What is a Transformer?

A transformer is a device used in power transmission to transfer electrical energy from one
electrical circuit to another, or in multiple circuits at a time. In other words, it is a voltage
control device that is widely used in the distribution and transmission of AC power.
These are made to increase or decrease the AC voltage between the circuits while controlling
the frequency of the current by creating a conductive connection between the two circuits.
This is done through the application of Faraday’s law of induction which states that “the
magnitude of the induced voltage in a coil is proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic flux which cuts across the coil”.

Transformers can also be used for isolation, where voltage is equal to the voltage output, with
the individual coils not electrically tied to each other. A wide range of transformer designs
and sizes are located in electronic and electric power applications.
Types of Transformers
Following are the main types of transformers:
1.Step down transformer
2.Step up transformer
3.Single phase transformer
4.Three phase transformer
5.Power transformer
6.Distribution transformer
7.Current transformer
8.Isolation transformer
9.Potential transformer
10.Instrument transformer
11.Air Core transformer
12.Iron core transformer
13.Ferrite core transformer
14.Toroidal core transformer
15.Autotransformer
16.Grounding or earthing transformer
Transformer Types
Transformers are used in various fields like power generation grid, distribution sector,
transmission and electric energy consumption. There are various types of transformers which
are classified based on the following factors:
•Working voltage range
•The medium used in the core
•Winding arrangement
•Installation location
Based on Voltage Levels
Commonly used transformer types, depending on the voltage, are classified as follows:
•Step-up Transformer: They are used between the power generator and the power grid. The
secondary output voltage is higher than the input voltage.
•Step-down Transformer: These transformers are used to convert high-voltage primary
supply to low-voltage secondary output.
Based on the Medium of Core Used
In a transformer, we will find different types of cores that are used.
•Air Core Transformer: The flux linkage between primary and secondary winding is through
the air. The coil or windings wound on the non-magnetic strip.
•Iron Core Transformer: Windings are wound on multiple iron plates stacked together, which
provides a perfect linkage path to generate flux.
Based on the Winding Arrangement
•Autotransformer: It will have only one winding wound over a laminated core. The primary
and secondary share the same coil. Auto means “self” in the Greek language.
Based on Install Location
•Power Transformer: It is used at power generation stations, as they are suitable for high
voltage application
•Distribution Transformer: It is mostly used at distribution lanes for domestic purposes.
They are designed for carrying low voltages. It is very easy to install and characterised by low
magnetic losses.
•Measurement Transformers: They are mainly used for measuring voltage, current and
power.
•Protection Transformers: They are used for component protection purposes. In circuits,
some components must be protected from voltage fluctuation, etc. Protection transformers
ensure component protection.
Working Principle of a Transformer:
The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and
mutual induction.

There are usually two coils – primary coil and secondary coil – on the transformer core. The
core laminations are joined in the form of strips. The two coils have high mutual inductance.

When an alternating current passes through the primary coil, it creates a varying magnetic
flux. As per Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, this change in magnetic flux induces
an EMF (electromotive force) in the secondary coil, which is linked to the core having a
primary coil. This is mutual induction.

Overall, a transformer carries out the following operations:

1.Transfer of electrical energy from one circuit to another

2.Transfer of electrical power through electromagnetic induction
3.Electric power transfer without any change in frequency
4.Two circuits are linked with mutual induction
The figure shows the formation of magnetic flux lines around a current-carrying wire. The
normal of the plane containing the flux lines is parallel to the normal of a cross-section of a
wire.
The figure shows the formation of varying magnetic flux lines around a wire wound. The
interesting part is that the reverse is also true; when a magnetic flux line fluctuates around a
piece of wire, a current will be induced in it. This was what Michael Faraday found in 1831,
which is the fundamental working principle of electric generators, as well as transformers.
The major parts of a single-phase transformer consist of
1. Core: The core acts as a support to the winding in the transformer. It also provides a low
reluctance path to the flow of magnetic flux. The winding is wound on the core, as shown in the
picture. It is made up of a laminated soft iron core in order to reduce the losses in a transformer.
The factors, such as operating voltage, current, power, etc., decide core composition. The core
diameter is directly proportional to copper losses and inversely proportional to iron losses.
2. Windings: Windings are the set of copper wires wound over the transformer core. Copper
wires are used due to the following:
•The high conductivity of copper minimises the loss in a transformer because when the
conductivity increases, resistance to current flow decreases.
•The high ductility of copper is the property of metals that allows it to be made into very thin
wires.
There are mainly two types of windings: primary windings and secondary windings.
•Primary winding: The set of turns of windings to which the supply current is fed.
•Secondary winding: The set of turns of winding from which output is taken.
The primary and secondary windings are insulated from each other using insulation coating
agents.
3. Insulation Agents
Insulation is necessary for transformers to separate windings from each other and to
avoid short circuits. This facilitates mutual induction. Insulation agents have an influence
on the durability and stability of a transformer.
The following are used as insulation mediums in a transformer:
• Insulating oil
• Insulating tape
• Insulating paper
• Wood-based lamination
Ideal Transformer
The ideal transformer has no losses. There is no magnetic leakage flux, ohmic resistance
in its windings and no iron loss in the core.
 EMF Equation of Transformer

N1 – Number of turns in the primary

N2 – Number of turns in the secondary
Φm – Maximum flux in the weber (Wb)
T – Time period. It is the time taken for 1 cycle.
The flux formed is a sinusoidal wave. It rises to a maximum value of
Φm and decreases to a negative maximum of Φm. So, flux reaches a
maximum in one-quarter of a cycle. The time taken is equal to T/4.
Average rate of change of flux = Φm/(T/4) = 4fΦm
Where, f = frequency
T = 1/f
Induced EMF per turn = Rate of change of flux per turn
Form factor = RMS value / average value
RMS value = 1.11 (4fΦm) = 4.44 fΦm [form factor of a sine wave is 1.11]
RMS value of EMF induced in winding = RMS value of EMF per turn x No. of turns

Primary Winding
RMS value of induced EMF = E1 = 4.44 fΦm * N1
Secondary Winding
RMS value of induced EMF = E2 = 4.44 fΦm * N2
This is the EMF equation of the transformer.
For an ideal transformer at no load condition,
E1 = Supply voltage on the primary winding
E2 = Terminal voltage (theoretical or calculated) on the
secondary winding
 Voltage Transformation Ratio

K is called the voltage transformation ratio, which is a constant.

Case 1:If N2 > N1, K>1, it is called a step-up transformer.
Case 2: If N2< N1, K<1, it is called a step-down transformer.
 Step Down Transformer
A step down transformer converts high voltage
from the primary side to low voltage on the
secondary coil resulting in a decrease in the output
voltage. In this, the overall winding ratio of
primary and secondary is always more than 1.

This means that the primary side has more

windings as compared to the secondary side. In
case a single-phase power outlet voltage is
converted to a desired low voltage level, a step-
down transformer is required. Generally, step down
transformers are used in power distribution
systems.
 Step Up Transformer

These types of transformers work almost the

same as step down transformers. A step up
transformer can convert low voltage from the
primary side of the transformer to high voltage
on the secondary side of the transformer.

In this, the ratio of the primary winding to

secondary winding is less than 1 because the
number of turns on the secondary is always
greater than the number of turns on the primary.
These devices have no internal moving parts
and work on the principle of magnetic
induction. A step-up transformer is mainly used
in electrical power distribution.
 Single Phase Transformer

A single-phase transformer is a type of power

transformer that uses single-phase alternating
current, which means it relies on a voltage cycle
that operates in an integrated time phase. These
are basically works based on the principle of
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

At constant variation of frequency and voltage

level, the transformer transfers AC power from
one circuit to another. It has two types of
windings, the primary winding to which the AC
supply is given and the secondary winding to
which the load is connected. These are used for
domestic inverters and for power supply in non-
urban areas.
Three Phase Transformer

These transformers are used to convert the

voltage of electronic systems with three-phase.
They are available in various configurations,
such as star-star, delta-delta, star-delta, and
delta-star. Three-phase transformers are used to
generate electricity and distribute it according to
the power usage.
It is a transformer composed of three sets of
primary and secondary windings, each set
wound around an iron core assembly. Since they
have three sets of windings, the primary and
secondary windings will be combined to form a
complete unit in either a star or delta
configuration.
Power Transformer:

A power transformer is used to convert power from one

circuit to another without changing its frequency. They are
usually large in size and do not have any rotating or
moving parts. The transformer works on the principle of
mutual induction and requires an AC supply. Power
transformer ratings are as follows 400kv, 200kv, 110kv,
66kv, 33kv.
It changes the voltage for the current in a circuit, while not
impacting the total electrical power. So it takes high-
voltage electricity with a small current and converts it into
low-voltage electricity with a large current. Power
transformers are seen in the public electricity grids and are
generally used for the purpose of transmission of heavy
loads.
Distribution Transformer:
These are high accuracy class devices used to
change the voltage or current levels. These
transformers are used to measure electrical
quantities like current, voltage, power,
frequency, and power factor. The instrument
transformer has a relay to protect the power
system.
In this, the primary winding is connected to the
high voltage or current circuit and the relay is
connected to the secondary circuit. These are
medium in size and are used for 5A current and
100 to 200 V.
Current Transformer:
Current transformers are commonly used to
reduce or multiply alternating current (AC).
This transformer produces a current in its
secondary winding while it is proportional to
the current in its primary winding. In addition,
they are also used to measure and protect
electricity.
When the current is too high and is applied
directly to the measuring device, the current
transformer helps to convert the high current in
the circuit to the required value. Current
transformers are current-detecting units of
power systems and are used in stations,
electrical substations, and industrial production.
Isolation Transformer:
This type of transformer is used to transfer electrical power
from an alternating current while isolating the powered
device for safety reasons. The isolation transformer can
provide galvanic isolation which means that no conductive
path exists between the source and the load.
They can operate as step-up transformers or step-down
transformers and have a turn ratio of 1:1, which means that
the primary and secondary voltage is equal. This isolation is
used to protect against electric shock and to suppress
electrical noise in sensitive equipment. These are used in
computers, measuring devices, or power electronic devices.
Potential Transformer:
Potential transformers or voltage transformers are commonly used to reduce voltage levels.
They cannot be used to supply natural power to a load and are used with voltmeters,
wattmeters, frequency meters, circuit breakers tripping circuits, etc.
In this, the primary winding is connected to the high voltage circuit and the secondary
winding is connected to equipment or other circuits.

Air Core Transformer:

In this transformer, both the primary and secondary windings are set on a non-magnetic
stripe. It has flux linkage in both the windings through the air. The mutual inductance in the
air-core is low, which means the reluctance to be given to the generated flux is high in the air
medium.

Smaller electronic devices use air core transformers which are based on antenna coils. They
are common among communication devices because they lack a core, which makes them
ideal for portable devices. These are normally located in radio transmission systems.
Iron Core Transformer:
In this type, both the primary and secondary
windings are set on multiple soft iron plates
providing an ideal connection to the flux.
Compared to the air core, it offers less reluctance
to linkage flux due to the conductive and
magnetic properties of iron.
Since they have a high magnetic permeability
capability, they are used to limit and direct
magnetic devices such as electric
motors, generators, inductors, etc. Different types
of core plates are available in the market
depending on the core size and shape. These are
the widely used types as well as they are heavy in
weight and size.
 Ferrite Core Transformer:
This type of transformer uses a magnetic core
made of ferrite on which the windings of power
transformers and other parts are made. Ferrite
cores have high magnetic permeability, so they
are used in high-frequency applications such as
switch-mode power supplies
The reason is that it provides low losses at high
frequencies, so they are used extensively in the
cores of RF transformers. Ferrite core
transformers are also available in a variety of
sizes, shapes depending on the requirement of
the application.
Toroidal Core Transformer:
The toroidal core transformer uses a magnetic
core which almost looks like a ring or donut
called a toroidal. They are passive electronic
components, consisting of a circular ring-
shaped magnetic core of ferromagnetic material
around which the wire is wound.
Due to their built-in design, leakage inductance
is very low and provides very high inductance.
This transformer is used in a wide range of
electronic circuits such as power supplies,
inverters, and amplifiers.
Autotransformer

These types of transformers use a common winding for both primary and secondary
windings. The autotransformer winding has three taps where the electrical connections are
made. Autotransformers have the advantage of being smaller, lighter, and cheaper than
typical transformers.

