uses the concept of layered
system. Based on this, flexible pavement may be constructed in a number of layers and
the top layer has to be of best quality to sustain maximum compressive stress, in addition to
wear and tear. The lower layers will experience lesser magnitude of stress and low quality
material can be used. Flexible pavements are constructed using bituminous materials. These
can be either in the form of surface treatments (such as bituminous surface treatments
generally found on low volume roads) or, asphalt concrete surface courses (generally used on
high volume roads such as national highways). Flexible pavement layers reflect the
deformation of the lower layers on to the surface layer (e.g., if there is any undulation in sub-
grade then it will be transferred to the surface layer). In the case of flexible pavement, the
design is based on overall performance of flexible pavement, and the stresses produced
should be kept well below the allowable stresses of each pavement layer.

Figure: 3.1 Load transfer in granular structure

Types of Flexible Pavements
The following types of construction have been used in flexible pavement:
 Conventional layered flexible pavement,

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 Full - depth asphalt pavement, and

 Contained rock asphalt mat (CRAM).
Conventional flexible pavements are layered systems with high quality expensive materials
are placed in the top where stresses are high, and low quality cheap materials are placed in
lower layers.
Full - depth asphalt pavements are constructed by placing bituminous layers directly on the
soil subgrade. This is more suitable when there is high traffic and local materials are not
available.
Contained rock asphalt mats are constructed by placing dense/open graded aggregate layers
in between two asphalt layers. Modified dense graded asphalt concrete is placed above the
sub-grade will significantly reduce the vertical compressive strain on soil sub-grade and
protect from surface water.
Typical layers of a flexible pavement
Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement includes seal coat, surface course, tack
coat, binder course, prime coat, base course, sub-base course, compacted sub-grade, and
natural sub-grade (Figure 3.2).
Seal Coat: Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and to provide
skid resistance.
Tack Coat: Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted
with water. It provides proper bonding between two layer of binder course and must be thin,
uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very fast.
Prime Coat: Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent
surface like granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides bonding between two
layers. Unlike tack coat, prime coat penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids, and
forms a water tight surface.
Surface course:
Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally contains
superior quality materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt concrete
(AC). The functions and requirements of this layer are:
 It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. Also it will
prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying base,
sub-base and sub-grade,

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 It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid-
resistant riding surface,
 It must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-grade from the weakening
effect of water.

Figure: 3.2 Typical cross section of a flexible pavement

Binder course:
This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. It's chief purpose is to distribute
load to the base course The binder course generally consists of aggregates having less asphalt
and doesn't require quality as high as the surface course, so replacing a part of the surface
course by the binder course results in more economical design.
Base course:
The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of binder course and
it provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface drainage. It may be
composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized materials.
Sub-Base course:
The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and the primary
functions are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion of
fines from the sub-grade in the pavement structure If the base course is open graded, then the
sub-base course with more fines can serve as a filler between sub-grade and the base course
A sub-base course is not always needed or used. For example, a pavement constructed over a
high quality, stiff sub-grade may not need the additional features offered by a sub-base
course. In such situations, sub-base course may not be provided.
Sub-grade:
The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from the
layers above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed. It should be
compacted to the desirable density, near the optimum moisture content.

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FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS – COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS:

Components Of The Flexible Pavements
Flexible pavements are those which on the whole have low or negligible flexural strength and
are rather flexible in their structural action under the loads. The flexible pavement layers
reflect the deformation of the lower layers on to the surface of the layer. Thus if the lower
layer of the pavement or soil sub grade is undulated, the flexible pavement surface also gets
undulated. A typical; flexible pavement consists of four components:
 Soil sub grade
 Sub base course
 Base course
 Surface course
A typical cross section of a flexible pavement structure is shown in fig.

Sub-grade:
It is defined as the supporting structure on which the pavement surface and its special under
courses rest.
Main function is to provide sufficient support to the pavement.
Subgrade should possess sufficient stability under adverse climate & loading conditions.
Sub-base:
Economy is the prime factor to be considered in the design of sub base course.
It is generally recommended to use locally available material for sub base.
The main purpose is to permit the construction of pavement at low cost.
Function:
i. To add to the structural support for the overlying layers i.e. base & surface courses.
ii. To improve drainage.
iii. To reduce frost heave in cold weather conditions.
Base course:

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It is provide under the wearing course or pavement. They have to satisfy the following
requirements
i. Thickness should be adequate to distribute the heavy wheel load pressure gradually to
the subgrade through a sub base.
ii. It should have sufficient structural stability so as to resist the vertical pressures &
shear stresses due to moving vehicles
iii. It should have enough resistance to weathering.
iv. It should be compacted well to have sufficient density.
Wearing/Surface course:
This course comes into contact with the wheels of vehicles.
The main purpose is to resist the pressure exerted by the tyres and to be smooth so that the
vehicles will have large mileage & less wear & tear for tyres.
- It serves as water resistant membrane not allowing the surface water getting into the
base & not allowing the capillary water to pass through the wearing course.
- It adds adequate strength to entire pavement structure. Bituminous material as
surfacing in flexible pavement. Cement concrete layer act as wearing surface.
Parameters for design of pavements
Design of pavements mainly consists of two aspects
1. Design mix of materials
2. Pavement thickness
Factors governing the structural design of pavements
The various factors to be considered for the design of pavements are given below:
 Design wheel load
 Sub grade soil
 Climatic factors
 Pavement component materials
 Environmental factors
 Special factors
Traffic and loading:
Traffic is the most important factor in the pavement design. The key factors include contact
pressure, wheel load, axle configuration, moving loads, load, and load repetitions.
Design wheel load

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The thickness design of pavement primarily upon the design wheel load. Higher wheel load
obviously need thicker pavement provided other design factors are the same. While
considering wheel load, the effects of total static load on each wheel, multiple wheel load
assembly, contact pressure, load repetition and the dynamic effects of transient loads are to be
taken into account. As the speed increases the rate of application of the stress is also
increased in resulting in a reaction in the pavement deformation under the load: but on
uneven pavements, the impact increases with speed. Some of the important design factors
associated with the traffic wheel loads have been explained in the subsequent article.
Various wheel load factors are
i. Maximum wheel load
ii. Contact pressure
iii. Dual or multiple wheel loads & ESWL
iv. Repetition of load
Maximum wheel load:
For highways in India, the maximum legal axle load as specified by IRC is 8170 kg with a
maximum equivalent single wheel load of 4085 kg.
Total load influences thickness of pavement. Tyre pressure influences quality of surface or
wearing course.

The equation for vertical stress computations under a uniformly distributed circular load as
per Boussineq’s theory is given by:
 3 
z = 1  z 
 a 2  z 2  2 
3

Where z = vertical stress at depth z

p = contact pressure of tyre
z = depth at which z is computed

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a = radius of loaded area

This value is higher than unity for lower tyre pressure& less than unity for tyre pressure
higher than 7 kg/cm2. Rigidity factor depends on the degree of tension developed in the walls
of tryes.
Contact pressure:
The tire pressure is an important factor, as it determines the contact area and the contact
pressure between the wheel and the pavement surface. Even though the shape of the contact
area is elliptical, for sake of simplicity in analysis, a circular area is often considered.

Influence of tyre pressure is predominating in the upper layers. Tyre pressure of high
magnitudes therefore demand high quality of materials in upper layers in pavements.
The stresses on the pavement surface under the steel tyred wheels of bullock carts are very
high. This demands use of very strong & hard aggregate for the wearing surface of the
pavement.
Generally, the wheel load is assumed to be distributed over a circular area.
- Tyre pressure
- Inflation pressure same
- Contact pressure

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Loadonwheel P
Contact pressure p = 
ContactareaorAreaof Im pr int A
Where Wheel load = P
Loaded area = A
The ratio of contact pressure to tyre pressure is defined as Rigidity factor. Value of Rigidity
factor is 1 for an average tyre pressure of 7 kg/cm2 .
Equivalent Single Wheel load:
To maintain the maximum wheel load within the specified limit and to carry greater load it is
necessary to provide dual wheel assembly to the rear axles of the road vehicles.
In doing, so the effect on the pavement through a dual wheel assembly is obviously not equal
to 2 times the load on any one wheel. In other words, the pressure at a certain depth below the
pavement surface cannot be obtained numerically adding the pressure caused by one wheel.
The effect is in between the single load& two times load carried by any one wheel.
In order to simplify, the analysis the load dispersion is assumed to be at an angle of 45 0.
Let d = clear gap between the two loads
S = spacing between centers of wheels
a = radius of circular contact area of each wheel
Then S = d + 2a

Figure: Stress overlap due to dual wheels

Up to the depth of d/2 each wheel load p acts independently and after this point the stresses
induced due to each load begins to overlap. At depth 2S, and above the stresses induced are
due to effect of both wheels as the area of overlap is considerable.

