Semiconductor Devices

INTROCUCTION
• When the diode is forward biased, it behaves as a closed switch and current flows in the
• diode circuit.
• When the diode is reverse biased, it behaves as an open switch and no current flows in the
• diode circuit.
• This switching action of a diode allows it to be used as a rectifier.
• Generation of AC at a power station is more cost effective than producing DC power.
• The AC mains voltage is rectified by using junction diodes to obtain a DC voltage.
 Working of a simple rectifier circuit

1. AC mains supply connected to the primary of a transformer and secondary is connected to a rectifier circuit.
2. The AC voltage is converted into a DC voltage by a diode rectifier.
3. The output of the rectifier contains some AC component.
4. This AC component in the DC output of a rectifier is called ripple .
5. Ripple is removed by using a filter circuit.
6. The output of the filter circuit is almost a pure DC.
7. The voltage regulator circuit shown after the filter restricts the output voltage to the desired value.
 Rectification
Definition: The conversion of AC voltage into a DC voltage is called rectification.

Rectifier
Definition: An electronic circuit which rectifies AC voltage is called rectifier.
Half Wave Rectifier
Waveform of input and output signals for half wave rectifier
Waveforms of input and output
signals for a full wave rectifier
 Advantages of a full wave rectifier

1. Rectification takes place in both the cycles of the AC input.

2. Efficiency of a full wave rectifier is higher than that of a half wave rectifier.

3. The ripple in a full wave rectifier is less than that in a half wave rectifier.
 Ripple Factor
Definition: The ratio of root mean square (rms) value of the AC component to the
value of the DC component in the rectifier output is known as the ripple factor

Fig. Ripple in the output of a DC output.

 Filter circuits
Definition: A filter circuit is a circuit which removes the AC component or the ripple
from a rectifier output and allows only the DC component.
A capacitor filter

Fig.: Filter circuit with capacitor

Fig. : Output wave form after filtration

 16.3.1 Zener Diode

A Zener diode works on the principle of junction breakdown.

The other diodes mentioned above make use of photosensitivity, a very important and useful
property of semiconductors.
Junction Break Down
Zener Breakdown
Zener Diode Characteristic
Zener diode as a voltage regulator
 Applications of Zener Diode

1. Zener diode is used when a constant voltage is required.

2. It has a number of applications such as: Voltage regulator, Fixed reference voltage provider in

transistor biasing circuits, Peak clipper or limiter in a wave shaping circuit, Protector against meter

damage from accidental fluctuations, etc.

 Photo Diode

Definition: A photodiode is a special type of a p-n junction diode which converts light energy
into electrical energy.

It generates current when exposed to light.

It is also called as photodetector or a photosensor.
It operates in reverse biased mode.

Circuit symbol of photodiode

Fig.: Schematic of the structure of

a photodiode.
Working Principle of Photodiode

Figure : schematically shows

working of a photodiode
I-V characteristic of a photodiode

Fig. : The I-V characteristic of

a photodiode
Relation between the reverse current of a
photodiode and the intensity of illumination
 Advantages of photodiode

1) 1. Quick response when exposed to light.

2) 2 . Linear response. The reverse current is linearly proportional to intensity of incident light.
3) 3.High speed of operations.
4) 4 Light weight and compact size.
5) 5. Wide spectral response. For example, photodiodes made from Si respond to radiation of
wavelengths from 190 nm (UV) to 1100 nm (IR).
6) 6. Relatively low cost.
 Application of photodiode

Counters and switches.

Burglar alarm systems.
Detection of visible and invisible radiations.
Circuits in which fast switching and high- speed operations are required.
Fiber optic communication systems.
Opt couplers, used to provide an electric isolation between two electronic circuits.
Photo sensors/detectors, for accurate measurement of light intensity.
Safety electronics like fire and smoke detectors
 Structure of a Solar Cell

Definition: Photo voltaic devices which convert solar energy into electrical
energy using solar cells.
Structure of a Solar Cell
 Working of a solar cell

1) Electron-hole pairs are generated in the depletion region of the p-n junction. These are photo-generated carriers.

2) The electrons and holes are separated and collected at the cathode and the anode respectively.

3) The carriers are accumulated and generate a voltage across the solar cell.

4) Power thus produced is dissipated (utilized) in the load resistance or in the circuit connected across the solar cell.
V-I Characteristic of solar Cell or
Photovoltaic cell
 Use of Solar cell
1) Solar cells are used for charging batteries during day time so that batteries can supply power
during night.

2) They are useful at remote places, for supplying power to various electronic equipment from
calculators to satellites and space stations, to supply power to traffic signals, in communication
stations, and in Lux meter to measure intensity of light.
 Light Emitting Diode / LED

Definition: The Light Emitting Diode or LED as it is more commonly

called is a diode which emits light when large forward current passes
through it.

Fig.: Circuit symbol of LED.

Fig: Schematic structure of LED.