But it also has the disadvantage that it cannot provide electrical isolation between the
primary and secondary circuits. In addition, they offer lower leakage response, lower
losses, lower excitation current, and increased VA ratings for a given size and mass.
Grounding or Earthing Transformer
It is an underground WYE or delta-connected
system used to provide a ground path or neutral
in a three-phase electric power system. This can
help reduce the voltage transients when a
ground fault happens.
These are part of an earthing system of a
network, in that they allow a three-phase system
to adjust phase-to-neutral loads by providing a
return path for current to neutral. The grounding
transformer usually includes a single winding
transformer with a zigzag winding design.
LOSSES IN TRANSFORMERS
Step 1: Copper Loss
1. Copper loss occurs in the form of heat energy lost due to the resistance of the copper coils
used in the windings of a transformer.
2. Copper loss can be minimized by using wire with a large cross-sectional area in the coils.
Step 2: Hysteresis Loss
1. Loss of energy due to continuous magnetization and demagnetization of the transformer is
called hysteresis loss.
2. Hysteresis loss in a transformer can be minimized by using soft magnetic materials for the
core like permalloy or silicon iron.
Step 3: Flux Loss
1. Flux loss occurs if the coupling of the primary and secondary coil is not good.
2. Flux loss in a transformer can be reduced by winding the primary and secondary coils one
over the other.
Step 4: Eddy current Loss
1. Energy loss in a metallic plate when kept in a time-varying magnetic field causes eddy
current loss.
2. It can be minimized by using a laminated iron core in the transformer.
Applications of Transformers :

Transformers are used in a variety of applications, including power generation, transmission

and distribution, lighting, audio systems, and electronic equipment.
•Power generation: Transformers are used in power plants to increase the voltage of the
electricity generated by the plant before it is sent to the grid.
•Transmission and distribution: Transformers are used in the transmission and distribution of
electricity to increase or decrease the voltage of electricity as it is sent from power plants to
homes and businesses.
•Lighting: Transformers are used in lighting systems to decrease the voltage of electricity
before it is sent to light bulbs.
•Audio systems: Transformers are used in audio systems to increase or decrease the voltage of
electricity before it is sent to speakers.
•Electronic equipment: Transformers are used in a variety of electronic devices, including
computers, TVs, radios, and cell phones.
Transformers are a vital part of the electrical grid and are used in a variety of applications to
ensure that electricity is delivered safely and efficiently.
 Core type Transformer and Shell type
Transformer:
Transformers have mainly three parts—
1.Core,
2.Primary winding ,
3.Secondary winding

1.The core is the vital part of the transformer which provides a

continuous magnetic path a minimum of air-gap. The core is
construction with laminated steel sheet which is high silicon
content, high permeability, and low hysteresis loss.
For minimizing the eddy current loss, the steel sheet is laminated
each other by a light coat of core-plate varnish or by an oxide
layer on the surface. The thickness of lamination varies from 0.35
mm for a frequency of 50 Hz to 0.5 mm for a frequency of 25 Hz.
The core lamination joined in the form of a strip which is shown
infig.-2. For avoiding narrow gaps in between layer, the laminated
layers are staggered in order. And these staggered joints are said
‘imbrieated’ joint. Constructionally , the transformer are two
types. Core type. Shell type.
Core-type Transformer
In this Core type transformer, the windings surround a considerable part of the core.
Generally, the core of the core-type transformer is a rectangular shape and the coils are both
circular or rectangular inform and the windings are located on the opposite limbs of the
core which is shown in fig. In most of the large-size core –type transformer, round or
circular cylindrical coils are used because the mechanical strength of circular cylindrical
coils is high.
And these cylindrical coils are
wound in a helical layer with
different layers insulated from each
other by paper, cloth, micarta board
or cooling ducts. For reducing
leakage flux, and H.V & L.V
winding are placed one after another
separating with high insulation
cylinder on fuller board which is
shown in fig.
Shell type Transformer
The shell type transformer is a simple
rectangular form and the core surrounds the
considerable portion of the windings which is
shown in fig. Both the primary & secondary
windings are placed in the one limb. And the
coils are wound in from of multi-layer disc
type. The different layers of the multi-layer
disc are insulated from each other by paper.
Electrical Machine:
A device capable of inter-conversion between electrical energy and mechanical energy is
called Electrical Machine. In simple words, an electrical machine converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy & vice versa. A transformer is also an Electrical
machine with an exception that it converts voltage & current levels.

Types of Electrical Machines:

Electrical machines are classified into two main types i.e.

•Stationary Electrical Machines

•Dynamic Electrical Machines

Electrical Machine: Two Types Rotating Type & Stationary Type

Dynamic (Rotating) Type is of 2 types : Generators & Motors

Stationary is of Transformer type which work only on AC Supply
Generators are of 2 types: AC & DC
Motors are of 2 types: AC & DC

AC Generators are of 2 types: Smooth Cylindrical rotor type other name – Non- Salient
Projected Pole type – Salient
DC Generators are of 2 types: Separately Excited DC Generators which has separate battery to exited
Self-Excited ----- Shunt, Series and Compound

Compound Type are: Differentially compound – It has two flux deferential as output
Cummulative compound – two flux added.
Dynamic Electrical Machines:
Such type of machines consists of moving parts as well as stationary parts.
There are two types of Dynamic electrical machines i.e.

•Electrical Motor
•Electrical Generator

Electrical Motor:
A motor is a type of dynamic machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy.
Electrical motors have a moving part called rotor & a stationary part called stator.
Electrical motors generate a mechanical force due to the interaction between the magnetic field
and current in a conductor.
There are two main types of Electrical motors i.e. DC motor & AC motors.
DC Motors:
Wherever a current-carrying conductor is placed inside a magnetic field, it experiences a
mechanical force. The DC motor operates on this principle. The rotor is made up of multiple
loops of conductors, which is supplied by a DC source. The rotor is placed in a magnetic
field. The conductor experiences a force due to which the rotor rotates.
AC Motors:
In AC motors, the stator is made up of winding which is connected to the AC voltage supply.
It creates a rotating magnetic field.
The rotor is made up of a conductor which can easily conduct electricity. The rotor is placed
inside the stator.
Unlike DC motor, the electrical supply is connected with the stator of AC motors.
Due to the rotating magnetic field produced by stator winding, an emf is induced in the rotor.
This, in turn, creates its own magnetic field opposing the stator’s magnetic field according to
Lenz’s law. This magnetic field tries to cancel out the stator’s rotating magnetic field by
rotating the rotor with exact same rotation speed.
Electrical Generators:

Generators are such types of electrical machines which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.

Its operation is exactly opposite to the electrical motor. According to faraday’s law, a
conductor placed inside a varying magnetic field will experience an induced emf. In other
words, moving a conductor in a static magnetic field will induce emf in the conductor.
The rotor is rotated inside a magnetic field by any means known as a prime mover. The
resultant induced current (electrical energy) flows out through the conductor.
Generators: Working, types and advantages
Principle of generator: Generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. It works based on principle of faraday law of electromagnetic induction.
The faradays law states that whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field,
EMF is induced and this induced EMF is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages. This
EMF can be generated when there is either relative space or relative time variation between
the conductor and magnetic field. So the important elements of a generator are:
Magnetic field
Motion of conductor in magnetic field
Construction of generator:
In the fig., single-turn rectangular copper coil ABCD is rotating about its own axis in a
magnetic field provided by either permanent magnet or electromagnets. The two ends of the
coil are joined to two slip rings ‘a’ and ‘b’ which are insulated from each other and from the
central shaft. Two collecting brushes (made of either carbon or copper) are pressed against
the slip rings. Their function is to collect the current induced in the coil and convey to the
external load resistance R. The rotating coil may be named as armature and the magnets are
called as field magnets.
Working of Generators: Parts of a practical generator:
1. Magnetic frame or yoke
2. 2. Pole-Cores and Pole-shoes
3. 3. Pole coils or field coils
4. 4. Armature core
5. 5. Armature windings or conductors
6. 6. Commutators
7. 7. Brushes and bearings

Generators are basically coils of electric conductors, normally copper wire, that are tightly
wound onto a metal core and are mounted to turn around inside an exhibit of large magnets.
An electric conductor moves through a magnetic field, the magnetism will interface with the
electrons in the conductor to induce a flow of electrical current inside it.
The conductor coil and its core are called the armature, connecting the armature to the shaft of
a mechanical power source, for example an motor, the copper conductor can turn at
exceptionally increased speed over the magnetic field.

The point when the generator armature first starts to turn, then there is a weak magnetic field
in the iron pole shoes. As the armature turns, it starts to raise voltage. Some of this voltage is
making on the field windings through the generator regulator. This impressed voltage builds
up stronger winding current, raises the strength of the magnetic field. The expanded field
produces more voltage in the armature. This, in turn, make more current in the field windings,
with a resultant higher armature voltage. At this time the signs of the shoes depended on the
direction of flow of current in the field winding. The opposite signs will give
current to flow in wrong direction.
Types of Generators: The generators are classified into types.
AC generators

DC generators AC Generators: These are also called as alternators. It is the most important
means of producing electrical power in many of the places since now days all the consumers
are using AC. It works based on principle of the electromagnetic induction. These are of two
types one is induction generator and other one is synchronous generator. The induction
generator requires no separate DC excitation, regulator controls, frequency control or
governor. This concept takes place when conductor coils turn in a magnetic field actuating a
current and a voltage. The generators should run at a consistent speed to convey a stable AC
voltage, even no load is accessible.
Synchronous generators are large size
generators mainly used in power plants. These
may be rotating field type or rotating armature
type. In rotating armature type, armature is at
rotor and field is at stator. Rotor armature
current is taken through slip rings and brushes.
These are limited due to high wind losses.
These are used for low power output
applications. Rotating field type of alternator is
widely used because of high power generation
capability and absence of slip rings and
brushes.
It can be either 3 phase or two phase generators. A two-phase alternator produces two
completely separate voltages. Each voltage may be considered as a single-phase
voltage. Each is generated voltage completely independent of the other. The three-
phase alternator has three single-phase windings spaced such that the voltage induced
in any one phase is displaced by 120º from the other two. These can be connected
either delta or wye connections. In Delta Connection each coil end is connected
together to form a closed loop. A Delta Connection appears like the Greek Letter Delta
(Δ). In Wye Connection one end of each coil connected together and the other end of
each coil left open for external connections. A Wye Connection appears as the letter Y.
These generators are packaged with an engine or turbine to be used as a motor-
generator set and used in applications like naval, oil and gas extraction, mining
machinery, wind power plants etc
Advantages of AC Generator:
These Generators are generally maintenance free, because of absence of brushes.
Easily step up and step down through transformers.
Transmission link size might be thinner because of step up feature
Size of the generator relatively smaller than DC machine
Losses are relatively less than DC machine
These Generator breakers are relatively smaller than DC breakers
DC Generators:
DC generator is typically found in off-grid applications. These generators give a seamless
power supply directly into electric storage devices and DC power grids without novel
equipment. The stored power is carries to loads through dc-ac converters. The DC
generators could be controlled back to an unmoving speed as batteries tend to be
stimulating to recover considerably more fuel.