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So, the total stresses due to dual wheels at any depth greater than 2S is considered to be
equivalent to a single wheel load of magnitude 2 P.
Equivalent single axle load
 Legal axle load
 Standard axle load
Repetition of loads:
The deformation of pavement or subgrade due to a single application of wheel load may be
small. But due to repeated application of load there would be increased magnitude of plastic
and elastic deformations.
Equivalent axle load factor

Equivalent load factors are employed to convert daily traffic count for each category of wheel
load for design purposes.
Sub grade soil
The properties of the sub grade soil are important in deciding the thickness requirements of
pavements sub grade with lower stability requires thicker pavement to protect it from traffic
loads. The variation in stability and volume of the sub grade soil with moisture changes are to
be studied as these properties are dependent on the soil characteristics. The stress strain
behaviors of the soil under static and repeated loads have also significance. Apart from the
design the pavement performance to a great extent depends on the sub grade soil properties
and the drainage.
Climate factors
Among the climate factors, rainfall affects the moisture conditions in the sub grade and the
pavement layers. The daily and seasonal variation in temperature has significance in the
design and performance of rigid pavements. Where freezing temperature is prevalent during
winter, the possibility of frost action in the sub grade and the damping effects should be
considered at the design stage itself.
Pavement component materials
The stress distribution characteristic of the pavement components layers depends on
characteristics of the materials used. The fatigue behavior of these materials and their
durability under adverse conditions of weather should also be given due consideration.
Environmental factors

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The environmental factors such as height of embankments and its foundations details. Depth
of cutting, depth of sub surface water table, etc. Affect the performance of the pavement. The
choice of the bituminous binder and the performance of the bituminous pavement depending
on the variations in pavement temperature with the seasons in the region.
Equivalent single wheel load factor
In order to have maximum wheel load, dual wheel assembly is provided to the rear axles of
the load vehicles. Because of this, the load due to both the wheels is not to be transferred to
the pavement. But there will be overlap pressure after a certain depth. The actual effects is in
between a single wheel load and double the load carried by any one wheel. Stress overlap is
presented in figure below.

Figure: Stress overlap due to dual wheels

It is assumed that up to a depth of d/2 the loads act independently beyond which the stresses
overlap. The area of overlap becomes more beyond a depth of 2S.hence it may be considered
that the load the total stress due to the dual wheels at any depth greater than 2S, is to be
equivalent to a single wheel load of 2P magnitude. However, this stress due to 2P is to be
slightly greater than the duel wheel assembly which is on the safe side.
This equivalent single wheel load can be determined by equivalent deflection or equivalent
deflection or equivalent stress criterion. For example, based on deflection criterion it is to
state that the maximum deflection caused at a particular depth z (say, depth equivalent to the
thickness of pavement) by a dual wheel load Assembly is also caused by an equivalent single
wheel load acting at the surface of the pavement.
Similarly by the stress criterion the ESWL producing the same stress value at a depth z as
that produced by a dual wheel load assembly.

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A linear relationship is assumed between the ESWL and the depth in a log-log scale. A linear
plot is got, as shown in fig. By plotting a point A with coordinates z = d/2 and P and point B
with coordinates z = 2S and 2P.

Figure: Graphical method for determination of ESWL

Line AB represents the locus of point where any single wheel load is equivalent to a certain
set of dual wheels.
In order to use the graph, for an assumed thickness of pavement and ESWL is got from the
graph. This ESWL is used in the design calculations and the thickness of pavement is
obtained. If this thickness and assumed thicknesses are same then the ESWL assumed is
correct. If not the design is repeated and by trial and error the correct thickness of pavement
is obtained. This calculation is valid for the given wheel load configuration. For different
wheel load assembly different ESWL plots may be made.
To carry maximum load with in the specified limit and to carry greater load, dual wheel, or
dual tandem assembly is often used. Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL) is the single wheel
load having the same contact pressure, which produces same value of maximum stress,
deflection, tensile stress or contact pressure at the desired depth.
Equivalent single wheel load To carry maximum load with in the specified limit and to carry
greater load, dual wheel, or dual tandem assembly is often used. Equivalent single wheel load
(ESWL) is the single wheel load having the same contact pressure, which produces same
value of maximum stress, deflection, tensile stress or contact pressure at the desired depth.

STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF PAVEMENT MATERIALS:

1. California Bearing Ratio value
2. Elastic Moduli

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California Bearing Ratio

The strength values so obtained for the materials tested are of relative significance and do not
provide as absolute measure. These are design methods which employ the CBR strength
values of materials used & different pavement layers.
IRC Recommendations CBR test
- Performed in Laboratory only.
- Compaction done by Proctor compaction test
- Top 50 cm of subgrade should be compacted atleast upto 95 to 100 5 of proctor
density.
- A=P (1 + r )n+10
Where
A = number of heavy vehicles per day for design (laden weight>3 tonnes)
P = number of heavy vehicles per day at least count.
R = annual rate of increase of heavy vehicles
n = number of years between the least count and the year of completion of constructions.
Limitations of CBR method of pavement design
 CBR is an adhoc penetration test which does not consider any of the sub grade
properties directly.
 As the method is empirical, it is not essentially related to any particular value of axle
load or wheel load repetitions.
 The design curves provided in the method are not meant to be made use of on the
basis of traffic immediately carried by the road or that anticipated (in the case of new
constructions).
 This method gives the total thickness requirement of the pavement above a sub grade
and the thickness is same irrespective of the quantity of materials used in the
component layers.
Elastic moduli:
Depending upon the design methods, the elastic moduli of different pavement materials are
evaluated
i. Plate bearing test
ii. Tri-axial compression test
The elastic moduli values of the following are determined by plate bearing tests:
i. Subgrade modulus

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ii. Elastic moduli of base course and sub base course materials
The maximum deflection,  at the surface and the center of a flexible plate is given by
1.5 pa
=
Es
Where p = uniform pressure on the flexible loaded plate of radius a
Es = Modulus of elasticity of soil
For rigid plate
1.18 pa
=
Es
Burmister analysis
1.5 pa
=  F2 (For Flexible plate)
Es

1.18 pa
=  F 2 ( For rigid plate)
Es

Climatic variations:
i. Variation in moisture condition
ii. Frost action
iii. Variation in temperature
Variation in moisture condition:
 Pavement performance is very much affected because of variation in stability and the
volume of subgrade soil
 The surface water during rains may enter the subgrade either through pavement edges
or through the pavement itself.
 As moisture content of subgrade below the center is often different from that at
pavement edges, there can be differential rise or fall of pavement edges w.r.t. center
due to swelling and shrinkage of subgrade soil
 It leads to considerable damages to the pavements and will also be progressive and
cumulative
Frost action:
It refers to adverse effective due to frost heave, frost melting or thaw & alternate cycles of
freezing and thawing.

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The freezing and thawing which occurs alternately due to variation in weather causes
undulations and considerable damages to the pavement. Hence, the overall effects due to frost
heave, frost melting and alternate freeze thaw cycles is called frost action.
Depends on factors such as :
i. Frost susceptible soil
ii. Depressed temperature below freezing point
iii. Supply of water
iv. Cover
Capillary cutoff
Way to reduce the adverse effects of frost action on pavements by soil stabilization.
Variation in Temperature
Temperature stresses of high magnitude are induced in cement concrete pavements due to
daily variation in temperature and consequent warping of pavement.
Bituminous pavement become soft in hot weather and brittle in very cold weather.
DESIGN OF FEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
There are 3 approaches
1. Empirical method
i. Group index method
ii. CBR method
iii. Stabilometer method
iv. McLeod method
2. Semi empirical method
i. Burmister method
ii. Triaxial method
3. Theoretical method
IRC Recommendations
Indian road congress (IRC: 37-1970) has recommended some important aspects to be
considered while using the design chart. Following are the recommendations/ Steps involved
in the IRC method of design of flexible pavements:
 The specimen to be tested CBR should be remoulded specimen prepared preferably
by static compaction wherever possible or dynamic compaction. The standard test
procedure should be strictly followed.
 In situ test specimens are not recommended.