Working of a LED
I-V Characteristics Light Emitting Diodes
 Advantages of LED

Energy efficient: More light output for lesser electrical power. LEDs are now capable of
producing 135 lumens/watt

Long Lifetime: 50,000 hours or more if properly manufactured.

Rugged: LEDs are also called Solid State Lights (SSL) as they are made of solid material with
no filament or tube or bulb to break.

4. Almost no warm up period. LEDs start emitting light in nanoseconds.

Excellent colour rendering: Colours produced by LED do not fade out making them perfect
for displays and retail applications

Environment friendly LEDs do not contain mercury or other hazardous substances.

Controllable: Brightness and colour of light emitted by LEDs can be controlled

 Disadvantages of LED

Hazardous blue light quality, temperature dependence, voltage sensitivity, high initial cost.
 Application of LED

An LED is used in a variety of ways such as, burglar alarm system, counters, optical
communication, indicator lamps in electric equipment, display screen of a cell phone handset, LED
television, vehicle head lamps, domestic and decorative illumination, street lighting.
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
Definition: A junction transistor is a semiconductor device having two junctions and three
terminals. The current in a transistor is carried by both the electrons and the holes. Hence, it
is called a bipolar junction transistor.
p-n-p transistor and n-p-n transistor
 Two-diode Analogy of a BJT

Emitter: thick heavily doped layer. This supplies a large number of majority carriers for the
current flow through the transistor

Base: It is the thin, lightly doped central layer.

Collector: thick and moderately doped layer. Its area is larger than that of the emitter and
the base. This layer collects a major portion of the majority carriers supplied by the emitter.
The collector also helps dissipation of any small amount of heat generated.
Depletion region: The depletion regions are formed at the emitter-base junction and the
base-collector junction.

Current: The emitter current IE, the base current IB and the collector current IC is as
indicated in the Fig.

Resistance: The emitter-base junction has low resistance while the base-collector junction
has a high resistance.

Fig. Electron flow through a transistor.

 Working of a p-n-p transistor

Depletion region: The depletion regions are formed at the emitter-base junction and the base-collector junction.

Current: The emitter current IE, the base current IB and the collector current IC

Resistance: The emitter-base junction has low resistance while the base-collector junction has a high resistance.

Fig. : Biasing of p-n-p transistor.

Working of n -p-n transistor
 Electrons injected from the emitter into the base diffuse into the collector- base depletion region due to the thin
base region.

 When the electrons enter the collector- base depletion region, they are pushed into the collector region by the
electric field at the collector-base depletion region
 Transistor configuration

Common Emitter configuration

The emitter of the transistor is common to both the input and the output

Fig. common emitter configuration.

Common Base configuration
The base of the transistor is common to both the input and the output,

Fig.: Common base configuration.

Common Collector configuration
The collector of the transistor is common to both the input and the output

Fig. : Common collector configuration

The Common Emitter (CE) Configuration
The Common Emitter (CE) characteristic
The Input characteristics
The output characteristics
 Logic Gates

Definition: A digital circuit with one or more input signals but only one output signal is called a logic
gate
 Boolean expression
Definition: The mathematical statement that provides the relationship between the
input and the output of a logic gate is called a Boolean expression.
 NOT Gate
This is the most basic logic gate.
It has one input and one output.
It produces a ‘high’ output or output ‘1’ if the input is ‘0’.
When the input is ‘high’ or ‘1’, its out put is ‘low’ or ‘0’.
That is, it produces a negated version of the input at its output
 OR Gate

An OR gate has two or more inputs and one output.

It is also called logical addition.
The output Y is 1 or high when either input A or input B or both are 1, that is, if any one of
the input is high or both inputs are high, the output is ‘1’ or high.
 AND Gate
An AND gate has two or more inputs and one output.
The AND operation represents a logical multiplication.
The output Y of AND gate is high or 1 only when input
A and input B are both 1 or both are high simultaneous
 NAND Gate
The NAND gate is formed by connecting the output of a NOT gate to the input of an AND gate.
The output of a NAND gate is exactly opposite to that of an AND gate.
If the inputs A and B are both high or ‘1’, the output Y is negation, i.e., the output is low or ‘0’.
The gate derives its name from this NOT-AND behaviour.
 NOR Gate
• The NOR gate is formed by connecting the output of a NOT gate to the input of an OR gate.

• The output of a NOR gate is exactly opposite to that of an OR gate.

• The output Y of a NOR gate is high or 1 only when both the inputs are low or 0.
 Exclusive OR/ X-OR Gate
Useful to compare two logic levels and produce an output value dependent upon the
input condition is very useful in computational logic circuits.
The output of an Exclusive-OR gate goes 'HIGH' only when its two input terminals are at
different logic levels with respect to each other.
An odd number of high or '1' at its input gives high or '1' at the output.
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PHYSICS GYAAN MUKESH NAYAK