influences the amount of RAM that can be

Hardware Part addressed. A 32-bit bus allows a maximum of 4

Computer
GB of RAM to be accessed. A 64-bit CPU,
A computer is a device that can be instructed to
obviously, allows for more RAM to be used -
carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical
about 16 exabytes (1 exabyte = 1,000,000,000
operations automatically via computer
gigabytes, approximately). A 64-bit register can
programming. Modern computers have the
store 64 bits of data simultaneously.
ability to follow generalized sets of operations,
To fully utilise a 64-bit CPU, the operating
called programs. These programs enable
system and application need to support the 64-bit
computers to perform an extremely wide range of
mode of operation
tasks.
A computer is a programmable device that can
The control unit (CU) is a component of a
store, retrieve, and process data. The term was
computer's central processing unit (CPU) that
later given to a mechanical device as they began
directs the operation of the processor. It tells the
replacing the human computers. Today's
computer's memory, arithmetic and
computers are electronic devices that accept data
logic unit and input and output devices how to
(input), process that data, produce output, and
respond to the instructions that have been sent to
store (storage) the results.
the processor.
L1 and L2 cache memory. Their inclusion in the
A central processing unit (CPU), also called a
CPU saves time compared to having to get data
central processor or main processor, is the
from random access memory (RAM).
electronic circuitry within a computer that carries
out the instructions of a computer program by
The transistor (short for "transfer resistance") is
performing the basic arithmetic, logic,
made up of semi-conductors. It is a component
controlling, and input/output (I/O) operations
used to control the amount of current or voltage
specified by the instructions.
or used for amplification/modulation or
The four primary functions of a processor are
switching of an electronic signal. The picture
fetch, decode, execute and write back.
shows several examples of transistors.
The basic elements of a processor:
The transistor is the primary building block of all
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which carries
microchips, including your CPU. It is what
out arithmetic and logic operations on the
creates the binary 0's and 1's (bits) your computer
operands in instructions.
uses to communicate and deal with Boolean
The floating point unit (FPU), also known as a
logic.
math coprocessor or numeric coprocessor, a
specialized coprocessor that manipulates
What will replace transistors?
numbers more quickly than the basic
Transistors are still used in all electronics and
microprocessor circuitry can.
will be continued to be used for the foreseeable
Registers, which hold instructions and other data.
future. However, there are some promising
Registers supply operands to the ALU and store
technologies such as carbon nanotubes being
the results of operations.
developed by IBM, graphene sheets, and black
phosphorus that may one day replace the
A microprocessor is a computer processor that
transistor we use today.
incorporates the functions of a central processing
unit on a single integrated circuit (IC), or at most
A processor register (CPU register) is one of a
a few integrated circuits.
small set of data holding places that are part of
the computer processor.
"32/64-bit" refers to the width of the address bus
A register may hold an instruction, a storage
and registers used
address, or any kind of data (such as a bit
by the CPU core. A 64-bit CPU has a 64-bit wide
sequence or individual characters). Some
address bus and 64-
instructions specify registers as part of the
bit wide registers. CPUs access data in the RAM
instruction. For example, an instruction may
by using the address bus. The breadth of the bus
specify that the contents of two defined registers
be added together and then placed in a specified loader reads the hard drives boot sector to
register. continue the process of loading the computer's
A register must be large enough to hold an operating system. The term bootstrap comes
instruction - for example, in a 64-bit computer, a from the old phrase "Pull yourself up by your
register must be 64 bits in length bootstraps."
When the computer is turned on or restarted, the
Audio sockets bootstrap loader first performs the power-on self-
A set of sockets that allowed speakers and a test, also known as POST. If the POST is
microphone to be connected, usually three in successful and no issues are found, the bootstrap
number. loader will load the operating system for the
computer into memory. The computer will then
AGP be able to quickly access, load, and run the
The Accelerated Graphics Port is present only in operating system.
very few new motherboards; it is being phased The bootstrap loader has been replaced in
out. This was a slot dedicated to enhance the computers that have an EFI (Extensible
graphics capabilities of the system by allowing a Firmware Interface) and is now part of the EFI
high-speed direct bus to the RAM BIOS.