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 For new roads the sub grade soil specimen should be compacted to proctor density at
OMC. If the compaction equipment is not available in the field, the specimen may be
compacted to the expected field density.
 For the existing roads the specimen should be compacted to field density of sub grade
soil at water content equal to OMC or field moisture content.
 For all new constructions the specimen should be soaked for four days prior to testing.
This condition is not mandatory for arid climatic regions or regions with annual
rainfall is less than 50cm or the water table is very deep or when thickness of
impermeable bituminous surfacing is provided.
 At least three specimens should be tested with identical specimens. If the variation is
maximum beyond the norms, then average of six specimens CBR values should be
taken.
The specimen limits of maximum variation in CBR values are
3% for CBR value up to 10%
5% for CBR value 10 to 30%
10% for CBR value 30 to 60%
The top 50cm of sub grade should be compacted with density equal to 95 to 100% of proctor
density.
Keeping in view the existing traffic and the anticipated growth in traffic should be calculated
for at least 10 years of life period.
The following formula may be used:
A=P (1 + r )n+10
Where
A = number of heavy vehicles per day for design (laden weight>3 tonnes)
P = number of heavy vehicles per day at least count.
R = annual rate of increase of heavy vehicles
n = number of years between the least count and the year of completion of constructions.
The value P has to be found for seven day heavy vehicles obtained from 24 hours count. If a
reasonable value of r is not available a value of 7.5% may be assumed for rural roads.
 The traffic obtained from the above equation has to be used in choosing the
appropriate design curve (A to G).
 The design thickness corresponding to a single axle load up to 8200kg and tandem
axle load up to 14500kg is adopted.

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 Substandard sub bases with substantial proportion of aggregates of size above 20mm
should not be used in design.
 Thin layers of wearing course such as surface dressing or open graded premixed
carpet up to 2.5cm thickness should not be counted towards total thickness as these
materials do not contribute to the structural capacity of the pavement.
IRC METHOD OF DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
Indian roads congress has specified the design procedures for flexible pavements based on
CBR values. The Pavement designs given in the previous edition IRC:37-1984 were
applicable to design traffic up to only 30 million standard axles (msa).
Scope
These guidelines will apply to design of exible pavements for Expressway, National
Highways, State Highways, Major District Roads, and other categories of roads. Flexible
pavements are considered to include the pavements which have bituminous surfacing and
granular base and sub-base courses conforming to IRC/ MOST standards. These guidelines
apply to new pavements.
Design criteria
 Vertical compressive strain at the top of the sub-grade which can cause sub-grade
deformation resulting in permanent deformation at the pavement surface.
 Horizontal tensile strain or stress at the bottom of the bituminous layer which can
cause fracture of the bituminous layer.
 Pavement deformation within the bituminous layer.
Failure Criteria
 Fatigue Criteria
 Rutting Criteria

Fig. Critical Locations in Pavement

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Design Procedure:
Based on the performance of existing designs and using analytical approach, simple design
charts and a catalogue of pavement designs are added in the code.
Using the following simple input parameters, appropriate designs could be chosen for the
given traffic and soil strength:
 Design traffic in terms of cumulative number of standard axles; and
 CBR value of subgrade.
In this design method it is required to provide a pavement section which satisfies
i. Resistance value of subgrade (R value)
ii. Expansion pressure
iii. Exudation pressure
Design steps:
i. The pavement thickness values required as per the R values of subgrade soil at
different moisture contents, are calculated (Say Tr1,Tr2 ….Here, pavement may first
be assumed to consists of single base course layer of known C- value ,Cg.
ii. Pavement thickness fulfilling both R- values and expansion pressure are found by
dividing the expansion pressure by average density of pavement which may assumed
as about 2.1 g/cm2. The pavement thickness value (Say T e1 , Te2 …) as per expansion
pressure at different moisture contents are calculated.
iii. Pavement thickness fulfilling both R value & expansion pressure is found by plotting
Tr values against corresponding Te values from (i) & (ii) above, to the same scale and
by drawing 450 line.
iv. The exudation pressure of subgrade soil found at various compacting moisture
contents are plotted against pavement thickness found from (i) above based on
corresponding R values. The pavement thickness corresponding to an exudation
pressure of 28 kg /cm2 is obtained from this graph.
v. Pavement thickness as per California design method, is the higher the values
determined in (iii) and (iv) above.
vi. The thickness of other pavement layers are decided and equivalent values of base
course thickness replaced are calculated using cohesionmeter values of materials.
Design traffic
The method considers traffic in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles (8160 kg)
to be carried by the pavement during the design life. This requires the following information:

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1. Initial traffic in terms of CVPD

2. Traffic growth rate during the design life
3. Design life in number of years
4. Vehicle damage factor (VDF)
5. Distribution of commercial traffic over the carriage way.
Initial traffic
Initial traffic is determined in terms of commercial vehicles per day (CVPD). For the
structural design of the pavement only commercial vehicles are considered assuming laden
weight of three tones or more and their axle loading will be considered. Estimate of the initial
daily average traffic flow for any road should normally be based on 7-day 24-hour classified
traffic counts (ADT). In case of new roads, traffic estimates can be made on the basis of
potential land use and traffic on existing routes in the area.
Traffic growth rate
Traffic growth rates can be estimated
(i) by studying the past trends of traffic growth, and
(ii) By establishing econometric models. If adequate data is not available, it is recommended
that an average annual growth rate of 7.5 percent may be adopted.
Design life
For the purpose of the pavement design, the design life is defined in terms of the cumulative
number of standard axles that can be carried before strengthening of the pavement is
necessary. It is recommended that pavements for arterial roads like NH, SH should be
designed for a life of 15 years, EH and urban roads for 20 years and other categories of roads
for 10 to 15 years.
Vehicle Damage Factor
The vehicle damage factor (VDF) is a multiplier for converting the number of commercial
vehicles of different axle loads and axle configurations to the number of standard axle-load
repetitions. It is defined as equivalent number of standard axles per commercial vehicle. The
VDF varies with the axle configuration, axle loading, terrain, type of road, and from region to
region. The axle load equivalency factors are used to convert different axle load repetitions
into equivalent standard axle load repetitions. For these equivalency factors refer IRC: 37
2001. The exact VDF values are arrived after extensive field surveys.
Vehicle distribution

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A realistic assessment of distribution of commercial traffic by direction and by lane is

necessary as it directly affects the total equivalent standard axle load application used in the
design. Until reliable data is available, the following distribution may be assumed.
Single lane roads: Traffic tends to be more channelized on single roads than two lane roads
and to allow for this concentration of wheel load repetitions, the design should be based on
total number of commercial vehicles in both directions
Two-lane single carriageway roads: The design should be based on 75 % of the commercial
vehicles in both directions.
Four-lane single carriageway roads: The design should be based on 40 % of the total
number of commercial vehicles in both directions.
Dual carriageway roads: For the design of dual two-lane carriageway roads should be based
on 75 % of the number of commercial vehicles in each direction. For dual three-lane
carriageway and dual four-lane carriageway the distribution factor will be 60 % and 45 %
respectively.
Pavement thickness design charts
For the design of pavements to carry traffic in the range of 1 to 10 msa, use chart 1 and for
traffic in the range 10 to 150 msa, use chart 2 of IRC:37 2001.
RIGID PAVEMENTS
Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load stresses to a
wider area below. A typical cross section of the rigid pavement is shown in Figure below.
Compared to flexible pavement, rigid pavements are placed either directly on the prepared
sub-grade or on a single layer of granular or stabilized material.

Figure 3.3 Typical cross section of Rigid pavement

Since there is only one layer of material between the concrete and the sub-grade, this layer
can be called as base or sub-base course. In rigid pavement, load is distributed by the slab
action, and the pavement behaves like an elastic plate resting on a viscous medium Rigid
pavements are constructed by Portland cement concrete (PCC) and should be analyzed by
plate theory instead of layer theory.