Classification of DC Generators
D.C Generators are classified according to the way their magnetic field is developed in the
stator of the machine.
Permanent-magnet DC generators
Separately-excite DC generators and
Self-excited DC generators.
Permanent magnet DC generators do not require external field excitation because it has
permanent magnets to produce the flux. These are used for low power applications like
dynamos. Separately-excite DC generators requires external field excitation to produce the
magnetic flux. We can also vary the excitation to get variable output power. These are used in
electro plating and electro refining applications. Due to residual magnetism present in the
poles of the stator self-excited DC generators can able to produce their own magnetic field
ones it is started.
The self-excited DC Generators are further classified as Shunt wound DC generators; Series
wound DC generators and Compound wound DC generators. The Compound Wound DC
generators are further divided as long shunt wound DC generators, and short shunt wound DC
generators.
The field pole of the DC generator are stationary, and the armature conductor rotates. The
voltage generated in the armature conductor is of alternating nature, and this voltage is
converted into the direct voltage at the brushes with the help of the commutator.
These are simple in design and no need to have the external circuit to vary the field
excitation. Again these self-excited DC generators are classified into shunt, series, and
compound generators. These are used in applications like battery charging, welding,
ordinary lightening applications etc.

Advantages of DC Generator:

Mainly DC machines have the wide variety of operating characteristics which can be
obtained by selection of the method of excitation of the field windings.

The output voltage can be smoothed by regularly arranging the coils around the armature
This leads to less fluctuations which is desirable for some steady state applications.

No shielding need for radiation, so cable cost will be less as compared to AC.
What Is an Electric Generator?
Electric generators, also known as dynamos is an electric machine that converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy. The electric generator’s mechanical energy is usually provided
by steam turbines, gas turbines, and wind turbines. Electrical generators provide nearly all
the power that is required for electric power grids.
The reverse conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy is done by an electric
motor. Both motors and generators have many similarities. But in this, the article let us focus
mainly on electric generators and how they convert mechanical energy to electrical energy.

Types of Electric Generators

The classification of electric generators depends on the type of electrical energy that is
produced, which is either direct current or alternating current.
•AC generators: AC generators are known as single-phase generators and are limited to 25
kW.
•DC generators: These generators are divided into three categories, and they are shunt,
series, and compound-wound. Shunt generators are used in battery chargers. Series
generators are used in street lights. While most of the DC generators are compound-wound.
Name of the teacher— Mrs. Monika Sharma
Department of Physics and Electronics
Name of the course— B.Sc. (H) Physics
Semester- IV
Name of the paper—Electrical circuits and Network Skills
Paper code-32223903
Lecture Time-- Saturday (10:40 to 12:40)

Generators: Working, types and advantages

Principle of generator:
Generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. It works based
on principle of faraday law of electromagnetic induction. The faradays law states that
whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, EMF is induced and this induced
EMF is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages. This EMF can be generated when there is
either relative space or relative time variation between the conductor and magnetic field. So
the important elements of a generator are:
 Magnetic field
 Motion of conductor in magnetic field
Construction of generator:
In the fig., single-turn rectangular copper coil ABCD is rotating about its own axis in a magnetic
field provided by either permanent magnet or electromagnets. The two ends of the coil are
joined to two slip rings ‘a’ and ‘b’ which are insulated from each other and from the central
shaft. Two collecting brushes (made of either carbon or copper) are pressed against the slip
rings. Their function is to collect the current induced in the coil and convey to the external
load resistance R.
The rotating coil may be named as armature and the magnets are called as field magnets.
Working of Generators:
Parts of a practical generator:
1. Magnetic frame or yoke
2. Pole-Cores and Pole-shoes
3. Pole coils or field coils
4. Armature core
5. Armature windings or conductors
6. Commutators
7. Brushes and bearings
Generators are basically coils of electric conductors, normally copper wire, that are tightly
wound onto a metal core and are mounted to turn around inside an exhibit of large magnets.
An electric conductor moves through a magnetic field, the magnetism will interface with the
electrons in the conductor to induce a flow of electrical current inside it.

The conductor coil and its core are called the armature, connecting the armature to the shaft
of a mechanical power source, for example an motor, the copper conductor can turn at
exceptionally increased speed over the magnetic field.
The point when the generator armature first starts to turn, then there is a weak magnetic
field in the iron pole shoes. As the armature turns, it starts to raise voltage. Some of this
voltage is making on the field windings through the generator regulator. This impressed
voltage builds up stronger winding current, raises the strength of the magnetic field. The
expanded field produces more voltage in the armature. This, in turn, make more current in
the field windings, with a resultant higher armature voltage. At this time the signs of the shoes
depended on the direction of flow of current in the field winding. The opposite signs will give
current to flow in wrong direction.
Types of Generators:
The generators are classified into types.
 AC generators
 DC generators
AC Generators:
These are also called as alternators. It is the most important means of producing electrical
power in many of the places since now days all the consumers are using AC. It works based
on principle of the electromagnetic induction. These are of two types one is induction
generator and other one is synchronous generator. The induction generator requires no
separate DC excitation, regulator controls, frequency control or governor. This concept takes
place when conductor coils turn in a magnetic field actuating a current and a voltage. The
generators should run at a consistent speed to convey a stable AC voltage, even no load is
accessible.

Figure: Induction Generator

 Figure: 3 phase ac generator
Synchronous generators are large size generators mainly used in power plants. These may be
rotating field type or rotating armature type. In rotating armature type, armature is at rotor
and field is at stator. Rotor armature current is taken through slip rings and brushes. These
are limited due to high wind losses. These are used for low power output applications.
Rotating field type of alternator is widely used because of high power generation capability
and absence of slip rings and brushes.
It can be either 3 phase or two phase generators. A two-phase alternator produces two
completely separate voltages. Each voltage may be considered as a single-phase voltage. Each
is generated voltage completely independent of the other. The three-phase alternator
has three single-phase windings spaced such that the voltage induced in any one phase is
displaced by 120º from the other two. These can be connected either delta or wye
connections. In Delta Connection each coil end is connected together to form a closed loop.
A Delta Connection appears like the Greek Letter Delta (Δ). In Wye Connection one end of
each coil connected together and the other end of each coil left open for external
connections. A Wye Connection appears as the letter Y. These generators are packaged with an
engine or turbine to be used as a motor-generator set and used in applications like naval, oil and gas
extraction, mining machinery, wind power plants etc

Advantages of AC Generator:
 These Generators are generally maintenance free, because of absence of brushes.
 Easily step up and step down through transformers.
 Transmission link size might be thinner because of step up feature
 Size of the generator relatively smaller than DC machine
 Losses are relatively less than DC machine
 These Generator breakers are relatively smaller than DC breakers
DC Generators:
DC generator is typically found in off-grid applications. These generators give a seamless
power supply directly into electric storage devices and DC power grids without novel
equipment. The stored power is carries to loads through dc-ac converters. The DC generators
could be controlled back to an unmoving speed as batteries tend to be stimulating to recover
considerably more fuel.
Classification of DC Generators
D.C Generators are classified according to the way their magnetic field is developed in the
stator of the machine.

 Permanent-magnet DC generators
 Separately-excite DC generators and
 Self-excited DC generators.

Figure: Permanent magnet DC generator

Self-excited- Shunt and series wound DC generator.

Permanent magnet DC generators do not require external field excitation because it has
permanent magnets to produce the flux. These are used for low power applications like
dynamos. Separately-excite DC generators requires external field excitation to produce the
magnetic flux. We can also vary the excitation to get variable output power. These are used
in electro plating and electro refining applications. Due to residual magnetism present in the
poles of the stator self-excited DC generators can able to produce their own magnetic field
ones it is started.
The self-excited DC Generators are further classified as Shunt wound DC generators; Series
wound DC generators and Compound wound DC generators. The Compound Wound DC
generators are further divided as long shunt wound DC generators, and short shunt wound
DC generators.
The field pole of the DC generator are stationary, and the armature conductor rotates. The
voltage generated in the armature conductor is of alternating nature, and this voltage is
converted into the direct voltage at the brushes with the help of the commutator.
These are simple in design and no need to have the external circuit to vary the field excitation.
Again these self-excited DC generators are classified into shunt, series, and compound
generators.
These are used in applications like battery charging, welding, ordinary lightening applications
etc.
Advantages of DC Generator:
 Mainly DC machines have the wide variety of operating characteristics which can be
obtained by selection of the method of excitation of the field windings.
 The output voltage can be smoothed by regularly arranging the coils around the
armature .This leads to less fluctuations which is desirable for some steady state
applications.
 No shielding need for radiation, so cable cost will be less as compared to AC.

What are the differences between AC and DC Generator?

Differentiating AC Generator DC Generator
Sl. Property
No.

1 Definition AC generator is a DC generator is a mechanical device

mechanical device which which converts mechanical energy
converts mechanical into DC electrical power.
energy into AC electrical
power.

2 Direction of Current In an AC generator, the In a DC generator, the electrical

electrical current reverses current flows only in one direction.
direction periodically.
3 Basic Design In an AC generator, the In a DC generator, the coil through
coil through which the which the current flows rotates in a
current flows is fixed while fixed field. The overall design is very
the magnet moves. The simple but construction is complex
construction is simple and due to commutators and slip rings.
costs are less.

4 Commutators (an AC generator does not DC generators have commutators to

electrical switch have commutators. make the current flow in one direction
changing the direction only.
of field current).

5 Rings (electrical AC generators have slip- DC generators have split-ring

connections used to rings. commutators.
transfer to and from
the generator)

6 Efficiency of Brushes Since slip-rings have a Both brushes and commutators of a

(conducts current smooth and uninterrupted DC generator wear out quickly and
between stationary surface, they do not wear thus are less efficient.
wires and moving quickly and are highly
parts in the generator) efficient.

7 Short Circuit As the brushes have high Since the brushes and commutators
Possibility efficiency, a short circuit is wear out quickly, sparking and short
very unlikely. circuit possibility is high.

8 Armature (generates In the case of AC In the case of DC generators, the

flow of electricity generators, the armature is armature may be either rotor or stator.
when induced in the always the rotor.
magnetic field)

9 Rotating Parts The rotating part in an AC The rotating part in a DC generator is

Generator is low current generally heavy.
high resistivity rotor.

10 Current Induction In an AC generator, the In a DC generator, the output current

output current can be either can only be induced in the rotor.
induced in the stator or in
the rotor.

11 Output Voltage AC generators produce a DC generators produce a low voltage

high voltage which varies when compared to AC generator
in amplitude and time. The which is constant in amplitude and
output frequency varies time i.e. output frequency is zero.
(mostly 50Hz to 60Hz).

12 Maintenance AC generators require very DC generators require frequent

less maintenance and are maintenance and are less reliable.
highly reliable.
13 Types AC generators can of DC generators are mainly two types
varying types like 3 Phase which are Separately excited DC
generators, Single phase generator and Self-excited DC
generators, synchronous generator. According to field and
generator, induction armature connection, they can be
generator, etc. further classified as DC series, shunt
or compound generators respectively.

14 Cost The initial cost of an AC The initial cost of a DC generator is

generator is high. less when compared to AC generators.

15 Distribution and The output from AC The output from DC generators is

Transmission generators is easy to difficult to distribute as transformers
distribute using a cannot be used.
transformer.

16 Efficiency AC generators are very DC generators are less efficient due to

efficient as the energy sparking and other losses like copper,
losses are less. eddy current, mechanical and
hysteresis losses.