BIOS (Basic Input Output System) Chipset

Though often interchangeably used, the two Refers to a set, usually a pair, of microprocessors
terms refer to different things. BIOS (Basic Input that are present on the motherboard, and which
Output System) refers to a set of instructions that controls the communication between every
are critical for the functioning of the system. component of the system - the CPU, the RAM,
These instructions include information about the the expansion cards, and other peripherals
components connected to the motherboard, like plugged into the system. The Chipset usually
the hard disk, RAM, and the configuration of the comprises the Northbridge and the Southbridge.
many onboard subsystems. CMOS The names are derived from the relative position
(Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) of the microprocessors with respect to the CPU.
refers to the chip on which the BIOS instructions The chip closer to the CPU is called the
are stored. CMOS is the name of the technology Northbridge, and the one placed further away is
behind the chip that stores the BIOS. Present-day referred to as
CMOS is technically called EEPROM for the Southbridge. The Northbridge has
Electronically Erasable Programmable Read-only traditionally controlled the communication of the
Memory. These can be rewritten to, and this CPU with the rest of the system, namely the
allows the BIOS instructions of a motherboard to memory, the graphics subsystem (either onboard
be updated when required. graphics or the graphic card(s)), and the
POST Southbridge. The Southbridge is traditionally
When power is turned on, POST (Power-On involved with controlling the communication
Self-Test) is the diagnostic testing sequence that between the Northbridge and the peripherals,
a computer's basic input/output system (or namely expansion cards not plugged into the
"starting program") runs to determine if graphics slot like the sound card and internal
the computer keyboard, random access memory, modem, storage devices like the hard disks and
disk drives, and other hardware are working optical drives, and the ports - COM, USB, etc.
correctly.
Display port
Bootstrap loader The 15-pin, mini DB 15 port, also called the
Alternatively referred to as bootstrapping, VGA / Display port is used to connect an
bootloader, or boot program, a bootstrap loader is analogue monitor. With LCD monitors becoming
a program that resides in the computer's popular, the DVI (Digital Video Interface) port is
EPROM, ROM, or another non-volatile memory. also frequently seen.
It is automatically executed by the processor
when turning on the computer. The bootstrap
Expansion slots results of the processing are first stored in the
Expansion slots on motherboards are mostly PCI, system memory.
PCIE, and AGP. System memory is volatile, which means that the
stored data is lost when the device is powered
Jumpers down.
These refer to the open contacts on the
motherboard that can be used to configure Integrated RAM chips are available in two form:
different settings of the board. With time, the 1. SRAM(Static RAM)
number of jumpers has come down, with most of 2. DRAM(Dynamic RAM)
its functionality shifted to the CMOS / BIOS.
Still, many other boards today do have one set of
jumpers, which is used to reset the BIOS The SRAM memories consist of circuits capable
settings. of retaining the stored information as long as the
power is applied. That means this type of
LAN port memory requires constant power. SRAM
RJ-45, or the LAN port, allows the PC to be memories are used to build Cache Memory.
connected to a network, whether to a LAN or to
the Internet via a broadband modem.
DRAM
PCB (Printed Circuit Board) DRAM stores the binary information in the form
The foundation of every electronic device is the of electric charges that applied to capacitors. The
board on which every component is connected. stored information on the capacitors tend to lose
The PCB consists of minute conductors, usually over a period of time and thus the capacitors
of copper, seen as fine lines criss-crossing the must be periodically recharged to retain their
surface, mounted on an insulated ubstrate. usage. The main memory is generally made up of
DRAM chips.
Ports
Every motherboard offers a plethora of ports on
its back panel. The most commonly seen ports on Difference
today's PCs are PS2, USB, VGA, LAN, Serial, The main difference is that the SRAM need not
and Audio Sockets. to be refreshed hundred of time in one clock
cycle whereas the DRAM needs to be refreshed
RAM slots hundreds of time in a clock cycle.
These refer to the interface to connect RAM
modules. Memory is organized in the form of
banks, with one or more slots constituting a
bank. Each bank has a dedicated channel to the
memory controller.