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Figure 3.4 Elastic plate resting on Viscous foundation

Types of Rigid Pavements

Rigid pavements can be classified into four types:
 Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP),
 Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP),
 Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP), and
 Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).
Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement: are plain cement concrete pavements constructed with
closely spaced contraction joints. Dowel bars or aggregate interlocks are normally used for
load transfer across joints. They normally has a joint spacing of 5 to 10m.
Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement: Although reinforcements do not improve the
structural capacity significantly, they can drastically increase the joint spacing to 10 to 30m.
Dowel bars are required for load transfer. Reinforcements help to keep the slab together even
after cracks.
Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement: Complete elimination of joints are achieved
by reinforcement.
FACTORS AFFECTING PAVEMENT DESIGN
Traffic and loading:

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Traffic is the most important factor in the pavement design. The key factors include contact
pressure, wheel load, axle configuration, moving loads, load, and load repetitions.
Contact pressure:
The tire pressure is an important factor, as it determines the contact area and the contact
pressure between the wheel and the pavement surface. Even though the shape of the contact
area is elliptical, for sake of simplicity in analysis, a circular area is often considered.
Wheel load:
The next important factor is the wheel load which determines the depth of the pavement
required to ensure that the subgrade soil is not failed. Wheel configuration affects the stress
distribution and deflection within a pavement. Many commercial vehicles have dual rear
wheels which ensure that the contact pressure is within the limits. The normal practice is to
convert dual wheel into an equivalent single wheel load so that the analysis is made simpler.
Axle configuration: The load carrying capacity of the commercial vehicle is further
enhanced by the introduction of multiple axles.
Moving loads:
The damage to the pavement is much higher if the vehicle is moving at creep speed. Many
studies show that when the speed is increased from 2 km/hr to 24 km/hr, the stresses and
deflection reduced by 40 per cent.
Repetition of Loads:
The influence of traffic on pavement not only depends on the magnitude of the wheel load,
but also on the frequency of the load applications. Each load application causes some
deformation and the total deformation is the summation of all these
Environmental factors:
Environmental factors affect the performance of the pavement materials and cause various
damages. Environmental factors that affect pavement are of two types, temperature and
precipitation.
DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENTS:
Stresses in Rigid Pavement
Rigid pavements are rigid i.e, they do not flex much under loading like flexible pavements.
They are constructed using cement concrete. In this case, the load carrying capacity is mainly
due to the rigidity ad high modulus of elasticity of the slab (slab action).
Modulus of sub-grade reaction

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Westergaard considered the rigid pavement slab as a thin elastic plate resting on soil sub-
grade, which is assumed as a dense liquid. The upward reaction is assumed to be proportional
to the deflection.
Westergaard’s Modulus of sub-grade reaction
p
K=

 p
= kg/cm3
0.125
where is the displacement level taken as 0.125 cm and p is the pressure sustained by the
rigid plate of 75 cm diameter at a deflection of 0.125 cm.
Radius of relative stiffness (l)
A certain degree of resistance to slab deflection is offered by the sub-grade. The sub-grade
deformation is same as the slab deflection. Hence the slab deflection is direct measurement of
the magnitude of the sub-grade pressure.
Westergaard defined the radius of relative stiffness which is expressed by the equation

l =  
14
Eh3
12K 1   2  
 
where E is the modulus of elasticity of cement concrete in kg/cm2 (3.0 x 105),
 is the Poisson's ratio of concrete (0.15),
h is the slab thickness in cm and
K is the modulus of sub-grade reaction.
Critical load positions
There are three typical locations namely the interior, edge and corner, where differing
conditions of slab continuity exist. These locations are termed as critical load positions.

Fig. Critical stress locations

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Since the pavement slab has finite length and width, either the character or the intensity of
maximum stress induced by the application of a given traffic load is dependent on the
location of the load on the pavement surface. There are three typical locations namely the
interior, edge and corner, where differing conditions of slab continuity exist. These locations
are termed as critical load positions.
Interior loading --- When load is applied in the interior of the slab surface
Edge loading ----- When load is applied in an edge of the slab.
Corner loading ---- When the center of the load application is located on the bisector of the
corner angle formed by two intersecting edges of the slab.
Equivalent radius of resisting section
When the interior point is loaded, only a small area of the pavement is resisting the bending
moment of the plate. Westergaard's gives a relation for equivalent radius of the resisting
section in cm in the equation

b= 1.6a2  h2  0.675h if a < 1.724h

Otherwise b = a if a > 1.724h
Where a = the radius of the wheel load distribution in cm
h = the slab thickness in cm.
b = equivalent radius of resisting section in cm
Wheel load stresses - Westergaard's stress equation
The cement concrete slab is assumed to be homogeneous and to have uniform elastic
properties with vertical sub-grade reaction being proportional to the deflection. Westergaard
developed relationships for the stress at interior, edge and corner regions, denoted as S i; Se; Sc
in kg/cm2 respectively and given by the equation
Load stress Si due to interior loading
l  
Si = 0.316P   1.069 
4 log 

2  10   
h b
   
Load stress Se due to edge loading
l 
0.572P   0.359 
S = 4 log
10  

e
h 2 
 b  

Load stress Sc due to corner loading
3P   0.6 
Sc = 1   a 2  
h2   l   

where h is the slab thickness in cm,
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P is the wheel load in kg,

a is the radius of the wheel load distribution in cm,
l the radius of the relative stiffness in cm and
b is the radius of the resisting section in cm
Temperature stresses
Temperature stresses are developed in cement concrete pavement due to variation in slab
temperature. This is caused by (i) daily variation resulting in a temperature gradient across
the thickness of the slab and (ii) seasonal variation resulting in overall change in the slab
temperature. The former results in warping stresses and the later in frictional stresses.
Combination of stresses
The cumulative effect of the different stress give rise to the following thee critical cases
 Summer, mid-day: The critical stress is for edge region
 Winter, mid-day: The critical combination of stress is for the edge region given by
 Mid-nights: The critical combination of stress is for the corner region given
Warping stress
The warping stress at the interior, edge and corner regions, denoted as Sti ; Ste ; Stc in kg/cm2
respectively and given by the equation
Warping stress at interior Sti is given by
Eet  C x  Cy 
Sti =  
2  1   2 


Warping stress at edge Ste is given by

Cx Eet
Ste =
2
C y Eet
Or Ste = whichever is higher
2
Warping stress at corner Stc is given by
Eet a
Stc =
31    l
where E is the modulus of elasticity of concrete in kg/cm2 (3X105),
e is the thermal coefficient of concrete per oC (1X10-7)
t is the temperature difference between the top and bottom of the slab,
Cx and Cy are the coefficient based on Lx/l in the desired direction and Ly/l right angle to the
desired direction,
 _ is the Poisson's ration (0.15),
a is the radius of the contact area and

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l is the radius of the relative stiffness.

Frictional stresses
The frictional stress Sf in kg/cm2 is given by the equation
WLe f 
 
Sf =
2 104
where W is the unit weight of concrete in kg/cm2 (2400),
f is the coefficient of sub grade friction (1.5) and
L is the length of the slab in meters.
Combination of stresses
The cumulative effect of the different stress give rise to the following thee critical cases
a. Summer, mid-day: The critical stress is for edge region given by
Critical combination of stresses at edge (Scritical) = load stress + warping stress –
frictional stress = Se +Ste - Sf
b. Winter, mid-day: The critical combination of stress is for the edge region given by
Critical combination of stresses at edge (Scritical) = load stress + warping stress +
frictional stress = Se +Ste + Sf
c. During summer Mid-nights: During summer midnight the critical combination of
stress occurs at the corner of the slab on the top when the slab tends to wrap upwards
and is resisted by the self-weight.
The Critical combination of stress during night at the corner region = Se + Ste
d. Most critical combination
The most critical combination of stresses is the highest of the three conditions (a),(b) and
(c) mentioned above.
Type of concrete used for cement concrete pavement
- Normally M40 grade is used for C.C. pavements.
- Minimum flexural strength of 45 kg/cm2.
- For low volume roads M35 concrete may be used.
Design approach for rigid pavements
Cement concrete roads provides a highly rigid surface and hence for the success of such
roads, following two conditions should be satisfied.
1. They should rest on non-rigid surface having uniform bearing capacity.
2. The total thickness or depth of the concrete pavement & the non-rigid base should be
sufficient to distribute the wheel load on a sufficient area of sub-base so that the
pressure on unit area remains with the permissible SBC of the soil.

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Concrete slab has high modulus of elasticity, high rigidity & flexural strength, so wheel loads
are distributed over large areas of subgrade. This leads to small deflections and also leads
compressive stresses imposed on the subgrade.
 This leads to fatigue damage in concrete slab in form of development of micro cracks,
due to repeated application of traffic loads.
 This is arrested by limiting flexural stresses and increasing the concrete mix grade.
Design steps (parameters)
1. Traffic parameters: Design wheel load, Traffic intensity
2. Environmental parameters: Temperature differential (CRRI table)
3. Foundation strength k (modulus of subgrade reaction)
4. Foundation surface characteristics (As per IRC)
5. Concrete characteristics(IRC:58 -1988)
6. Modulus of elasticity
7. Co-efficient of thermal expansion
8. Design slab thickness
Recommended design procedure for the design of rigid pavements by IRC
Wheel load
The design wheel load may be taken as 4100 kg with a tyre inflation pressure of 5.3 to 6.3
kg/cm3.
Traffic volume
The growth of traffic volume after 20 years of construction has to be considered in the
design. The following formula may be used to estimate the demand
Ad = P1(1 + r)n+20
Where
Ad = number of commercial vehicles per day for laden weight greater than 3 tonnes.
P1 = the number of commercial vehicles per day at least count.
r = annual rate of increase in traffic intensity
n = number of years between the last traffic count and the commissioning of new cement
concrete pavement.