17 Applications It is used to power for DC generators power very large

smaller motors and electric motors like those needed for
electrical appliances at subway systems.
homes (mixers, vacuum
cleaners, etc.)
Electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical motion and are broadly classified
into two different categories: DC (Direct Current) and AC (Alternating Current).

In industry, most commonly used motors are 3 phase squirrel cage induction type. Use of
Synchronous motors and DC motors for heavy duty and precision drives etc. are also
common. With the introduction of variable frequency drives for speed and torque control,
the 3-phase induction motors are finding increasingly acceptable for applications where DC
drives were earlier used.

We know there are generally two types of motors, AC motor, and DC motor. AC
motors are flexible for speed control and demand low power during start. On the
other hand, DC motors are widely used due to its initial cost of low power units is
less compared to AC and can be easily installed.
Working Principle of Induction Motor

The electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon in which the electromotive force induces
across the electrical conductor when it is placed in a rotating magnetic field. When the three
phase supply is given to the stator, the rotating magnetic field produced on it.

The motor which works on the principle of electromagnetic induction is known as the
induction motor. Electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon in which the electromotive
force induces across the electrical conductor when it is placed in a rotating magnetic field.

What is the principle of AC and DC motor?

In AC motors, the armature is stationary while the magnetic field rotates. In DC motors, the
armature rotates while the magnetic field remains stationary. In AC motors, three input
terminals (RYB) are present. In DC motors, two input terminals (positive and negative) are
present.
The stator and rotor are two essential parts of the motor. The stator is the stationary part, and
it carries the overlapping windings while the rotor carries the main or field winding. The
windings of the stator are equally displaced from each other by an angle of 120°.

The induction motor is the single excited motor, i.e., the supply is applied only to the one
part, i.e., stator. The term excitation means the process of inducing the magnetic field on the
parts of the motor.

When the three-phase supply is given to the stator, the rotating magnetic field produced on it.
The figure below shows the rotating magnetic field set up in the stator:
Consider that the rotating magnetic field induces in the anticlockwise direction. The rotating
magnetic field has moving polarities. The polarities of the magnetic field vary by concerning
the positive and negative half cycle of the supply. The change in polarities makes the magnetic
field rotates.

The conductors of the rotor are stationary. This stationary conductor cut the rotating magnetic
field of the stator, and because of the electromagnetic induction, the EMF induces in the rotor.
This EMF is known as the rotor induced EMF, and it is because of the electromagnetic
induction phenomenon.

The conductors of the rotor are short-circuited either by the end rings or by the help of the
external resistance. The relative motion between the rotating magnetic field and the rotor
conductor induces the current in the rotor conductors. As the current flows through the
conductor, the flux induces on it. The direction of rotor flux is the same as that of the rotor
current.
Now we have two fluxes one because of the rotor and another because of the stator. These
fluxes interact with each other. On one end of the conductor the fluxes cancel each other, and
on the other end, the density of the flux is very high. Thus, the high-density flux tries to push
the conductor of the rotor towards the low-density flux region. This phenomenon induces the
torque on the conductor, and this torque is known as electromagnetic torque.
The direction of electromagnetic torque and the rotating magnetic field is the same. Thus, the
rotor starts rotating in the same direction as that of the rotating magnetic field.

The speed of the rotor is always less than the rotating magnetic field or synchronous speed.
The rotor tries to run at the speed of the rotor, but it always slips away. Thus, the motor never
runs at the speed of the rotating magnetic field, and this is the reason because of which the
induction motor is also known as the asynchronous motor.
D.C. Motors:
D. C. motors are seldom used in ordinary applications because all electric supply
companies furnish alternating current However, for special applications such as in steel
mills, mines and electric trains, it is advantageous to convert alternating current into
direct current in order to use d.c. motors. The reason is that speed/torque characteristics
of d.c. motors are much more superior to that of a.c. motors.

D.C. Motor Principle

A machine that converts d.c. power into mechanical power is known as a d.c. motor. Its
operation is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force. The direction of this force
is given by Fleming’s left hand rule and magnitude is given by

F = B I l newtons

Basically, there is no constructional difference between a d.c. motor and a d.c.

generator. The same d.c. machine can be run as a generator or motor.
D.C. Motor Principle:
A machine that converts d.c. power into mechanical power is known as a d.c. motor. Its
operation is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force. The direction of this force is
given by Fleming’s left hand rule and magnitude is given by; F = BIl newtons Basically, there
is no constructional difference between a d.c. motor and a d.c. generator. The same d.c.
machine can be run as a generator or motor. magnetic field, mechanical force acts on it.
Referring to Fig. (4.1) and applying Fleming’s left hand rule, it is clear that force on each
conductor is tending to rotate the armature in anticlockwise direction. All these forces add
together to produce a driving torque which sets the armature rotating. When the conductor
moves from one side of a brush to the other, the current in that conductor is reversed and at the
same time it comes under the influence of next pole which is of opposite polarity.
Consequently, the direction of force on the conductor remains the same.
AC motor:

An AC motor is an electric machine that converts alternating current into mechanical

rotation. AC motor applications range from industrial bulk power conversion from electrical
to mechanical to household small power conversion. In this article, let us briefly discuss an
AC motor’s various traits and working.

An AC motor is a motor that converts alternating current into mechanical power. The stator
and the rotor are important parts of AC motors. The stator is the stationary part of the motor,
and the rotor is the rotating part of the motor. The AC motor may be single-phase or three-
phase. Nikola Tesla invented the first AC induction motor in 1887.
Construction of an AC motor

An alternating current drives an AC motor. The stationary stator and the rotating rotor are
important parts of AC motors.
In this section, let us study the different parts of an AC motor.

Stator
The stator is the stationary part of the motor that delivers a rotating magnetic field to interact
with the rotor.
Stator Core

The stator core is made of thin metal sheets known as laminations. Laminations are used to
reduce energy loss.

Stator Windings

Stator windings are stacked together, forming a hollow cylinder. The slots of the stator core
coils of insulated wires are insulated.

When the assembled motor operates, the stator windings are connected to a power source. Each
group of coils, along with the steel core, becomes an electromagnet when the current is applied.
Rotor

A rotor is a central component of a motor that is fixed to the shaft. The most common type of
rotor used in an AC motor is the squirrel cage rotor. A squirrel-cage rotor is cylindrical and is
made by stacking thin steel laminations.

Instead of inserting wire coils between the slots, conductor bars are die-cast into the evenly
spaced slots around the cylinder. Once the conductor bars are die-casted, they are electrically
and mechanically connected to the end rings.
Motor Shaft

The rotor is pressed onto a steel shaft to form a rotor assembly. The shaft extends outside the
motor casing allowing connection to an external system to transmit the rotational power.

Bearings

Bearings hold the motor shaft in place. The bearings minimize the shaft’s friction connected to
the casing, which increases the motor’s efficiency.

Enclosure

The enclosure protects the internal parts of the motor from water and other environmental
elements. The enclosure consists of a frame and two end brackets.
Classification of AC Motor

Based on the principle of operation, AC motors are classified as:

•Synchronous Motor
•Induction Motor
Chapter (4)
D.C. Motors

Introduction
D. C. motors are seldom used in ordinary applications because all electric supply
companies furnish alternating current However, for special applications such as
in steel mills, mines and electric trains, it is advantageous to convert alternating
current into direct current in order to use d.c. motors. The reason is that
speed/torque characteristics of d.c. motors are much more superior to that of a.c.
motors. Therefore, it is not surprising to note that for industrial drives, d.c.
motors are as popular as 3-phase induction motors. Like d.c. generators, d.c.
motors are also of three types viz., series-wound, shunt-wound and compound-
wound. The use of a particular motor depends upon the mechanical load it has to
drive.

4.1 D.C. Motor Principle

A machine that converts d.c. power into mechanical power is known as a d.c.
motor. Its operation is based on the principle that when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical
force. The direction of this force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule and
magnitude is given by;
F = BIl newtons
Basically, there is no constructional difference between a d.c. motor and a d.c.
generator. The same d.c. machine can be run as a generator or motor.

4.2 Working of D.C. Motor

Consider a part of a multipolar d.c. motor as shown in Fig. (4.1). When the
terminals of the motor are connected to an external source of d.c. supply:
(i) the field magnets are excited developing alternate N and S poles;
(ii) the armature conductors carry ^currents. All conductors under N-pole
carry currents in one direction while all the conductors under S-pole
carry currents in the opposite direction.

Suppose the conductors under N-pole carry currents into the plane of the paper
and those under S-pole carry currents out of the plane of the paper as shown in
Fig.(4.1). Since each armature conductor is carrying current and is placed in the
magnetic field, mechanical force acts on it.
Referring to Fig. (4.1) and applying
Fleming’s left hand rule, it is clear that force
on each conductor is tending to rotate the
armature in anticlockwise direction. All these
forces add together to produce a driving
torque which sets the armature rotating.
Fig. (4.1)
When the conductor moves from one side of a
brush to the other, the current in that conductor is reversed and at the same time
it comes under the influence of next pole which is of opposite polarity.
Consequently, the direction of force on the conductor remains the same.

4.3 Back or Counter E.M.F.

When the armature of a d.c. motor rotates under the influence of the driving
torque, the armature conductors move through the magnetic field and hence
e.m.f. is induced in them as in a generator The induced e.m.f. acts in opposite
direction to the applied voltage V(Lenz’s law) and in known as back or counter
e.m.f. Eb. The back e.m.f. Eb(= P φ ZN/60 A) is always less than the applied
voltage V, although this difference is small when the motor is running under
normal conditions.

Consider a shunt wound motor shown in

Fig. (4.2). When d.c. voltage V is applied
across the motor terminals, the field magnets
are excited and armature conductors are
supplied with current. Therefore, driving
torque acts on the armature which begins to
rotate. As the armature rotates, back e.m.f.
Eb is induced which opposes the applied
voltage V. The applied voltage V has to Fig. (4.2)
force current through the armature against
the back e.m.f. Eb. The electric work done in overcoming and causing the
current to flow against Eb is converted into mechanical energy developed in the
armature. It follows, therefore, that energy conversion in a d.c. motor is only
possible due to the production of back e.m.f. Eb.
Net voltage across armature circuit = V − Eb
V − Eb
If Ra is the armature circuit resistance, then, I a =
Ra
Since V and Ra are usually fixed, the value of Eb will determine the current
drawn by the motor. If the speed of the motor is high, then back e.m.f. Eb (= P φ
 ZN/60 A) is large and hence the motor will draw less armature current and vice-
versa.

4.4 Significance of Back E.M.F.

The presence of back e.m.f. makes the d.c. motor a self-regulating machine i.e.,
it makes the motor to draw as much armature current as is just sufficient to
develop the torque required by the load.
V − Eb
Armature current, I a =
Ra
(i) When the motor is running on no load, small torque is required to
overcome the friction and windage losses. Therefore, the armature
current Ia is small and the back e.m.f. is nearly equal to the applied
voltage.
(ii) If the motor is suddenly loaded, the first effect is to cause the armature to
slow down. Therefore, the speed at which the armature conductors move
through the field is reduced and hence the back e.m.f. Eb falls. The
decreased back e.m.f. allows a larger current to flow through the
armature and larger current means increased driving torque. Thus, the
driving torque increases as the motor slows down. The motor will stop
slowing down when the armature current is just sufficient to produce the
increased torque required by the load.
(iii) If the load on the motor is decreased, the driving torque is momentarily
in excess of the requirement so that armature is accelerated. As the
armature speed increases, the back e.m.f. Eb also increases and causes
the armature current Ia to decrease. The motor will stop accelerating
when the armature current is just sufficient to produce the reduced torque
required by the load.

