Unit 1- Introduction to Sensors

Definition of Sensor and transducers, Terminologies - Measurand and Measurement, Sensor and
Transducer, Analog and Digital Sensor, Sensor Signal Conditioning, Passive, and Active Devices.
Sensor Types and Selection- Sensor Classification Based on the Measurand, Sensor Classification
Based on Sensor Technology, Sensor Selection

 Sensors:-
Definition: -
A sensor is a device or module that detects and responds to a physical input or stimulus from the
environment. It converts this input into a measurable output, usually an electrical signal, which can be
interpreted and used for various applications.
Sensors are used in a wide range of industries, including automotive, healthcare, electronics, and
manufacturing, to gather data and enable automation, monitoring, and control systems. They play a crucial
role in collecting information about temperature, pressure, light, sound, movement, proximity, and many
other physical parameters.
Examples: Temperature sensors, Pressure sensors, Humidity sensors, Proximity sensors, etc.

 Transducers:-
Definition:-
A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy in to another form.
Transducers work on energy Conversion principle.There are six different types of
measurements; mechanical, magnetic, thermal, electric, chemical and radiation, a transducer can take a
measurement in one format and convert it to another.
Examples: Microphone, Loud speaker Thermocouple, Thermistor, RTD, Strain Gauge, LVDT,
Tachometer, etc.
  Whether all Transducers are sensors?
Not all transducers are sensors. Transducers are devices that convert one form of energy into another.
While sensors are a type of transducer that converts physical quantities into an electrical signal, not all
transducers perform this function. For example, Motor’s are also a type of transducer that converts
electrical energy into mechanical energy or motion.
All sensors are transducer but not all transducers are sensors.
Example: Thermistor is sensor as well as Transducer.

 Difference between Sensor & Transducer:-

Sr.
Sensor Transducer
No.
Senses physical quantities and converts them into Converts one form of energy into another
1
signals read by an instrument. form.
Sensors typically produce an electrical output Transducers can have different output types
2 signal, which can be either analog or digital, depending on the application.
depending on the type of sensor.
Transducers generally have a Complex
3 Sensors generally have a simpler design
design
4 Small Size Large Size
Sensors are commonly used in various industries They are used in Various fields such as
5 and applications for monitoring and control medical, industrial automation, robotics, and
purposes many more.
A sensor does not have any other component The components of a transducer are − input
6 except itself. device (sensor), processing device (signal
conditioning), and output device.
7 All the sensors are not transducers. A sensor is the part of all the transducers.

Transducers may have varying degrees of

Sensors are highly sensitive to specific physical
8 sensitivity and may not always prioritize high
inputs
sensitivity.
9 Block Diagram Block Diagram

10 Example: Magnetic Sensor Example: Potentiometer

  Measurand and Measurement:-
1. Measurand: This refers to the particular quantity, condition or property that is being measured or
observed. It is the object of the measurement process itself.
For example, if you are measuring the temperature with thermometer, then temperature itself is the
measurand.
2. Measurement: This refers to the process of determining the value of the measurand using
measuring instrument or device.
It involves comparing unknown quantity (measurand) with known standard to obtain numerical
value or indication.Measurement is essential for assessing monitoring & controlling various
physical quantities & parameters in scientific, industrial & everyday applications.
Sensor play important role in measurement systems by converting real world phenomenon into
signal that can be processed displayed or further analyzed.
In summary, the measurand is what you are trying to measure, while the measurement is the actual process
of obtaining a value or result for that measurand.