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Annual temperature
The mean daily and annual temperature cycles are to be collected. The temperature
difference, depending on the place where the road is intended to be constructed is taken from
the standard table provided for various states and regions for a given thickness of slab.
Modulus of sub grade reaction
Modulus of sub grade reaction, K, is determined using a 75 cm diameter plate and the
pressure corresponding to 0.125cm deflection. If the pavement is to be laid on the sub grade
soil then K should be not less than 5.5kg/cm3 otherwise a suitable sub base course is to be
provided.
Properties of concrete
The flexural strength of cement concrete to be used for the pavement should be less than 40
kg/cm3.
The cube strength of concrete should be 280 kg/cm2, modulus of elasticity E = 3X105 and
poisons ratio = 0.15.these properties may also be determined experimentally.
Co-efficient of thermal expansion may be taken as 10x10-6per oC for design purpose.
Computation of stresses
 Wheel load stresses at the edge and corner regions are calculated as per modified
Westergaard’s analysis.
 Temperature stress at the edge region is calculated as per Westergaards analysis using
Bradbury’s coefficient.
Slab thickness
 The length and width of slab are decided based on the joint spacing’s and lane width.

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 A trial thickness of slab is assumed. The warping stress at edge region is calculated
which is deducted from the allowable flexural stress. The resulting strength in the
pavement has to support the edge loads.
 The stress due to load at the edge is calculated. The factor of safety is computed
comparing the strength and the edge stress. If the factor of safety is less than one,
thickness is increased and the calculations are repeated till the factor of safety is
above1.this is the design thickness h.
 The stress due to corner load is computed and checked using the above h. if this stress
value is less than allowable flexural stress in concrete then the slab thickness h is
adequate. If not the thickness may be suitably increased till the above condition is
satisfied.
 The design thickness h is then adjusted for traffic intensity as given in table to obtain
the final adjusted slab thickness.
Joint spacing
 For all slab thicknesses with rough foundation the maximum spacings recommended
for 25mm wide expansion joint is 140m. For smooth foundation the maximum
spacing may be 90m for slab thickness up to 20cm,
 120m for slab thickness up to 25cm when the construction is made in summer. If the
construction is made in winter the spacing may be restricted to 50 and 60m
respectively.
 In unreinforced slab for all slab thicknesses the spacing of construction joint is
4.5m.in reinforced slab the spacing is 13m for m15cm thickness slab with steel
reinforcement of 2.7kg/cm2 and 14m spacing for 20cm thick slabs with steel
reinforcement of 3.8kg/cm2.
Dowel bars
 Dowel bars are designed based on Bradbury’s analysis for shear, bending and bearing
in concrete.
 The minimum dowel length is taken as (Ld + δ). The load bearing capacity of the
dowel system is assumed to be 40% of the design wheel load. The dowel bars is
considered to be effective 1.8 times the radius of relative stiffness l on the either side
of the load position.

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 Dowel bars are provided for thickness of slab more than 15cm or more. IRC
recommends 2-5cm dia bars of 50cm length with 20cm spacing for 15cm thick slab
and spaced at 30cm in case of 20cm thick slab.
Tie bars
Designed for longitudinal joints with permissible bond stress in deformed bars 24.6kg/cm2
and in plain bars 17.5kg/cm2. Allowable working stress in tensile steel is taken as
1500kg/cm2.
Reinforcement
Nominal reinforcement in cement concrete pavements is intended to prevent deterioration of
the cracks. It is not provided to increase the flexural strength of uncracked slab. The area of
longitudinal and transverse steel required per meter width or length of slab is computed using
the following formula.
A=Lfw/(2S)
Where
A = area of steel required per meter width or length of the slab, cm2
L = distance between free transverse joints for longitudinal or transverse steel, m.
w = weight of unit area of pavement slab, kg/cm2.
The reinforcement is to be provided at 5cm below the surface of slab.it is continued across
dummy groove joints to serve the purpose of tie bars. The reinforcement is kept at least 5cm
away from the face of joint or edge.
Joints in cement concrete pavements
In general, joints are provided in cement concrete pavements to reduce temperature stresses.
 Expansion joint is provided to permit increase in the length of a slab due to
temperature increase.
 Contraction joints are provided (i) to control cracking of the slab resulting from
contraction and (ii) to relieve warping stresses.
 Longitudinal joints are provided to prevent the formation of irregular longitudinal
cracks and to allow for transverse warping and unequal settlement.
 Construction joints are provided at the abrupt end of a day’s work unexpectedly
interrupted due to breakdown of plant or onset of bad weather.
Warping joints are provided if expansion joint and contraction joints are not effective.

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Expansion joint is designed based on the maximum temperature variations expected and the
width of joint. The design of contraction joint is governed by the anticipated frictional
resistance and allowable tensile stress in concrete. Longitudinal joints are designed with tie
bars.
Design of joints
Expansion joints
The purpose of the expansion joint is to allow the expansion of the pavement due to rise in
temperature with respect to construction temperature.

Figure: Expansion joint

Contraction joints

Dowel bars
The purpose of the dowel bar is to effectively transfer the load between two concrete slabs
and to keep the two slabs in same height.
Tie bars
In contrast to dowel bars, tie bars are not load transfer devices, but serve as a means to tie two
slabs. Hence tie bars must be deformed or hooked and must be firmly anchored into the
concrete to function properly.

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HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
Introduction
The science of highway engineering raises some fundamental questions as to what is a road
or highway, how is it planned and designed and lastly how is it built. By now in the preceding
chapters, depending upon the desired strength of the pavement, the aggregate gradations and
the type and proportion of binders are decided. These three basic binder medium give rise to
a number of construction methods.
Types of Highway Construction
The highway types are classified as below:
(i) Earth road and gravel roads
(ii) Soil stabilized roads
(iii) Water bound macadam (WBM) road
(iv) Bituminous or black-top roads
(v) Cement concrete roads
The roads in India are classified based on location and functions. All the roads do not cater for the
same amount of traffic volume or intensity. Since the funds available at hand for financing the
construction projects are also meager, it is necessary to have roads which cost less. The adoption
of low cost roads is now preferred in developing countries like India where large lengths of roads
are to be constructed in the rural areas with the limited finances available in the country. Earth
roads and stabilized roads are typical examples of low cost roads. Stabilized soil roads are
gaining importance in the form of low cost roads.
EARTHWORK
General
The subgrade soil is prepared by bringing is to the desired grade and camber and by
compacting adequately. The subgrade may be either in embankment or in excavation,
depending on the topography and the finalized vertical alignment of the road to be
constructed.
Excavation
Excavation is the process of cutting or loosening and removing earth including rock form its
original position. Transporting and dumping it as a fill or spoil bank. The excavation or
cutting mat is needed in soil, soft rock or even in hard rock, before preparing the subgrade.
Embankment

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When it is required to raise the grade line of a highway above the existing ground level it
becomes necessary to construct embankments. The grade line may be raised due to any of the
following reasons
i) To keep the subgrade above the high ground water table.
ii) To prevent damage to pavement due to surface water and capillary water.
iii) To maintain the design standards of the highway with respect to the Vertical
alignment.
The design elements in highway embankments are:
a) Height
b) Fill material
c) Settlement
d) Stability of foundation, and
e) Stability of slopes
Height
The height of the embankment depends on the desired grade line of the highway and the soil
profile or topography. Also the height of the fill is some times governed by stability of
foundation, particularly when the foundation soil is weak.
Fill Material
Granular soil is generally preferred as highway embankment material. Silts, and clays are
considered less desirable. Organic soils, particularly peat are unsuitable. The best of the soils
available locally is often selected with a view to keep the lead and lift as low as possible. At
times light-weight fill material like cinder may be used to reduce the weight when foundation
soil is weak.
Settlement
The embankment may settle after the completion of construction either due to consolidation
and settlement of the foundation or due to settlement of the fill or due to both. If the
embankment foundation consists of compressible soil with high moisture content, the
consolidation can occur due to increase in the load. The settlement of the fill is generally due
to inadequate compaction during construction and hence by proper compaction this type of
settlement may be almost eliminated. Whatever be the type of settlement, it is desirable that
the settlement is almost complete before the construction of pavement.
Stability of Foundation

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When the embankment foundation consists of weak soil just beneath or at a certain depth
below in the form of a weak stratum, it is essential to consider the stability of the foundation
against a failure. This is all the more essential in the case of high embankments.
a) The foundation stability is evaluated and the factor of safety is estimated by any of the
following approaches:
b) Estimating the average shear stress and strength at the foundation layers by
approximate methods and estimating the factor of safety.

c) Using theoretical analysis based on elastic theory.