It follows, therefore, that back e.m.f. in a d.c. motor regulates the flow of
armature current i.e., it automatically changes the armature current to meet the
load requirement.

4.5 Voltage Equation of D.C. Motor

Let in a d.c. motor (See Fig. 4.3),
V = applied voltage
Eb = back e.m.f.
Ra = armature resistance
Ia = armature current

Since back e.m.f. Eb acts in opposition to the Fig. (4.3)

applied voltage V, the net voltage across the armature circuit is V− Eb. The
armature current Ia is given by;
V − Eb
Ia =
Ra
or V = Eb + Ia R a (i)
This is known as voltage equation of the d.c. motor.

4.6 Power Equation

If Eq.(i) above is multiplied by ly throughout, we get,
VI a = E b I a + I a2 R a
This is known as power equation of the d.c. motor.
VIa = electric power supplied to armature (armature input)
EbIa = power developed by armature (armature output)
2
I a R a = electric power wasted in armature (armature Cu loss)

Thus out of the armature input, a small portion (about 5%) is wasted as I 2a R a
and the remaining portion EbIa is converted into mechanical power within the
armature.

4.7 Condition For Maximum Power

The mechanical power developed by the motor is Pm = EbIa
Now Pm = VI a − I 2a R a
Since, V and Ra are fixed, power developed by the motor depends upon
armature current. For maximum power, dPm/dIa should be zero.
dPm
∴ = V − 2I a R a = 0
dI a
V
or Ia R a =
2

Now, V = Eb + Ia R a = Eb +
V ∴ I R = V 
2  a a
2 
V
∴ Eb =
2
Hence mechanical power developed by the motor is maximum when back e.m.f.
is equal to half the applied voltage.
Limitations
In practice, we never aim at achieving maximum power due to the following
reasons:
(i) The armature current under this condition is very large—much excess of
rated current of the machine.
(ii) Half of the input power is wasted in the armature circuit. In fact, if we
take into account other losses (iron and mechanical), the efficiency will
be well below 50%.

4.8 Types of D.C. Motors

Like generators, there are three types of d.c. motors characterized by the
connections of field winding in relation to the armature viz.:
(i) Shunt-wound motor in which the field winding is connected in parallel
with the armature [See Fig. 4.4]. The current through the shunt field
winding is not the same as the armature current. Shunt field windings are
designed to produce the necessary m.m.f. by means of a relatively large
number of turns of wire having high resistance. Therefore, shunt field
current is relatively small compared with the armature current.

Fig. (4.4) Fig. (4.5)

(ii) Series-wound motor in which the field winding is connected in series with
the armature [See Fig. 4.5]. Therefore, series field winding carries the
armature current. Since the current passing through a series field winding is
the same as the armature current, series field windings must be designed
with much fewer turns than shunt field windings for the same m.m.f.
Therefore, a series field winding has a relatively small number of turns of
thick wire and, therefore, will possess a low resistance.
(iii) Compound-wound motor which has two field windings; one connected in
parallel with the armature and the other in series with it. There are two
types of compound motor connections (like generators). When the shunt
field winding is directly connected across the armature terminals [See Fig.
4.6], it is called short-shunt connection. When the shunt winding is so
 connected that it shunts the series combination of armature and series field
[See Fig. 4.7], it is called long-shunt connection.

Fig. (4.6) Fig. (4.7)

The compound machines (generators or motors) are always designed so that the
flux produced by shunt field winding is considerably larger than the flux
produced by the series field winding. Therefore, shunt field in compound
machines is the basic dominant factor in the production of the magnetic field in
the machine.

4.9 Armature Torque of D.C. Motor

Torque is the turning moment of a force about an axis and is measured by the
product of force (F) and radius (r) at right angle to which the force acts i.e.
D.C. Motors 113
T=F×r
In a d.c. motor, each conductor is acted upon by a circumferential force F at a
distance r, the radius of the armature (Fig. 4.8). Therefore, each conductor exerts
a torque, tending to rotate the armature. The sum of the torques due to all
armature conductors is known as gross or armature torque (Ta).

Let in a d.c. motor

r = average radius of armature in m
l = effective length of each conductor in m
Z = total number of armature conductors
A = number of parallel paths
i = current in each conductor = Ia/A
B = average flux density in Wb/m2 Fig. (4.8)
φ = flux per pole in Wb
P = number of poles
Force on each conductor, F = B i l newtons
 Torque due to one conductor = F × r newton- metre
Total armature torque, Ta = Z F r newton-metre
=ZBi l r
Now i = Ia/A, B = φ/a where a is the x-sectional area of flux path per pole at
radius r. Clearly, a = 2πr l /P.
 φ  I 
∴ Ta = Z ×   ×  a  × l × r
2  A 
φ I Zφ I a P
= Z× × a ×l×r = N-m
2π r l / P A 2π A

Ta = 0.159 Z φ I a   N - m
P
or (i)
A
Since Z, P and A are fixed for a given machine,
∴ Ta ∝ φI a
Hence torque in a d.c. motor is directly proportional to flux per pole and
armature current.
(i) For a shunt motor, flux φ is practically constant.
∴ Ta ∝ I a
(ii) For a series motor, flux φ is directly proportional to armature current Ia
provided magnetic saturation does not take place.
∴ Ta ∝ I a2

u
p
t
o

m
a
g
n
e
t
i
c

s
a
 t
u
r
a
t
i
o
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Alternative expression for Ta

PφZN
Eb =
60 A
PφZ 60 × E b
∴ =
A N
From Eq.(i), we get the expression of Ta as:
 60 × E b 
Ta = 0.159 ×   × Ia
 N 
E b Ia
or Ta = 9.55 × N-m
N
Note that developed torque or gross torque means armature torque Ta.

4.10 Shaft Torque (Tsh)

The torque which is available at the motor shaft for
doing useful work is known as shaft torque. It is
represented by Tsh. Fig. (4.9) illustrates the concept
of shaft torque. The total or gross torque Ta
developed in the armature of a motor is not available Fig. (4.9)
at the shaft because a part of it is lost in overcoming
the iron and frictional losses in the motor. Therefore, shaft torque Tsh is
somewhat less than the armature torque Ta. The difference Ta − Tsh is called lost
torque.
Iron and frictional losses
Clearly, Ta − Tsh = 9.55 ×
N
For example, if the iron and frictional losses in a motor are 1600 W and the
motor runs at 800 r.p.m., then,
1600
Ta − Tsh = 9.55 × = 19.1 N - m
800
As stated above, it is the shaft torque Tsh that produces the useful output. If the
speed of the motor is N r.p.m., then,
2π N Tsh
Output in watts =
60
Output in watts
or Tsh = N-m
2π N / 60

Tsh = 9.55 ×
Output in watts Q 60 = 9.55 
or N-m  2π 
N  

4.11 Brake Horse Power (B.H.P.)

The horse power developed by the shaft torque is known as brake horsepower
(B.H.P.). If the motor is running at N r.p.m. and the shaft torque is Tsh newton-
metres, then,
W.D./revolution = force x distance moved in 1 revolution
= F × 2π r = 2π × Tsh J
W.D./minute = 2π N Tsh J
2π N Tsh −1 2π N Tsh
W.D. / sec . = Js or watts = H.P.
60 60 × 746
2 π N Tsh
∴ Useful output power = H.P.
60 × 746
2π N Tsh
or B.H.P. =
60 × 746

4.12 Speed of a D.C. Motor

E b = V − Ia R a
Pφ Z N
But Eb =
60 A
Pφ Z N
∴ = V − Ia R a
60 A
(V − I a R a ) 60 A
or N=
φ PZ
(V − I a R a ) 60 A
or N=K where K=
φ PZ
But V − Ia R a = E a
Eb
∴ N=K
φ
Eb
or N∝
φ
Therefore, in a d.c. motor, speed is directly proportional to back e.m.f. Eb and
inversely proportional to flux per pole φ.

4.13 Speed Relations

If a d.c. motor has initial values of speed, flux per pole and back e.m.f. as N1, φ1
and Eb1 respectively and the corresponding final values are N2, φ2 and Eb2, then,
E b1 E b2
N1 ∝ and N2 ∝
φ1 φ2
N 2 E b 2 φ1
∴ = ×
N1 E b1 φ 2
(i) For a shunt motor, flux practically remains constant so that φ1 = φ2.
N 2 E b2
∴ =
N1 E b1
(ii) For a series motor, φ ∝ Ia prior to saturation.
N 2 E b 2 I a1
∴ = ×
N1 E b1 I a 2
where Ia1 = initial armature current
Ia2 = final armature current

4.14 Speed Regulation

The speed regulation of a motor is the change in speed from full-load to no-loud
and is expressed as a percentage of the speed at full-load i.e.
N.L. speed − F.L. speed
% Speed regulation = × 100
F.L. speed
N0 − N
= × 100
N
where N0 = No - load .speed
N = Full - load speed
4.15 Torque and Speed of a D.C. Motor
For any motor, the torque and speed are very important factors. When the torque
increases, the speed of a motor increases and vice-versa. We have seen that for a
d.c. motor;
(V − I a R a ) K Eb
N=K = (i)
φ φ
Ta ∝ φ I a (ii)
If the flux decreases, from Eq.(i), the motor speed increases but from Eq.(ii) the
motor torque decreases. This is not possible because the increase in motor speed
must be the result of increased torque. Indeed, it is so in this case. When the flux
decreases slightly, the armature current increases to a large value. As a result, in
spite of the weakened field, the torque is momentarily increased to a high value
and will exceed considerably the value corresponding to the load. The surplus
torque available causes the motor to accelerate and back e.m.f. (Ea = P φ Z N/60
A) to rise. Steady conditions of speed will ultimately be achieved when back
e.m.f. has risen to such a value that armature current [Ia = (V − Ea)/Ra] develops
torque just sufficient to drive the load.

Illustration
Let us illustrate the above point with a numerical example. Suppose a 400 V
shunt motor is running at 600 r.p.m., taking an armature current of 50 A. The
armature resistance is 0.28 Ω. Let us see the effect of sudden reduction of flux
by 5% on the motor.

Initially (prior to weakening of field), we have,

Ea = V − IaRa = 400 − 50 × 0.28 = 386 volts
We know that Eb ∝ φN. If the flux is reduced suddenly, Eb ∝ φ because inertia
of heavy armature prevents any rapid change in speed. It follows that when the
flux is reduced by 5%, the generated e.m.f. must follow suit. Thus at the instant
of reduction of flux, E'b = 0.95 × 386 = 366.7 volts.

Instantaneous armature current is

V − E'b 400 − 366.7
I 'a = = = 118.9 A
Ra 0.28
Note that a sudden reduction of 5% in the flux has caused the armature current
to increase about 2.5 times the initial value. This will result in the production of
high value of torque. However, soon the steady conditions will prevail. This will
depend on the system inertia; the more rapidly the motor can alter the speed, the
sooner the e.m.f. rises and the armature current falls.
4.16 Armature Reaction in D.C. Motors
As in a d.c. generator, armature reaction also occurs in a d.c. motor. This is
expected because when current flows through the armature conductors of a d.c.
motor, it produces flux (armature flux) which lets on the flux produced by the
main poles. For a motor with the same polarity and direction of rotation as is for
generator, the direction of armature reaction field is reversed.
(i) In a generator, the armature current flows in the direction of the induced
e.m.f. (i.e. generated e.m.f. Eg) whereas in a motor, the armature current
flows against the induced e.m.f. (i.e. back e.m.f. Eb). Therefore, it should
be expected that for the same direction of rotation and field polarity, the
armature flux of the motor will be in the opposite direction to that of the
generator. Hence instead of the main flux being distorted in the direction
of rotation as in a generator, it is distorted opposite to the direction of
rotation. We can conclude that:

Armature reaction in a d.c. generator weakens the jinx at leading pole

tips and strengthens the flux at trailing pole tips while the armature
reaction in a d. c. motor produces the opposite effect.