RAM is short for Random Access Memory. In

common parlance, RAM refers to system
memory, the temporary storage area that holds
all the data that the CPU is working on. All data
that requires processing by the CPU and the
What are the common types of DRAM? operating on the same principles, the modules
are not backward-compatible. Each
 Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) generation delivers higher transfer rates and
“synchronizes” the memory speed with CPU faster performance. The latest DDR4
clock speed so that the memory controller modules.
knows the exact clock cycle when the
requested data will be ready. This allows the
Cache memory
CPU to perform more instructions at a given All CPUs presently made have two components
time. Typical SDRAM transfers data at in their die – the processing core and some
speeds up to 133 MHz. memory. The memory is used to store
frequently-used data so that the CPU doesn't
 Double Data Rate SDRAM (DDR have to wait for the data to be fetched from other,
slower storage areas like the system RAM or
SDRAM) is a type of synchronous memory
hard disk. This temporary storage is referred to
that nearly doubles the bandwidth of a single as the cache. Unlike system RAM, cache is made
data rate (SDR) SDRAM running at the same of more expensive Static RAM, which does not
clock frequency by employing a method require refreshing. There can be multiple caches
called "double pumping," which allows per CPU. The cache that is closest to the CPU
core is called the Level 1 cache, and is most
frequently accessed by the CPU. The subordinate
transfer of data on both the rising and falling cache, called the Level 2 cache, is approached
edges of the clock signal without any only if the data is not available in the L1 cache.
increase in clock frequency. Some high-end CPUs also sport a Level 3 cache.