The factor of safety in the case of compressible soil foundation is likely to be minimum just
after the completion of the embankment. Later due to consolidation of foundation and
consequent gain in strength there will be an increase in the foundation factor of safety.
Stability of Slopes
The embankment slopes should be stable enough to eliminate the possibility of a failure
under adverse moisture and other conditions. Hence the stability of the slope should be
checked or the slope should be designed providing minimum factor of safety of 1.5. Often
much flatter slopes are preferred in highway embankments due to aesthetic and other reasons.
CONSTRUCTION OF PAVEMENTS
Various equipments for construction of the pavements:
1. Bull dozer
2. Scrapper
3. Power shovel
4. Hoe
5. Dragline
6. Clamp shell
7. Pavers
Construction of Flexible pavement
Material for construction Flexible pavement/Bituminous pavement:
The common types of flexible pavements in India is made from wet mix macadam (WMM)
and (WBM) water bound macadam.
Wet mix macadam construction procedure
Steps
1. The compaction test is conducted in the laboratory using the selected WMM material.

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2. The optimum moisture content of the WMM material is found out in the laboratory
under heavy compaction.
3. The selected WMM material is prepared in a pug mill by adding water equal to the
optimum moisture content.
4. Then the WMM material is transported to the field and spread over the site by using a
paver to attain required slope, thickness & grade.
5. Then the compaction is done using the vibratory roller of minimum weight 10 times
and with a rolling speed of 5 Kmph.
6. The WMM layer is checked for defects before the construction of the bituminous
surface course.
7. After the WMM layer is dried in a dry weather for 24 hours the bituminous pavement
layer is applied & the real is opened for traffic.
WATER BOUND MACADAM COSTRUCTION
Material used for the WBM construction
a) Coarse aggregate
b) Screening
c) Binding material
Construction process
Steps
1. The soil surface prepared by leveling & filling of the depressions and patching the pot
holes up to the required grade and slope.
2. The dust and other loose materials are cleaned.
3. The total boundary for the formation of the pavement was confined by constructing
the shoulders.
4. Then the coarse aggregates are properly spread to a uniform profile and thickness.
5. The compaction is done by using power rollers of 3-10 tons by vibration & rolling,
starting from the edge towards the center line.
6. After the compaction is over the dry screening are applied on the surface to fill the
interspaces in 3-4 applications.
7. The surface is sprinkled with water & rolled. The rolling is done till the coarse
aggregates get firmly bonded.
8. The binding material is applied at a uniform & slow rate followed with sprinkling of
water. Then rolled to desired level.

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9. After the final compaction the layer is allowed for drying 24 hours. The bituminous
surfacing is layered which comprises of tar & aggregate of range (1-1.5 cm) in hot
condition.
10. Then the rolling is done followed by sprinkling of additional bitumen & after the
drying of road completely this is made open to the traffic.
CONSTRUCTION OF CEMENT CONCRETE/RIGID PAVEMENTS
Construction of C.C. pavements can be done in two methods
1. Alternate bay method
Here the C.C slabs are layered alternatively after an interval of 1 week or 2 days in
case of rapid hardening cement (High alumina cement).
2. Continuous construction
In this method all the bays of one traffic lane are laid continuously without any break.
Materials required for the construction of C.C. pavements
a) Cement – OPC & Rapid hardening (High alumina cement)
b) Coarse aggregate
- Abrasion value < 35 %
- Impact value < 30 %
- Crushing value < 30 %
- Soundness value < 12
Note: The maximum size of the aggregate used should be ¼ th the slab thickness.
c) Fine aggregate – Natural sand, Crushed gravel/stone
d) water
Construction procedure
Normally the C.C. pavements are constructed in the dry weather at temperature between (4 –
400 C).
Step 1 Subgrade preparation
The foundation should be compacted & well graded. Generally the subgrade or sub-base
preparation is done till a depth of 30 cm.
Step 2 Formwork fixing
Timber/ wood frameworks were previously used as formwork in C.C. pavement construction
but now-a-days steel formworks of length 3 m are used. The formworks were made to stand
vertically & fixed by the help of stiffeners at the backside and arranged in a straight line.
Then the line & levels were ensued.
Step 3 Batching of concrete

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The coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and cement are mixed in required preparation by weight
in the batching plant properly.
Step 4 Mixing of materials
Concrete mixing is done using power driven mixers for uniform distribution of all materials
in mixture. The workability is also determined for the prepared mix.
Step 5 Transportation & spreading
The concrete should be immediately placed between the formwork within 20 minutes after
mixing & compacted properly. The concrete should not be dropped from a height of 90 cm
(to avoid segregation).
Step 6 Compaction
The compaction must be done by using a vibrating screed while continuing this process over
vibration is avoided as to prevent coming of excess mortar & water to the top. This step
should be completed within 75 minutes after mixing.
Step 7 Curing
After the final setting time is over. Wet jute mats were placed over the pavement for initial
curing of 24 hrs and after that sand is sprayed and watered over the pavement for final curing
of 14 days. After 28 days the pavement is opened for traffic.

PAVEMENT FAILURE & MAINTAINANCE

The no. of factors that causes pavement failure are
- Increase in traffic
- Environmental charges
- Design and construction deficiency
- Maintenance deficiency
Pavement failures:
Unsatisfactory performance of a pavement such that it can no longer be serviceable.
Pavement failure may be structural and functional failures.
- Structural failure means the collapse of the pavement
- Functional means the pavement is not able to discharge the traffic freely.
Maintenance of pavements:
Maintenance is the process which tends to keep the pavement in serviceable condition
as long as possible.
- For proper inspection & maintenance each state should have a highway maintenance
cell which will focus on construction, repair, maintenance & inspection works.

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Earth roads:
The usual damages caused in the earth roads needing frequent maintenance are:
i) Formation of dust in dry weather.
ii) Formation of longitudinal ruts along wheel path or vehicles
iii) Formation of cross ruts along the surface after monsoons due to surface water.
Thus, dust nuisance may be remedied y the following methods:
a) Frequent sprinkling of water
b) Treatment with calcium chloride
c) Use of other dust palliatives.
Application of calcium chloride retains some water due to the hygroscopic nature of mix.
Oiled earth roads are also common these days.
Periodical maintenance by spreading moist soil along ruts and reshaping of the camber is
necessary. Formation of cross ruts may be due to excessive cross slope.
Hence either these ruts should be repaired from time to time during and after the monsoon or
a surface treatment or stabilized layer be provided on the top.
Maintenance of earth roads:
- Sprinkling water
- Rolling
- Adding new material over the older one followed by compaction.
Maintenance of WBM roads:
- Spreading a thin binder layer after monsoon.
- Applying surface dressing.
- Using filling materials such as dust.
Maintenance of bituminous surfaces:
Mainly the maintenance works of bituminous surfacing consists of:
i) Patch repairs
ii) Surface treatments
iii) Resurfacing
Patch repairs:
Patch repairs are carried out on the damaged or improper roads surface. Localized depression
and pot holes may be formed in the surface layers due to defects in materials and
construction.
An inadequate or defective binding material causes removal of aggregates during monsoons.
Patching may be done on affected localized area or sections using a cold premix.