(ii) In case of a d.c. generator, with brushes along G.N.A. and no

commutating poles used, the brushes must be shifted in the direction of
rotation (forward lead) for satisfactory commutation. However, in case
of a d.c. motor, the brushes are given a negative lead i.e., they are shifted
against the direction of rotation.

With no commutating poles used, the brushes are given a forward lead
in a d.c. generator and backward lead in a d.c. motor.

(iii) By using commutating poles (compoles), a d.c. machine can be operated

with fixed brush positions for all conditions of load. Since commutating
poles windings carry the armature current, then, when a machine
changes from generator to motor (with consequent reversal of current),
the polarities of commutating poles must be of opposite sign.

Therefore, in a d.c. motor, the commutating poles must have the same
polarity as the main poles directly back of them. This is the opposite of
the corresponding relation in a d.c. generator.

4.17 Commutation in D.C. Motors

Since the armature of a motor is the same as that of a generator, the current from
the supply line must divide and pass through the paths of the armature windings.
In order to produce unidirectional force (or torque) on the armature conductors
of a motor, the conductors under any pole must carry the current in the same
direction at all times. This is illustrated in Fig. (4.10). In this case, the current
flows away from the observer in the conductors under the N-pole and towards
the observer in the conductors under the S-pole. Therefore, when a conductor
moves from the influence of N-pole to that of S-pole, the direction of current in
the conductor must be reversed. This is termed as commutation. The function of
the commutator and the brush gear in a d.c. motor is to cause the reversal of
current in a conductor as it moves from one side of a brush to the other. For
good commutation, the following points may be noted:
(i) If a motor does not have commutating poles (compoles), the brushes
must be given a negative lead i.e., they must be shifted from G.N.A.
against the direction of rotation of, the motor.
(ii) By using interpoles, a d.c. motor can be operated with fixed brush
positions for all conditions of load. For a d.c. motor, the commutating
poles must have the same polarity as the main poles directly back of
them. This is the opposite of the corresponding relation in a d.c.
generator.

Note. A d.c. machine may be used as a motor or a generator without changing

the commutating poles connections. When the operation of a d.c. machine
changes from generator to motor, the direction of the armature current reverses.
Since commutating poles winding carries armature current, the polarity of
commutating pole reverses automatically to the correct polarity.

Fig. (4.10) Fig. (4.11)

4.18 Losses in a D.C. Motor

The losses occurring in a d.c. motor are the same as in a d.c. generator [See Sec.
1.26]. These are [See Fig. 4.11]:
(i) copper losses (n) Iron losses or magnetic losses
(ii) mechanical losses

As in a generator, these losses cause (a) an increase of machine temperature and

(b) reduction in the efficiency of the d.c. motor.

The following points may be noted:

(i) Apart from armature Cu loss, field Cu loss and brush contact loss, Cu
losses also occur in interpoles (commutating poles) and compensating
windings. Since these windings carry armature current (Ia),
Loss in interpole winding = I 2a × Resistance of interpole winding
Loss in compensating winding = I 2a × Resistance of compensating winding
(ii) Since d.c. machines (generators or motors) are generally operated at
constant flux density and constant speed, the iron losses are nearly
constant.
(iii) The mechanical losses (i.e. friction and windage) vary as the cube of the
speed of rotation of the d.c. machine (generator or motor). Since d.c.
machines are generally operated at constant speed, mechanical losses are
considered to be constant.

4.19 Efficiency of a D.C. Motor

Like a d.c. generator, the efficiency of a d.c. motor is the ratio of output power
to the input power i.e.
output output
Efficiency, η = × 100 = × 100
input output + losses
As for a generator (See Sec. 1.29), the efficiency of a d.c. motor will be
maximum when:
Variable losses = Constant losses
Therefore, the efficiency curve of a d.c. motor is similar in shape to that of a d.c.
generator.

4.20 Power Stages

The power stages in a d.c. motor are represented diagrammatically in Fig.
(4.12).
A − B = Copper losses
B − C = Iron and friction losses
 Fig. (4.12)

Overall efficiency, ηc = C/A

Electrical efficiency, ηe = B/A
Mechanical efficiency, ηm = C/B

4.21 D.C. Motor Characteristics

There are three principal types of d.c. motors viz., shunt motors, series motors
and compound motors. Both shunt and series types have only one field winding
wound on the core of each pole of the motor. The compound type has two
separate field windings wound on the core of each pole. The performance of a
d.c. motor can be judged from its characteristic curves known as motor
characteristics, following are the three important characteristics of a d.c. motor:

(i) Torque and Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia)

It is the curve between armature torque Ta and armature current Ia of a d.c.
motor. It is also known as electrical characteristic of the motor.

(ii) Speed and armature current characteristic (N/ia)

It is the curve between speed N and armature current Ia of a d.c. motor. It is very
important characteristic as it is often the deciding factor in the selection of the
motor for a particular application.

(iii) Speed and torque characteristic (N/Ta)

It is the curve between speed N and armature torque Ta of a d.c. motor. It is also
known as mechanical characteristic.

4.22 Characteristics of Shunt Motors

Fig. (4.13) shows the connections of a d.c. shunt motor. The field current Ish is
constant since the field winding is directly connected to the supply voltage V
which is assumed to be constant. Hence, the flux in a shunt motor is
approximately constant.
 Fig. (4.13) Fig. (4.14)

(i) Ta/Ia Characteristic. We know that in a d.c. motor,

Ta ∝ φ I a
Since the motor is operating from a constant supply voltage, flux φ is
constant (neglecting armature reaction).
∴ Ta ∝ I a
Hence Ta/Ia characteristic is a straight line passing through the origin as
shown in Fig. (4.14). The shaft torque (Tsh) is less than Ta and is shown by
a dotted line. It is clear from the curve that a very large current is required
to start a heavy load. Therefore, a shunt motor should not be started on
heavy load.

(ii) N/Ia Characteristic. The speed N of a. d.c. motor is given by;

Eb
N∝
φ
The flux φ and back e.m.f. Eb in a shunt motor are almost constant under
normal conditions. Therefore, speed of a shunt motor will remain constant
as the armature current varies (dotted line AB in Fig. 4.15). Strictly
speaking, when load is increased, Eb (= V− IaRa) and φ decrease due to the
armature resistance drop and armature reaction respectively. However, Eb
decreases slightly more than φ so that the speed of the motor decreases
slightly with load (line AC).

(iii) N/Ta Characteristic. The curve is obtained by plotting the values of N and
Ta for various armature currents (See Fig. 4.16). It may be seen that speed
falls somewhat as the load torque increases.
 Fig. (4.15) Fig. (4.16)

Conclusions
Following two important conclusions are drawn from the above characteristics:
(i) There is slight change in the speed of a shunt motor from no-load to full-
load. Hence, it is essentially a constant-speed motor.
(ii) The starting torque is not high because Ta ∝ Ia.

4.23 Characteristics of Series Motors

Fig. (4.17) shows the connections of a series motor. Note that current passing
through the field winding is the same as that in the armature. If the mechanical
load on the motor increases, the armature current also increases. Hence, the flux
in a series motor increases with the increase in armature current and vice-versa.

Fig. (4.17) Fig. (4.18)

(i) Ta/Ia Characteristic. We know that:

Ta ∝ φ I a

Upto magnetic saturation, φ ∝ Ia so that Ta ∝ I 2a

After magnetic saturation, φ is constant so that Ta ∝ Ia

Thus upto magnetic saturation, the armature torque is directly proportional

to the square of armature current. If Ia is doubled, Ta is almost quadrupled.
 Therefore, Ta/Ia curve upto magnetic saturation is a parabola (portion OA
of the curve in Fig. 4.18). However, after magnetic saturation, torque is
directly proportional to the armature current. Therefore, Ta/Ia curve after
magnetic saturation is a straight line (portion AB of the curve).

It may be seen that in the initial portion of the curve (i.e. upto magnetic
saturation), Ta ∝ I 2a . This means that starting torque of a d.c. series motor
will be very high as compared to a shunt motor (where that Ta ∝ Ia).

(ii) N/Ia Characteristic. The speed N of a series motor is given by;

Eb
N∝ where E b = V − I a (R a + R se )
φ
When the armature current increases, the back e.m.f. Ed decreases due to
Ia(Ra + Rse) drop while the flux φ increases. However, Ia(Ra + Rse) drop is
quite small under normal conditions and may be neglected.
1
∴ N ∝
φ
1
∝ upto magnetic saturation
Ia
Thus, upto magnetic saturation, the N/Ia curve follows the hyperbolic path
as shown in Fig. (4.19). After saturation, the flux becomes constant and so
does the speed.

Fig. (4.19) Fig. (4.20)

(iii) N/Ta Characteristic. The N/Ta characteristic of a series motor is shown in

Fig. (4.20). It is clear that series motor develops high torque at low speed
and vice-versa. It is because an increase in torque requires an increase in
armature current, which is also the field current. The result is that flux is
strengthened and hence the speed drops (Q N ∝ 1/φ). Reverse happens
should the torque be low.

Conclusions
Following three important conclusions are drawn from the above characteristics
of series motors:
(i) It has a high starting torque because initially Ta ∝ I 2a .
(ii) It is a variable speed motor (See N/Ia curve in Fig. 4.19) i.e., it
automatically adjusts the speed as the load changes. Thus if the load
decreases, its speed is automatically raised and vice-versa.
(iii) At no-load, the armature current is very small and so is the flux. Hence,
the speed rises to an excessive high value (Q N ∝ 1/φ). This is
dangerous for the machine which may be destroyed due to centrifugal
forces set up in the rotating parts. Therefore, a series motor should never
be started on no-load. However, to start a series motor, mechanical load
is first put and then the motor is started.

Note. The minimum load on a d.c. series motor should be great enough to keep
the speed within limits. If the speed becomes dangerously high, then motor must
be disconnected from the supply.

4.24 Compound Motors

A compound motor has both series field and shunt field. The shunt field is
always stronger than the series field. Compound motors are of two types:
(i) Cumulative-compound motors in which series field aids the shunt field.
(ii) Differential-compound motors in which series field opposes the shunt
field.

Differential compound motors are rarely used due to their poor torque
characteristics at heavy loads.

4.25 Characteristics of Cumulative Compound Motors

Fig. (4.21) shows the connections of a cumulative-compound motor. Each pole
carries a series as well as shunt field winding; the series field aiding the shunt
field.

(i) Ta/Ia Characteristic. As the load increases, the series field increases but
shunt field strength remains constant. Consequently, total flux is increased
and hence the armature torque (Q Ta ∝ φIa). It may be noted that torque of
a cumulative-compound motor is greater than that of shunt motor for a
given armature current due to series field [See Fig. 4.22].
 Fig. (4.21) Fig. (4.22)

(ii) N/Ia Characteristic. As explained above, as the lead increases, the flux per
pole also increases. Consequently, the speed (N ∝ 1/φ) of the motor tails as
the load increases (See Fig. 4.23). It may be noted that as the load is added,
the increased amount of flux causes the speed to decrease more than does
the speed of a shunt motor. Thus the speed regulation of a cumulative
compound motor is poorer than that of a shunt motor.

Note: Due to shunt field, the motor has a definite no load speed and can be
operated safely at no-load.