Access Time
 DDR1 SDRAM has been succeeded
Reading data from or writing data to a hard disk
by DDR2, DDR3, and most
involves the rotation of the spindle to bring the
recently, DDR4 SDRAM. Although
required sector under the read/write head, and the and data transfer speeds and due to the absence
motion of the read / write head to the desired of moving parts, are more sturdy and silent.
track on the platter. The access time is the sum of
the time taken for these. Tracks Data is stored in concentric paths on a
platter; the concentric paths are called tracks.
The ATA (Advanced Technology Attachment)
specification deals with the interface between the Flash Memory
motherboard and hard disks that have integrated “Flash” Memory loosely refers to any non-
circuitry. This standard is also referred to as IDE volatile, rewriteable, random access memory. A
(or Integrated Drive Electronics). Flash Drive or Thumb Drive consists of a Flash
Memory chip that stores the data, a controller
Bad sectors are areas on a hard disk that are that manages the read/write operations, and a
physically damaged. The data present in these USB interface. Besides as an integrated unit,
areas cannot be read with normal software, and Flash memory also exists as distinct memory
no data can be stored there. cards that can be plugged into Memory Card
readers that have a USB interface. Memory card
Boot Sector types include Compact Flash, Secure Digital,
Every partition in a hard disk contains critical Multimedia, xD, Memory Stick, and more.
data in the first sector, carrying information These differ in their working, but offer similar
about loading the operating system. This first functionality. NAND / NOR Flash Most Flash
sector is called the boot sector. Any partition Memory products are based on NAND Flash,
containing relevant information in the boot sector and a few use NOR Flash technology. NAND
is termed bootable, and is called the Boot and NOR refer to the logic gates used to manage
Partition. the contents stored in memory. NAND Flash
typically lasts for a much larger number of
MBR read/write cycles.
The Master Boot Record resides in the first
sector of the hard disk. This contains critical SMPS
information like the Master Partition Table and Switching-Mode (or Switched-Mode) Power
the information about the active partition. Supply refers to that class of devices that use a
Partition Table switching transistor (along with other
A Partition is a logical subdivision of a hard disk components) to convert AC current into DC
into smaller chunks. The partition table is the current of different voltages.
record of the partitions on a hard disk.
CMYK
SATA This is the colour scheme used in printing
Serial Advanced Technology Attachment refers technology. The name is derived from the four
to the latest form of connection for storage evices constituents of the scheme—Cyan, Magenta,
like hard disks and optical drives. Data is Yellow, and Black. Colour inkjet printers have
transferred serially though the interface. reservoirs for each of the colours. Some photo
printers also carry additional colours like red,
SSD reen, light cyan and light magenta to offer better
Solid State Drives refer to the new-generation colour fidelity.
drives that are built using Flash memory
technology. These offer better power economy
 6. What is high level language in Computer
Software Part Programming?
1. Difference between Data and information. High-level languages are designed to be used
Definition1- Data are simply facts or figures by the human operator or the programmer.
— bits of information, but They are referred to as "closer to humans." In
not information itself. When data are other words, their programming style and
processed, interpreted, organized, structured context is easier to learn and implement than
or presented so as to make them meaningful low-level languages, and the entire code
or useful, they are generally focuses on the specific program to
called information. Information provides be created.
context for data.
Definition2- Data and information are 7. What is a Source code and Object code?
interrelated. Data usually refers to raw data, The source code consists of the programming
or unprocessed data. It is the basic form of statements that are created by a programmer
data, data that hasn’t been analyzed or with a text editor or a visual programming
processed in any manner. Once the data is tool and then saved in a file. For example, a
analyzed, it is considered as information. programmer using the C language types in a
Information is "knowledge communicated or desired sequence of C language statements
received concerning a particular fact or using a text editor and then saves them as a
circumstance." Information is a sequence of named file. This file is said to contain the
symbols that can be interpreted as a message. source code. It is now ready to be compiled
It provides knowledge or insight about a with a C compiler and the resulting output,
certain matter. the compiled file, is often referred to as
object code. The object code file contains a
2. What is an instruction in computer? sequence of instructions that the processor
An instruction is a segment of code that can understand but that is difficult for a
contains steps that need to be executed by the human to read or modify.
computer processor.
Or an instruction is an order given to 8. What is a compiler?
a computer processor by a A compiler converts a high level language
computer program. program/code into binary instructions
(machine language) that our computer can
3. What is a Command in computer? interpret, understand and take the appropriate
A command is an instruction telling steps to execute the same.
a computer to do something, such a run a
single program or a group of linked 9. What is difference between compiler and
programs. interpreter?
Interpreter: analyzes and executes each
4. What is a Process in computer? line of source code in succession, without
A process is an instance of a program looking at the entire program. The
running in a computer. A process is started advantage of interpreters is that they can
when a program is initiated execute a program immediately.
Compilers: require some time before an
5. What is a Task in computer? executable program emerges. However,
Whenever you execute a program, the programs produced by compilers run
operating system creates a new task for it. much faster than the same programs
The task is like an envelope for the program: executed by an interpreter.
it identifies the program with a task
number and attaches other book keeping
information to it.
A/D Analog-to-Digital LAN Local Area Network
AI Artificial Intelligence LCD Liquid Crystal Display
ALGOL Algorithic Language LED Light Emitting Diode
ALU Arithmetic Logic Unit LSI Large Scael Integration
AMD Advanced Micro Devices MAN Metropolitan Area Network
APRANET Advanced Research Project Agency Network MB Mega Bytes
ASCII American Standard Code for Information MHz Mega Hertz
Interchange MIDI Musical Instrument Digital Interface
BASIC Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
MIPS Millions of Instructions Per Second
BCD Binary Coded Decimal
MPEG Moving Pictures Experts Group
BIOS Basic Inpute Output System
MS-DOS MicroSoft Disk Operating System
CAD Computer Aided Design
NIC Network Interface Card
CAE Computer Aided Engineering
OCR Optical Character Recognition
CAN Campus Area Network
OMR Optical Mark Reader
CD Compact Disk
OS Operating System
CD-R CD-Recordable
OSI Open System Interconnection
CD-ROM Compact Disk Read Only Memory
OSS Open Source Software
CD-RW CD Read/Write
PAN Personal Area Network
CLI Command Line Interface
PC Personal Computer
CPU Central Processing Unit
PDF Portable Document Format
CRT Cathode Ray Tube
PROM Programmable Read-Only Memory
DBMS Data Base Management System
QoS Quality of Service
DPI Dots Per Inch
RAM Random Access Memory
DVD Digital Video/Versatile Disk
ROM Read Only Memory
EBCDIC Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange
SDLC Software Development Life Cycle
Code
ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator SEQUEL Structured English QUEry Language
EPROM Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory SIMM Single In-line Memory Module
FAT File Allocation Table SQL Structured Query Language
FLOPS Floating Point Operations Per Second SRAM Static RAM
FORTRAN FORmula TRANslation SSI Small Scale Integration
FTP File Transfer Protocol TB Tera Bytes
GB Giga Bytes TCP Transport Control Protocol
GFLOPS Giga FLOPS ULSI Ultra Large Scale Integration
GHz Giga Hertz URL Uniform Resource Locator
GNU Gnu Not Unix USB Universal Serial Bus
GPRS General Packet Radio Service VCR Video Cassette Recorder
GSM Global System for Mobile communication VGA Video Graphics Array
GUI Graphical User Interface VoIP Voice over Internet Protocol
HP Hewlett Packard VSAT Very Small Aperture Terminal
HTML HyperText Markup Language WAN Wide Area Network
HTTP HyperText Transport Protocol WAP Wireless Application Protocol
IBM International Business Machine WiMAX Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
IC Integrated Circuit WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
IP Internet Protocol WLL Wireless Local Loop
ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network WWW World Wide Web
ISP Internet Service Provider XHTML eXtensible HyperText Markup Language
JPEG Joint Photographic Experts Group XML eXtensible Markup Language
JSP Java Server Pages
KB Kilo Bytes
KHz Kilo Hertz