 Sensor Classification:-
Sensors can be classified into different categories based on various factors such as the type of physical
quantity they measure, the technology used for sensing, and their application. Here are some common
classifications of sensors:
1. Based on Application:
a. Environmental sensors: Measure parameters such as temperature, humidity, pressure, light intensity, etc.
Example: soil sensors, temperature and humidity sensors, gas sensors, rainfall sensors,
b. Motion sensors: Detect motion or movement, including accelerometers, gyroscopes, and proximity
sensors.
Example: Passive infrared sensor, Microwave sensor Ultrasonic sensor.
c. Biomedical sensors: Used for measuring vital signs and physiological parameters like heart rate, blood
pressure, oxygen levels, etc.
Example: blood pressure sensor, oxygen levels sensor
d. Industrial Sensors: Used in industrial automation and control systems,
Example. proximity sensors, pressure sensors.
2. Technology used for sensing:
a. Passive sensors: Passive sensors are the type of sensors that produces output signal without the help of
external excitation supply. They do not need any extra stimulus or voltage.
Example: Thermocouple, which generates a voltage value corresponding to the heat, applied. It does not
require any external power supply.
b. Active sensors: Active sensors are the type of sensors that produces output signal with help of external
excitation supply.
Examples: LVDT and strain gauge.
3. Based on the Measurand:
a. Temperature sensors: Measure temperature variations. (e.g., Thermocouple, RTD).
b. Pressure sensors: Measure pressure changes. (e.g., strain gauges).
c. Proximity sensors: Detect the presence or absence of objects in close proximity.
d. Optical sensors: Measure light intensity or properties (e.g., photodiodes or phototransistors).
e. Gas sensors: Detect and measure the concentration of gases in the environment.
(e.g., Optical gas Sensor).
f. Force sensors: Measure force or load applied to an object. (e.g., Load Cell).
g. Humidity Sensors: Measure Humidity (moisture content in air) (e.g. Capacitive humidity sensors,
resistive humidity sensors
h. Motion Sensors: Measure Motion/ Movement (e.g. Accelerometers, gyroscopes, motion detectors.)
4. Classification based on working principle:
a. Resistive sensors: Measure changes in electrical resistance (e.g., strain gauges).
b. Capacitive sensors: Measure changes in capacitance (e.g., touch screens).
c. Inductive sensors: Measure changes in inductance (e.g., proximity sensors).
d. Piezoelectric sensors: Generate electrical signals in response to mechanical pressure or vibration.
e. Hall Effect sensors: Utilize the Hall effect to measure magnetic fields.
f. Optical Sensors: Measure light intensity or presence, e.g., photodiodes, phototransistors.
5. Based on Installation:
a. Contact Sensors: Require physical contact with the object being measured, e.g., thermocouples, strain
gauges.
b. Non-contact Sensors: Measure without physical contact, e.g., ultrasonic sensors, infrared sensors.
6. Based on Output:
a. Analog sensors: The sensor that produces continuous signal with respect to time with analog output is
called as Analog sensors
Examples: accelerometers, speed sensors, pressure sensors, light sensors, temperature sensors.
b. Digital sensors: When data is converted and transmitted digitally, it is called as Digital sensors. Digital
sensors are the one, which produces discrete output signals.
Examples: Digital Temperature Sensor, Encoders, Digital Accelerometer, Light Sensor