Fig. (4.23) Fig. (4.24)

(iii) N/Ta Characteristic. Fig. (4.24) shows N/Ta characteristic of a cumulative

compound motor. For a given armature current, the torque of a cumulative
compound motor is more than that of a shunt motor but less than that of a
series motor.

Conclusions
A cumulative compound motor has characteristics intermediate between series
and shunt motors.
(i) Due to the presence of shunt field, the motor is prevented from running
away at no-load.
(ii) Due to the presence of series field, the starting torque is increased.
 4.26 Comparison of Three Types of Motors
(i) The speed regulation of a shunt motor is better than that of a series motor.

Fig. (4.25) Fig. (4.26)

However, speed regulation of a cumulative compound motor lies between

shunt and series motors (See Fig. 4.25).

(ii) For a given armature current, the starting torque of a series motor is more
than that of a shunt motor. However, the starting torque of a cumulative
compound motor lies between series and shunt motors (See Fig. 4.26).

(iii) Both shunt and cumulative compound motors have definite no-load speed.
However, a series motor has dangerously high speed at no-load.

4.27 Applications of D.C. Motors

1. Shunt motors
The characteristics of a shunt motor reveal that it is an approximately constant
speed motor. It is, therefore, used
(i) where the speed is required to remain almost constant from no-load to
full-load
(ii) where the load has 10 be driven at a number of speeds and any one of
which is required to remain nearly constant

Industrial use: Lathes, drills, boring mills, shapers, spinning and weaving
machines etc.

2. Series motors
It is a variable speed motor i.e., speed is low at high torque and vice-versa.
However, at light or no-load, the motor tends to attain dangerously high speed.
The motor has a high starting torque. It is, therefore, used
(i) where large starting torque is required e.g., in elevators and electric
traction
 (ii) where the load is subjected to heavy fluctuations and the speed is
automatically required to reduce at high torques and vice-versa

Industrial use: Electric traction, cranes, elevators, air compressors, vacuum

cleaners, hair drier, sewing machines etc.

3. Compound motors
Differential-compound motors are rarely used because of their poor torque
characteristics. However, cumulative-compound motors are used where a fairly
constant speed is required with irregular loads or suddenly applied heavy loads.

Industrial use: Presses, shears, reciprocating machines etc.

4.28 Troubles in D.C. Motors

Several troubles may arise in a d.c. motor and a few of them are discussed
below:
1. Failure to start
This may be due to (i) ground fault (ii) open or short-circuit fault (iii) wrong
connections (iv) too low supply voltage (v) frozen bearing or (vi) excessive
load.

2. Sparking at brushes
This may be due to (i) troubles in brushes (ii) troubles in commutator
(iii) troubles in armature or (iv) excessive load.
(i) Brush troubles may arise due to insufficient contact surface, too short a
brush, too little spring tension or wrong brush setting.
(ii) Commutator troubles may be due to dirt on the commutator, high mica,
rough surface or eccentricity.
(iii) Armature troubles may be due to an open armature coil. An open
armature coil will cause sparking each time the open coil passes the
brush. The location of this open coil is noticeable by a burnt line
between segments connecting the coil.

3. Vibrations and pounding noises

These maybe due to (i) worn bearings (ii) loose parts (iii) rotating parts hitting
stationary parts (iv) armature unbalanced (v) misalignment of machine (vi) loose
coupling etc.

4. Overheating
The overheating of motor may be due to (i) overloads (ii) sparking at the brushes
(iii) short-circuited armature or field coils (iv) too frequent starts or reversals
(v) poor ventilation (vi) incorrect voltage.
DOE Fundamentals

ELECTRICAL SCIENCE
Module 12
AC Motors
Electrical Science
AC Motors

TABLE OF CONTENTS
T able of Co nte nts

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................... i

LIST OF FIGURES ...........................................................................................................ii
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ iii
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................iv
OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................................. v
AC MOTOR THEORY ..................................................................................................... 1
Principles of Operation ................................................................................................ 1
Rotating Field............................................................................................................... 1
Torque Production ....................................................................................................... 5
Slip............................................................................................................................... 5
Torque ......................................................................................................................... 6
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 8
AC MOTOR TYPES ........................................................................................................ 9
Induction Motor ............................................................................................................ 9
Single-Phase AC Induction Motors ............................................................................ 11
Synchronous Motors .................................................................................................. 12
Starting a Synchronous Motor ................................................................................... 13
Field Excitation .......................................................................................................... 14
Summary ................................................................................................................... 15

i
Electrical Science
AC Motors

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Three-Phase Stator .................................................................................. 2

Figure 2 Rotating Magnetic Field ........................................................................... 3
Figure 3 Induction Motor ........................................................................................ 5
Figure 4 Torque vs Slip .......................................................................................... 7
Figure 5 Squirrel-Cage Induction Rotor ............................................................... 10
Figure 6 Split-Phase Motor .................................................................................. 11
Figure 7 Wound Rotor .......................................................................................... 12
Figure 8 Torque Angle ......................................................................................... 13
Figure 9 Synchronous Motor Field Excitation ....................................................... 14

ii
Electrical Science
AC Motors

LIST OF TABLES

NONE

iii
Electrical Science
AC Motors

REFERENCES

 Gussow, Milton, Schaum's Outline of Basic Electricity, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill.

 Academic Program for Nuclear Power Plant Personnel, Volume 1 & II, Columbia,
MD: General Physics Corporation, Library of Congress Card #A 326517, 1982.
 Nasar and Unnewehr, Electromechanics and Electric Machines, 2nd Edition, John
Wiley and Sons.
 Nooger and Neville Inc., Van Valkenburgh, Basic Electricity, Vol. 5, Hayden Book
Company.
 Lister, Eugene C., Electric Circuits and Machines, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill.
 Croft, Hartwell, and Summers, American Electricians’ Handbook, 16th Edition,
McGraw-Hill.
 Mason, C. Russell, The Art and Science of Protective Relaying, John Wiley and
Sons.
 Mileaf, Harry, Electricity One - Seven, Revised 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall.
 Kidwell, Walter, Electrical Instruments and Measurements, McGraw-Hill.
 Buban and Schmitt, Understanding Electricity and Electronics, 3rd Edition,
McGraw-Hill.

iv
Electrical Science
AC Motors

OBJECTIVES

TERMINAL OBJECTIVE
1.0 Given the type and application of an AC motor, DESCRIBE the operating
characteristics of that motor including methods of torque production and
advantages of that type.
ENABLING OBJECTIVES
1.1 DESCRIBE how a rotating magnetic field is produced in an AC motor.
1.2 DESCRIBE how torque is produced in an AC motor.
1.3 Given field speed and rotor speed, CALCULATE percent slip in an AC motor.
1.4 EXPLAIN the relationship between speed and torque in an AC induction motor.
1.5 DESCRIBE how torque is produced in a single-phase AC motor.
1.6 EXPLAIN why an AC synchronous motor does not have starting torque.
1.7 DESCRIBE how an AC synchronous motor is started.
1.8 DESCRIBE the effects of over and under-exciting an AC synchronous motor.
1.9 STATE the applications of the following types of AC motors:
a. Induction
b. Single-phase
c. Synchronous

v
Electrical Science
AC Motors AC Motor Theory

AC MOTOR THEORY

AC motors are widely used to drive machinery for a wide variety of applications. To
understand how these motors operate, a knowledge of the basic theory of operation of
AC motors is necessary.
EO 1.1 DESCRIBE how a rotating magnetic field is produced in an AC motor.
EO 1.2 DESCRIBE how torque is produced in an AC motor.
EO 1.3 Given field speed and rotor speed, CALCULATE percent slip in an AC
motor.
EO 1.4 EXPLAIN the relationship between slip and torque in an AC induction
motor.

Principles of Operation

The principle of operation for all AC motors relies on the interaction of a revolving
magnetic field created in the stator by AC current, with an opposing magnetic field either
induced on the rotor or provided by a separate DC current source. The resulting
interaction produces usable torque, which can be coupled to desired loads throughout
the facility in a convenient manner. Prior to the discussion of specific types of AC
motors, some common terms and principles must be introduced.

Rotating Field

Before discussing how a rotating magnetic field will cause a motor rotor to turn, we must
first find out how a rotating magnetic field is produced. Figure 1 illustrates a three-phase
stator to which a three-phase AC current is supplied.
The windings are connected in wye. The two windings in each phase are wound in the
same direction. At any instant in time, the magnetic field generated by one particular
phase will depend on the current through that phase. If the current through that phase is
zero, the resulting magnetic field is zero. If the current is at a maximum value, the
resulting field is at a maximum value. Since the currents in the three windings are 120°
out of phase, the magnetic fields produced will also be 120° out of phase. The three
magnetic fields will combine to produce one field, which will act upon the rotor. In an AC
induction motor, a magnetic field is induced in the rotor opposite in polarity of the
magnetic field in the stator. Therefore, as the magnetic field rotates in the stator, the
rotor also rotates to maintain its alignment with the stator's magnetic field. The
remainder of this chapter's discussion deals with AC induction motors.

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N S

...
...

Figure 1 Three-Phase Stator

From one instant to the next, the magnetic fields of each phase combine to produce a
magnetic field whose position shifts through a certain angle. At the end of one cycle of
alternating current, the magnetic field will have shifted through 360°, or one revolution
(Figure 2). Since the rotor has an opposing magnetic field induced upon it, it will also
rotate through one revolution.
For purpose of explanation, rotation of the magnetic field is developed in Figure 2 by
"stopping" the field at six selected positions, or instances. These instances are marked
off at 60° intervals on the sine waves representing the current flowing in the three
phases, A, B, and C. For the following discussion, when the current flow in a phase is
positive, the magnetic field will develop a north pole at the poles labeled A, B, and C.

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When the current flow in a phase is negative, the magnetic field will develop a north
pole at the poles labeled A', B', and C'.

Figure 2 Rotating Magnetic Field

At point T1, the current in phase C is at its maximum positive value. At the same
instance, the currents in phases A and B are at half of the maximum negative value.
The resulting magnetic field is established vertically downward, with the maximum field
strength developed across the C phase, between pole C (north) and pole C' (south).
This magnetic field is aided by the weaker fields developed across phases A and B, with
poles A' and B' being north poles and poles A and B being south poles.

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At Point T2, the current sine waves have rotated through 60 electrical degrees. At this
point, the current in phase A has increased to its maximum negative value. The current
in phase B has reversed direction and is at half of the maximum positive value.
Likewise, the current in phase
C has decreased to half of the maximum positive value. The resulting magnetic field is
established downward to the left, with the maximum field strength developed across the
A phase, between poles A' (north) and A (south). This magnetic field is aided by the
weaker fields developed across phases B and C, with poles B and C being north poles
and poles B' and C' being south poles. Thus, it can be seen that the magnetic field
within the stator of the motor has physically rotated 60°.
At Point T3, the current sine waves have again rotated 60 electrical degrees from the
previous point for a total rotation of 120 electrical degrees. At this point, the current in
phase B has increased to its maximum positive value. The current in phase A has
decreased to half of its maximum negative value, while the current in phase C has
reversed direction and is at half of its maximum negative value also. The resulting
magnetic field is established upward to the left, with the maximum field strength
developed across phase B, between poles B (north) and B' (south). This magnetic field
is aided by the weaker fields developed across phases A and C, with poles A' and C'
being north poles and poles A and C being south poles. Thus, it can be seen that the
magnetic field on the stator has rotated another 60° for a total rotation of 120°.
At Point T4, the current sine waves have rotated 180 electrical degrees from Point T1
so that the relationship of the phase currents is identical to Point T1 except that the
polarity has reversed. Since phase C is again at a maximum value, the resulting
magnetic field developed across phase C will be of maximum field strength. However,
with current flow reversed in phase C the magnetic field is established vertically upward
between poles C' (north) and C (south). As can be seen, the magnetic field has now
physically rotated a total of 180° from the start.
At Point T5, phase A is at its maximum positive value, which establishes a magnetic
field upward to the right. Again, the magnetic field has physically rotated 60° from the
previous point for a total rotation of 240°. At Point T6, phase B is at its maximum
negative value, which will establish a magnetic field downward to the right. The
magnetic field has again rotated 60° from Point T5 for a total rotation of 300°.
Finally, at Point T7, the current is returned to the same polarity and values as that of
Point T1. Therefore, the magnetic field established at this instance will be identical to
that established at Point T1. From this discussion it can be seen that for one complete
revolution of the electrical sine wave (360°), the magnetic field developed in the stator of
a motor has also rotated one complete revolution (360°). Thus, you can see that by
applying three-phase AC to three windings symmetrically spaced around a stator, a
rotating magnetic field is generated.