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Pot holes and repairs:

Pot holes are cut to rectangular shape and the affected materials in the section is removed
until the sound materials are encountered.
The excavated patches are cleaned and painted with bituminous binder. A premixed material
is then placed in the sections. Generally, cutback or emulsion is used as binder.
Bituminous emulsions could be used even when the pavement surface and the aggregates are
wet during monsoons.
The materials so places in the pot hole, is well compacted by ramming to avoid any raveling.
The materials in out holes are places in layers of thickness of 6 cm.
it is however necessary to replace the base course materials with similar new materials if the
failure has been detected in the base curse layer. The finished level of the patched is kept
slightly above original level to allow for subsequent compaction under traffic.
Surface treatment:
Excess of bitumen in the surface materials bleeds and the pavement becomes patchy and
slippery. Corrugations or rutting or shoving develop in such pavement surface. It is
customary to spread blotting materials such as aggregate chips of maximum size of about
10mm or coarse sand during summer.
Resurfacing:
In the event when the pavement surface is totally worn out and develops a poor riding
surface, it may be more economical to provide an additional surface course on the existing
surface.
In case of the pavement is of inadequate thickness due to increase in traffic loads and
strengthening is necessary, than an overlay of adequate thickness should be designed and
constructed.
Maintenance of Bituminous pavements:
- Cutting the defective areas in rectangular shape.
- Cleaning & applying primer.
- Filling the excavated area with premixed material by applying emulsions and
compacted.
- Bituminous surface with minute cracks are treated by providing a completely new
surface over it.
Maintenance of cement concrete roads:
Various types of cracking have been explained:
Treatment of cracks:

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The cracks are developed in cement concrete (CC) may be classified into two groups:
i) Temperature cracks which are initially fine cracks or hair cracks formed across the slab in
between a pair of transverse or longitudinal joints, dividing the slab length into two or more
approximately equal parts due to the temperature stresses like the shrinkage stress warping
stress etc.
ii) Structural cracks formed near the edge and corner regions of the slabs, due to combined
wheel load and warping stresses in the slab.
The repeated application of heavy wheel loads and the variations in temperature and moisture
conditions the cracks get widened and further deterioration becomes repaid.
Once the surface water starts getting into the pavement and the sub grade through the
widened cracks, progressive failure or the pavement is imminent.
Therefore before these cracks get wide enough to permit infiltration of water, they should be
sealed off to prevent rapid deteriorations
The formation of structural rocks in CC slabs should be viewed seriously and needs
immediate attention as these indicate possible beginning of pavement failure. The
maintenance work in such a case involves first remedy of the basic cause of the failure and
then recasting the failed slabs.
Maintenance of joints:
Joints are the weakest pars in CC pavements. The efficiency of the pavement is determined
by the proper functioning of the joint.
During the summer the joint sealer material is squeezed out of the expansion joints due to the
expansion of the slabs. Subsequently as the slabs contract during winter, the joint gap opens
out and cracks are formed in the old sealer material.
The joint filler material at the expansion joints may get damaged or deteriorated after several
years of pavement life. The repair consist of removal of the sealer and deteriorated filler and
sealer materials from the expansion joints cleaning up replacement with new filter board a
sealing the top of the joints with suitable sealer materials.

Maintenance of concrete roads:

- Wide pavement cracks can be maintained by first cleaning the cracks & applying a
coat of kerosene then filled with suitable fillers.
- Slabs may be repaired using epoxy rasin sand ratio of 1:8 to 1:10 to a desired level.
Pavement strengthening:
Strengthening of pavement may be remedial & preventive.

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For strengthening an extra thickness of pavement known as overlay is provided in 4 different

ways such as
a) Flexible overlay over flexible pavement
b) Flexible overlay over rigid pavement
c) Rigid overlay over rigid pavement
d) Rigid overlay over flexible pavement

PAVEMENT FAILURES:

Some of the general causes of pavement failures needing maintenance measures may be
classified as given below:
a) Defects in the quality of materials used.
b) Defects in construction method and quality control during construction
c) Inadequate surface or subsurface drainage in the locality resulting in the stagnation of
water in the sub grade or in any of the pavement layers.
d) Increase in the magnitude of wheel loads and the number of load repetitions due to
increase in traffic volume.
e) Settlement of foundation of embankment of the fill material itself.
f) Environmental factors including heavy rainfall, spil erosion, high water table, snow fall,
frost action etc.
The various items of highway maintenance works may be broadly classified under three
heads:
Routine maintenance:
These include filling up of pot holes and patch repairs, maintenance of shoulders and the
cross slope, up-keep of the road side drains and clearing choked culverts, maintenance of
miscellaneous items like road signs, arboriculture, inspection bungalows etc.
Periodic maintenance:
These include renewals of wearing course of pavement surface and preventive maintenance
of various items.
Special repair:
These include strengthening of pavement structure or overlay construction, reconstruction of
pavement, widening of roads, repairs of damages caused by floods, providing additional
safety measures like islands, sings.etc.

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DESIGN OF PAVEMENT
The surface of the roadway should be stable & non-yielding, to allow the heavy wheel load of
road traffic to move with least possible rolling resistance. The road surface should also be
even along the longitudinal profile to enable the design speed. The earth road may not be able
to fulfill any of the above requirement, especially during the varying conditions of traffic
loads & the weather. At high moisture contents, the soil becomes weaker & soft & starts
yielding under heavy wheel loads, thus increasing the tractive resistance discomfort & fatigue
to the passengers of fast moving vehicle & cyclists thus a pavement consisting of a few layers
of pavement materials is constructed over a prepared soil sub grade to serve as a carriageway.
 Based on the vertical alignment & the environmental conditions of the site, the
pavement may be constructed over an embankment, cut or almost at the ground level
of the ground water to keep the sub grade relatively dry even during monsoons.
Failures in flexible pavement
A flexible pavement failure is defined by formation of pot holes, ruts, cracks, localized
depressions and settlements. The localized depression normally is followed with heaving in
the vicinity.
The failure of any one or more components of the pavement structure develops the waves and
corrugations on the pavement surface or longitudinal ruts and shoving. Pavement unevenness
may itself be considered, as a failure, when it is excessive.
The aging and oxidation of bituminous films lead to the deterioration of bituminous
pavements. Deterioration actions in pavements are rapidly increased when excess water is
retained in the void spaces of bituminous pavements or in the cracks and joint of the cement
concrete pavements.
The cement concrete pavement may develop cracks and deteriorate due to repeated loads and
fatigue effects. A rigid pavement failure is observed by the development of structural crack of
break resulting in progressive subsidence of some portions of pavement.
Pavements are therefore capable of withstanding slight variations in the underlying support
and they bridge the localized gaps moderately.
It is the combination of many factors that induce the failure conditions in the rigid pavement.
Due to the temperature effects, the newly constructed cement concrete pavement may also
crack even if no vehicle moves on them.
Failures in flexible pavements:

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The localized settlement of any one component layer of the flexible pavement structure could
be enough to cause pavement failure. This demands that each one of the layers should be
carefully designed and laid.
Thus to maintain the stability of the pavement structure as a whole, each layer should be
stable within itself and thereby make the total pavement mainta9n its stability.
In this fig shows the failures in soil subgrade, base course and the surface wearing course. It
may see that ultimately there is surface deformation when failure takes place either in sub
grade or base or surface.
Failures in sub grade:
One of the prime causes of flexible pavement failure is excessive deformation in sub
grade soil. It is the form of excessive undulation or waves and corrugations in the pavement
surface and also depressions followed by heaving of pavement surface.
The lateral shoving of pavement near the edge along the wheel path of vehicles is due to
insufficient bearing capacity or a shear failure in sub grade soil.
The failure of sub grade maybe attributed due to two basic reasons:
i) Inadequate stability
ii) Excessive pavement thickness
Inadequate stability may be due to inherent of the soil and excessive moisture condition and
improper compaction. Stability is the resistance to deformation under the stress.
Excessive stress application is due to inadequate pavement thickness or loads in excess of
design value.
The deformation due to the load would be elastic or fully recovered when the load is released.
In part of the compaction of the layers is not adequate with reference to subsequent loading
part of the deformation may be permanent due to compaction of soil this may be called as
consolidation deformation.
The applied stress is excessive with respect to the stability and plastic flow takes place as in
the case of we t clay soil, this deformation is called plastic deformation.
The type of damage in flexible pavement than can be caused by traffic due to sub grade
failure due to inadequate and improper compaction of sub grade and other pavement layers.
Failures in sub base or base course:
Following are the chief types of sub-base or base course failures:
i) Inadequate stability or strength
ii) Loss of binding action.
iii) Loss of base course materials

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iv) Inadequate wearing course

v) Use of inferior materials and crushing of base course materials
vi) Lack of lateral confinement for the granular bass course.
Failures of wearing course:
Failure of wearing course is observed due to lack of proper mix design. Improper gradation of
aggregates, inadequate binder content and inferior type of binder result in a poor bituminous
surfacing.
Besides the design project the bituminous construction requires a high degree of quality
control since over or under estimated binder content are both greatly damaging to the
resulting paving mix including temperature controls.
Vocalization and oxidation of binder also makes the bituminous surfacing brittle and cause
cracking of the pavement surface which further allows seepage of rain water to harm the
underlying layers.

Following are the some of the flexible pavement failures:

Alligator (map) cracking
Consolidation of pavement layers
Shear failure
Longitudinal cracking
Frost heaving
Lack of binding to the lower course
Reflection cracking
Formation of waves and corrugation.
Alligator (map) cracking
This is the most common type of failure and occurs due to relative movement of pavement
layer materials. This may be caused by the repeated application of heavy wheel load resulting
in fatigue failure or due to the moisture variations resulting in swelling and shrinkage of sub
grade and other pavement materials. Localized weakness in the under laying base course
would also cause a cracking of the surface course in this pattern.