 Sensor Characteristics/ Selection criteria/Specifications:-

Sensor characteristics refer to the properties or features of a sensor that determine its performance and
capabilities. Some common sensor characteristics include:
1. Sensitivity: Sensitivity is the ratio of change in output to the change in input. A more sensitive sensor
will be able to detect smaller changes and thus provide more accurate measurements.
2. Range: The range of a sensor refers to the minimum and maximum values of the measured parameter
that the sensor can accurately detect.
3. Accuracy: Accuracy is a measure of how closely a sensor's output matches the true value of the
measured parameter. A highly accurate sensor will provide measurements that are very close to the actual
value.
4. Precision: Precision describes the level of repeatability and consistency in a sensor's measurements. A
highly precise sensor will consistently provide the same or very similar measurements when the same
conditions are present.
5. Response Time: The response time of a sensor is the time it takes for the sensor to detect and respond to
a change in the measured parameter. A faster response time is desirable in situations where real-time
monitoring and quick detection is required.
6. Selectivity: Selectivity refers to the ability of a sensor to respond only to the target parameter while
ignoring any interference or background noise. A sensor with high selectivity will be less affected by
external factors and provide more accurate measurements.
7. Resolution: Resolution refers to the smallest detectable change in the measured parameter that a sensor
can respond to. A sensor with higher resolution is capable of detecting finer changes and provides more
detailed measurements.
8. Linearity: Linearity is a measure of how well a sensor's response relates to changes in the measured
parameter. A sensor with good linearity will provide a linear output over the entire range, while a non-
linear sensor may have a distorted response.
9. Stability: Stability refers to the ability of a sensor to maintain its performance characteristics over time.
A stable sensor will provide consistent and reliable measurements without experiencing significant drift or
degradation in performance.
10. Power Consumption: Power consumption is an important characteristic in portable and battery-
operated sensors. Low power consumption allows for longer battery life and increased usability.
11. Span: It is the difference between the maximum and minimum values of input. In above example, the
span of RTD is 800 – (-200) = 1000oC.
12. Hysteresis: It is the difference in output when input is varied in two ways- increasing and decreasing.
13 Drift: The difference in the measurement of the sensor from a specific reading when kept at that value
for a long period of time.
14. Repeatability: It is defined as the ability of sensor to produce the same output every time when the
same input is applied and all the physical and measurement conditions kept the same
15. Cost is important especially when quantity involved is large in the end application.
These characteristics can vary depending on the type of sensor and its application. Different sensors may
prioritize different characteristics based on the specific requirements of the measurement task.

 Sensor Signal Conditioning:-

A signal conditioner is a circuit that performs a set of operations on a signal and makes it suitable for
further processing. It consists of an input and an output – where the input is, usually, a sensor that
measures the environmental and/or structural variable.

 Why is Signal Conditioning Important?

In real-world applications, sensors and transducers attached to the systems for measurements are often
exposed to hostile environments where faults are likely to occur. In addition, outputs of most sensors are
relatively weak. The output usually consists of small voltages, currents, or resistance changes. If the data
acquisition system is fed weak signals, the output is more likely to be meaningless. Signal conditioners
provide the essential circuitry between the sensor and the data acquisition system. This circuit
ensures proper conditioning of the output before any further signal processing can occur. For each
specific sensor, a signal conditioner serves as an interface to excite, scale, or buffer real-world signals.

The following are common signal conditioning types:

1. Amplification: Sensors often generate weak electrical signals that need to be amplified to a level
suitable for processing by subsequent circuitry. Amplifiers are used to increase the signal strength
while maintaining the integrity of the signal. Thermocouples and strain gauges are sensors that
typically require amplification.
2. Isolation: In some applications, it is crucial to isolate the sensor signal from the rest of the circuitry
to prevent interference or ground loops. Isolation techniques, such as optocouplers or transformers,
are used for this purpose.
3. Linearization: Linearization is the action of converting a non-linear input signal to a linear output
signal – and is necessary when sensors produce signals that are not linearly related to the physical
measurement. A thermocouple is an example of a sensor that requires linearization.
4. Filtering: Sensors may pick up unwanted noise or interference from the environment. Filters (such
as low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, or notch filters) are used to remove unwanted frequencies and
improve the signal-to-noise ratio. Filtering is used to eliminate unwanted frequencies for a clean
and consistent signal.
5. Excitation: Excitation voltage is required for the operation of an active sensor such as a thermistor,
an RTD, or a pressure sensor.
6. Temperature Compensation: Many sensors are sensitive to changes in temperature, which can
affect their output. Temperature compensation techniques are employed to minimize the impact of
temperature variations on sensor accuracy.
7. Cold-Junction Compensation: Cold-junction Compensation (CJC) is used for thermocouples –
and is required to ensure accurate measurements. CJC adjusts the thermocouple signal for
fluctuations in room temperature and improves measurement accuracy.
8. Signal Conversion: Depending on the application, analog signals from sensors may need to be
converted to digital format (analog-to-digital conversion, ADC) for further processing by digital
circuits or microcontrollers.