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Torque Production

When alternating current is applied to the

stator windings of an AC induction motor,
a rotating magnetic field is developed. The
rotating magnetic field cuts the bars of the
rotor and induces a current in them due to
generator action. The direction of this
current flow can be found using the left-
hand rule for generators. This induced
current will produce a magnetic field,
opposite in polarity of the stator field,
around the conductors of the rotor, which
will try to line up with the magnetic field of
the stator. Since the stator field is rotating
continuously, the rotor cannot line up with,
or lock onto, the stator field and, therefore,
must follow behind it (Figure 3).
Figure 3 Induction Motor

Slip

It is virtually impossible for the rotor of an AC induction motor to turn at the same speed
as that of the rotating magnetic field. If the speed of the rotor were the same as that of
the stator, no relative motion between them would exist, and there would be no induced
EMF in the rotor. (Recall from earlier modules that relative motion between a conductor
and a magnetic field is needed to induce a current.) Without this induced EMF, there
would be no interaction of fields to produce motion. The rotor must, therefore, rotate at
some speed less than that of the stator if relative motion is to exist between the two.
The percentage difference between the speed of the rotor and the speed of the rotating
magnetic field is called slip. The smaller the percentage, the closer the rotor speed is to
the rotating magnetic field speed. Percent slip can be found by using Equation (12-1).

(12-1)

where
Ns = synchronous speed (rpm)
NR = rotor speed (rpm)

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The speed of the rotating magnetic field or synchronous speed of a motor can be found
by using Equation (12-2).

(12-2)

where
Ns = speed of rotating field (rpm)
f = frequency of rotor current (Hz)
P = total number of poles
Example: A two pole, 60 Hz AC induction motor has a full load speed of 3554 rpm.
What is the percent slip at full load?
Solution:
Synchronous speed:

Slip:

= 1.3%

Torque

The torque of an AC induction motor is dependent upon the strength of the interacting
rotor and stator fields and the phase relationship between them. Torque can be
calculated by using Equation (12-3).
T = K Φ IR cos ӨR (12-3)
where
T = torque (lb-ft)
K = constant
Φ = stator magnetic flux

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AC Motors AC Motor Theory
IR = rotor current (A)
cos ӨR = power factor of rotor
During normal operation, K, Φ, and cos ӨR
are, for all intents and purposes, constant,
so that torque is directly proportional to the
rotor current. Rotor current increases in
almost direct proportion to slip. The
change in torque with respect to slip
(Figure 4) shows that, as slip increases
from zero to ~10%, the torque increases
linearly. As the load and slip are
increased beyond full-load torque, the
torque will reach a maximum value at
about 25% slip. The maximum value of
torque is called the breakdown torque of
the motor. If load is increased beyond this
point, the motor will stall and come to a Figure 4 Torque vs Slip
rapid stop. The typical induction motor
breakdown torque varies from 200 to 300% of full load torque. Starting torque is the
value of torque at 100% slip and is normally 150 to 200% of full-load torque. As the rotor
accelerates, torque will increase to breakdown torque and then decrease to the value
required to carry the load on the motor at a constant speed, usually between 0-10%.

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AC Motors AC Motor Theory

Summary

The important information covered in this chapter is summarized below.

AC Motor Theory Summary

 A magnetic field is produced in an AC motor through the action of the three-
phase voltage that is applied. Each of the three phases is 120° from the other
phases. From one instant to the next, the magnetic fields combine to produce a
magnetic field whose position shifts through a certain angle. At the end of one
cycle of alternating current, the magnetic field will have shifted through 360°, or
one revolution.
 Torque in an AC motor is developed through interactions with the rotor and the
rotating magnetic field. The rotating magnetic field cuts the bars of the rotor and
induces a current in them due to generator action. This induced current will
produce a magnetic field around the conductors of the rotor, which will try to
line up with the magnetic field of the stator.
 Slip is the percentage difference between the speed of the rotor and the speed
of the rotating magnetic field.
 In an AC induction motor, as slip increases from zero to ~10%, the torque
increases linearly. As the load and slip are increased beyond full-load torque,
the torque will reach a maximum value at about 25% slip. If load is increased
beyond this point, the motor will stall and come to a rapid stop. The typical
induction motor breakdown torque varies from 200 to 300% of full-load torque.
Starting torque is the value of torque at 100% slip and is normally 150 to 200%
of full-load torque.

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AC Motors AC Motor Types

AC MOTOR TYPES

Various types of AC motors are used for specific applications. By

matching the type of motor to the appropriate application, increased
equipment performance can be obtained.
EO 1.5 DESCRIBE how torque is produced in a single-phase AC motor.
EO 1.6 EXPLAIN why an AC synchronous motor does not have starting
torque.
EO 1.7 DESCRIBE how an AC synchronous motor is started.
EO 1.8 DESCRIBE the effects of over and under-exciting an AC
synchronous motor.
EO 1.9 STATE the applications of the following types of AC motors:
a. Induction
b. Single-phase
c. Synchronous

Induction Motor

Previous explanations of the operation of an AC motor dealt with induction motors. The
induction motor is the most commonly used AC motor in industrial applications because
of its simplicity, rugged construction, and relatively low manufacturing costs. The reason
that the induction motor has these characteristics is because the rotor is a self-
contained unit, with no external connections. This type of motor derives its name from
the fact that AC currents are induced into the rotor by a rotating magnetic field.
The induction motor rotor (Figure 5) is made of a laminated cylinder with slots in its
surface. The windings in the slots are one of two types. The most commonly used is the
"squirrel-cage" rotor. This rotor is made of heavy copper bars that are connected at
each end by a metal ring made of copper or brass. No insulation is required between
the core and the bars because of the low voltages induced into the rotor bars. The size
of the air gap between the rotor bars and stator windings necessary to obtain the
maximum field strength is small.

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Figure 5 Squirrel-Cage Induction Rotor

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AC Motors AC Motor Types

Figure 6 Split-Phase Motor

Single-Phase AC Induction Motors

If two stator windings of unequal impedance are spaced 90 electrical degrees apart and
connected in parallel to a single-phase source, the field produced will appear to rotate.
This is called phase splitting.
In a split-phase motor, a starting winding is utilized. This winding has a higher
resistance and lower reactance than the main winding (Figure 6). When the same
voltage V, is applied to the starting and main windings, the current in the main winding
(IM) lags behind the current of the starting winding Is (Figure 6). The angle between the
two windings is enough phase difference to provide a rotating magnetic field to produce
a starting torque. When the motor reaches 70 to 80% of synchronous speed, a
centrifugal switch on the motor shaft opens and disconnects the starting winding.
Single-phase motors are used for very small commercial applications such as
household appliances and buffers.

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Figure 7 Wound Rotor

Synchronous Motors

Synchronous motors are like induction motors in that they both have stator windings
that produce a rotating magnetic field. Unlike an induction motor, the synchronous
motor is excited by an external DC source and, therefore, requires slip rings and
brushes to provide current to the rotor. In the synchronous motor, the rotor locks into
step with the rotating magnetic field and rotates at synchronous speed. If the
synchronous motor is loaded to the point where the rotor is pulled out of step with the
rotating magnetic field, no torque is developed, and the motor will stop. A synchronous
motor is not a self-starting motor because torque is only developed when running at
synchronous speed; therefore, the motor needs some type of device to bring the rotor to
synchronous speed.
Synchronous motors use a wound rotor. This type of rotor contains coils of wire placed
in the rotor slots. Slip rings and brushes are used to supply current to the rotor. (Figure
7).

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AC Motors AC Motor Types
Starting a Synchronous Motor

A synchronous motor may be started by a DC motor on a common shaft. When the

motor is brought to synchronous speed, AC current is applied to the stator windings.
The DC motor now acts as a DC generator and supplies DC field excitation to the rotor
of the synchronous motor. The load may now be placed on the synchronous motor.
Synchronous motors are more often started by means of a squirrel-cage winding
embedded in the face of the rotor poles. The motor is then started as an induction motor
and brought to ~95% of synchronous speed, at which time direct current is applied, and
the motor begins to pull into synchronism. The torque required to pull the motor into
synchronism is called the pull-in torque.
As we already know, the synchronous motor rotor is locked into step with the rotating
magnetic field and must continue to operate at synchronous speed for all loads. During
no-load conditions, the center lines of a pole of the rotating magnetic field and the DC
field pole coincide (Figure 8a). As load is applied to the motor, there is a backward shift
of the rotor pole, relative to the stator pole (Figure 8b). There is no change in speed.
The angle between the rotor and stator poles is called the torque angle (α).

Figure 8 Torque Angle

If the mechanical load on the motor is increased to the point where the rotor is pulled
out of synchronism (cE90°), the motor will stop. The maximum value of torque that a
motor can develop without losing synchronism is called its pull-out torque.

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AC Motors AC Motor Types
Field Excitation

For a constant load, the power factor of a synchronous motor can be varied from a
leading value to a lagging value by adjusting the DC field excitation (Figure 9). Field
excitation can be adjusted so that PF = 1 (Figure 9a). With a constant load on the
motor, when the field excitation is increased, the counter EMF (V G) increases. The
result is a change in phase between stator current (I) and terminal voltage (V i), so that
the motor operates at a leading power factor (Figure 9b). Vp in Figure 9 is the voltage
drop in the stator winding's due to the impedance of the windings and is 90° out of
phase with the stator current. If we reduce field excitation, the motor will operate at a
lagging power factor (Figure 9c). Note that torque angle, a, also varies as field excitation
is adjusted to change power factor.

Figure 9 Synchronous Motor Field Excitation

Synchronous motors are used to accommodate large loads and to improve the power
factor of transformers in large industrial complexes.

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AC Motors AC Motor Types

Summary

The important information in this chapter is summarized below.

AC Motor Types Summary

 In a split-phase motor, a starting winding is utilized. This winding has a higher
resistance and lower reactance than the main winding. When the same voltage
(VT) is applied to the starting and main windings, the current in the main
winding lags behind the current of the starting winding. The angle between the
two windings is enough phase difference to provide a rotating magnetic field to
produce a starting torque.
 A synchronous motor is not a self-starting motor because torque is only
developed when running at synchronous speed.
 A synchronous motor may be started by a DC motor on a common shaft or by
a squirrel-cage winding imbedded in the face of the rotor poles.
 Keeping the same load, when the field excitation is increased on a
synchronous motor, the motor operates at a leading power factor. If we reduce
field excitation, the motor will operate at a lagging power factor.
 The induction motor is the most commonly used AC motor in industrial
applications because of its simplicity, rugged construction, and relatively low
manufacturing costs.
 Single-phase motors are used for very small commercial applications such as
household appliances and buffers.
 Synchronous motors are used to accommodate large loads and to improve the
power factor of transformers in large industrial complexes.

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