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Consolidation of pavement layers

Formations of ruts are mainly attributed to the consolidation of one or more layers of
pavement. The repeated application of loads along the same wheel path cause cumulative
deformation resulting in consolidation deformation or longitudinal ruts. Shallow ruts on the
surfacing course can also be due to wearing along the wheel path. Depending upon the depth
and width of ruts, it can be estimated whether the consolidation deformation has been caused
in the sub grade or in subsequent layers.

Shear failure and cracking

Shear failures are associated with the inherent weakness of pavement mixtures, the shearing
resistance being low due to inadequate stability or excessively heavy loading. The shear
failure causes upheaval of pavement materials by forming a fracture or cracking.

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Longitudinal cracking
Due to frost action and differential volume changes in sub grade longitudinal cracking is
caused in pavement traversing through the fall pavement thickness. Settlement of fill and
sliding of side slopes also would cause this type of failure.

Frost heaving
Frost heaving is often misunderstood for shear or other types of failure. In shear failure, the
upheaval of portion of pavement is followed with a depression. In the case of frost heaving,
there is mostly a localized heaving up pavement portion depending upon the ground water
and climate conditions.

Lack of binding with lower layer

Slipping occurs when the surface course is not keyed/bound with the under laying base. This
results in opening up and loss of pavement materials forming patches or pot holes. Such
conditions are more frequent in case when the bituminous surfacing is provided over the
existing cement concrete base course or soil cement course. This condition is more
pronounced when the prime/tack coat in between two layers is lacking.

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Reflection cracking
This type of cracking is observed in bituminous overlays provided over existing cement
concrete pavements. The crack patterns as existing in cement concrete pavements are mostly
reflected on bituminous surfacing in the same pattern. Structural action of the total pavement
section is not much influenced by the presence of reflection cracks but since the cracks
appear at the surface, these allow surface water to seep through and cause damage to the soil
sub grade or resulting in mud pumping.

PAVEMENT FAILURE

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Pavements fail prematurely because of many factors. When boiled down to the basics, there
are four primary reasons pavements fail prematurely:
 Failure in design
 Failure in construction
 Failure in materials
 Failure in maintenance
DIFFERENT TYPE OF PROBLEM

1. Fatigue Cracking (Alligator Cracking):- Fatigue cracking is commonly called

alligator cracking. This is a series of interconnected cracks creating small, irregular
shaped pieces of pavement. It is caused by failure of the surface layer or base due to
repeated traffic loading (fatigue).

2. Longitudinal Cracking:- Longitudinal cracks are long cracks that run parallel to the
canter line of the roadway. These may be caused by frost heaving or joint failures, or
they may be load induced. Understanding the cause is critical to selecting the proper
repair.

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3. Transverse Cracking:- Transverse cracks form at approximately right angles to the

centre line of the roadway. They are regularly spaced and have some of the same
causes as longitudinal cracks. Transverse cracks will initially be widely spaced (over
20 feet apart). They usually begin as hairline or very narrow cracks and widen with
age.

4. Block Cracking:- Block cracking is an interconnected series of cracks that divides

the pavement into irregular pieces. This is sometimes the result of transverse and
longitudinal cracks intersecting. They can also be due to lack of compaction during
construction. Low severity block cracking may be repaired by a thin wearing course.

5. Edge cracking:- Edge cracks typically start as crescent shapes at the edge of the
pavement. They will expand from the edge until they begin to resemble alligator
cracking. This type of cracking results from lack of support of the shoulder due to
weak material or excess moisture.
6. Rutting:- Rutting is the displacement of pavement material that creates channels in
the wheel path. Very severe rutting will actually hold water in the rut. Rutting is
usually a failure in one or more layers in the pavement. The width of the rut is a sign

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of which layer has failed. A very narrow rut is usually a surface failure, while a wide
one is indicative of a sub grade failure.

7. Potholes:- Potholes are bowl-shaped holes similar to depressions. They are a

progressive failure. First, small fragments of the top layer are dislodged. Over time,
the distress will progress downward into the lower layers of the pavement. Potholes
are often located in areas of poor drainage, as seen in Figure Potholes are formed
when the pavement disintegrates under traffic loading, due to inadequate strength in
one or more layers of the pavement, usually accompanied by the presence of water.

8. De-lamination:- De-lamination is a failure of an overlay due to a loss of bond

between the overlay and the older pavement. Common causes of de-lamination
include: wet or dirty surface during paving of the overlay, failure to use a tack coat,
or poor compaction of the overlay. Proper paving techniques, including cleaning the
surface and use of tack coat, will reduce the chances of de- lamination.

FAILURE OF RIGID PAVEMENT

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Failure in rigid pavement (or cement concrete pavement) can be identified by formation of
cracks on the pavement surface. The two prime factors responsible for rigid pavement failure
are
1. Use of poor quality material
2. Inadequate stability of the pavement structure
Poor quality of material consist of following items
 Using soft aggregate
 Poor quality of sub-grade soil
 Poor joint filler R sealer materials
Inadequate stability of the pavement structure can be due to following reason
 Inadequate pavement thickness
 Lack of sub-grade support
 Improper compaction of sub-grade
 Improper spacing of joints
TYPES OF FAILURE IN RIGID PAVEMENT
The following 5 form of failures are commonly found in rigid pavement
1. Scaling of cement concrete
2. Shrinkage cracks
3. Joint spalling
4. Warping cracks
5. Pumping
1. SCALING OF CEMENT CONCRETE
Scaling of rigid pavement simply means, peeling off or flaking off of the top layer or
skin of the concrete surface. This may be due to the following reasons
 Improper mix design
 Excessive vibration during compaction of concrete
 Laitance of concrete
 Performing finishing operation while bleed water is on surface

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2. SHRINKAGE CRACKS
Formation of hairline shallow cracks on concrete slab is the indication of shrinkage cracks.
Shrinkage cracks develop on concrete surface during the setting & curing operation. These
cracks may form in longitudinal as well as in transverse direction.

3. JOINT SPALLING
Joint spalling is the breakdown of the slab near edge of the joint. Normally it occurs within
m of the joints. The common reasons for this defect are
 Faulty alignment of incompressible material below concrete slab
 Insufficient strength of concrete slab near joints
 Freeze-thaw cycle
 Excessive stress at joint due to wheel load
4. WARPING CRACKS
In hot weather, concrete slab tends to expand. Therefore the joints should be so designed to
accommodate this expansion. When joints are not designed properly, it prevents expansion
of concrete slab and therefore results in development of excessive stress. This stress cause

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formation of warping cracks of the concrete slab near the joint edge. This type of crack can
be prevented by providing proper reinforcement at the longitudinal and transverse joints.
Hinge joints are generally used to relieve the stress due to warping.

5. PUMPING
When material present below the road slab ejects out through the joints or cracks, it is called
pumping. When soil slurry comes out it is called mud pumping. The common reasons for this
defect are
 Infiltration of water through the joints, cracks or edge of the pavement forms soil
slurry. Movement of heavy vehicles on pavement forces this soil slurry to come out causing
mud pumping.
 When there is void space between slab and the underlying base of sub-grade layer
 Poor joint sealer allowing infiltration of water
 Repeated wheel loading causing erosion of underlying material
Pumping can also lead to formation of cracks. This is because; ejection of sub-grade material
below the slab causes loss of sub-grade support.
When traffic movement occurs at these locations, it fails to resist the wheel load due to
reduction of sub-grade support and develops cracks. This type of defect can be identified
when there is presence of base or sub-grade material on the pavement surface close to joints
or cracks.

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Maintenance management system

The type and extent of maintenance requirement for a road depend on the serviceability
standard laid down, the maintenance needs funds available and the priorities for the
maintenance operarions.As several interlinked factors are involved in the maintenance works
of road network consisting of different categories of road, a system approach is appropriate
for the road maintenance management.
The various factors to be included in the maintenance management system are:
• Minimum acceptable serviceability standards for the maintenance of different
categories of roads.
• Field surveys for the evaluation of maintenance requirements.
• Various factors influencing the maintenance needs such as sub grade soil, drainage,
climate, traffic, environmental conditions.
• Estimation of rate of deterioration of the pavement under the prevailing set of
conditions.
• Type and extent of maintenance requirements and various possible alternatives and
their economic evaluation.
• Availability of funds.
• Maintenance cost, availability of materials, man power and equipment.

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