Unit-I

Q1) Define Sensor. Compare Sensor with Transducer. Or Define Sensor & Transducer. How do they
differ from each other?
Answer:-
Sensor:- A sensor is a device or module that detects and responds to a physical input or stimulus from the
environment. It converts this input into a measurable output, usually an electrical signal, which can be
interpreted and used for various applications.
Transducer:- A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy in to another form.
 Difference between Sensor & Transducer
Sr.
Sensor Transducer
No.
Senses physical quantities and converts them into Converts one form of energy into another
1
signals read by an instrument. form.

2 All sensors are transducer All transducers are not sensors.

Transducers generally have a Complex design

3 Sensors generally have a simpler design

4 Small Size Large Size

A sensor does not have any other component except The components of a transducer are − input
5 itself. device (sensor), processing device (signal
conditioning), and output device.

6 Example: Magnetic Sensor Example: Potentiometer

Block Diagram

Q2)Define Sensor .Explain types of sensor in detail.

Answer:-
Sensor:- A sensor is a device or module that detects and responds to a physical input or stimulus from the
environment. It converts this input into a measurable output, usually an electrical signal, which can be
interpreted and used for various applications.
Types of Sensor:-
1. Based on Application:
a. Environmental sensors: Measure parameters such as temperature, humidity, pressure, light intensity, etc.
Example: soil sensors, temperature and humidity sensors, gas sensors, rainfall sensors,
b. Motion sensors: Detect motion or movement, including accelerometers, gyroscopes, and proximity
sensors.
Example: Passive infrared sensor, Microwave sensor Ultrasonic sensor.
c. Biomedical sensors: Used for measuring vital signs and physiological parameters like heart rate, blood
pressure, oxygen levels, etc.
Example: blood pressure sensor, oxygen levels sensor
d. Industrial Sensors: Used in industrial automation and control systems,
Example. proximity sensors, pressure sensors.
2. Technology used for sensing:
a. Passive sensors: Passive sensors are the type of sensors that produces output signal without the help of
external excitation supply. They do not need any extra stimulus or voltage.
Example: Thermocouple, which generates a voltage value corresponding to the heat, applied. It does not
require any external power supply.
b. Active sensors: Active sensors are the type of sensors that produces output signal with help of external
excitation supply.
Examples: LVDT and strain gauge.
3. Based on the Measurand:
a. Temperature sensors: Measure temperature variations. (e.g., Thermocouple, RTD).
b. Pressure sensors: Measure pressure changes. (e.g., strain gauges).
c. Proximity sensors: Detect the presence or absence of objects in close proximity.
d. Optical sensors: Measure light intensity or properties (e.g., photodiodes or phototransistors).
e. Gas sensors: Detect and measure the concentration of gases in the environment.
(e.g., Optical gas Sensor).
f. Force sensors: Measure force or load applied to an object. (e.g., Load Cell).
g. Humidity Sensors: Measure Humidity (moisture content in air) (e.g. Capacitive humidity sensors,
resistive humidity sensors
h. Motion Sensors: Measure Motion/ Movement (e.g. Accelerometers, gyroscopes, motion detectors.)
4. Classification based on working principle:
a. Resistive sensors: Measure changes in electrical resistance (e.g., strain gauges).
b. Capacitive sensors: Measure changes in capacitance (e.g., touch screens).
c. Inductive sensors: Measure changes in inductance (e.g., proximity sensors).
d. Piezoelectric sensors: Generate electrical signals in response to mechanical pressure or vibration.
e. Hall Effect sensors: Utilize the Hall effect to measure magnetic fields.
f. Optical Sensors: Measure light intensity or presence, e.g., photodiodes, phototransistors.
5. Based on Installation:
a. Contact Sensors: Require physical contact with the object being measured, e.g., thermocouples, strain
gauges.
b. Non-contact Sensors: Measure without physical contact, e.g., ultrasonic sensors, infrared sensors.
6. Based on Output:
a. Analog sensors: The sensor that produces continuous signal with respect to time with analog output is
called as Analog sensors
Examples: accelerometers, speed sensors, pressure sensors, light sensors, temperature sensors.
b. Digital sensors: When data is converted and transmitted digitally, it is called as Digital sensors. Digital
sensors are the one, which produces discrete output signals.
Examples: Digital Temperature Sensor, Encoders, Digital Accelerometer, Light Sensor

Q3) Discuss the classification of sensor based on Measurand. Provide the example of each type and
their application.
Answer:-
Measurand: This refers to the particular quantity, condition or property that is being measured or observed.
Classification of sensor based on Measurand:
a. Temperature sensors: These sensors Measure temperature variations. (e.g., Thermocouple, RTD).
b. Pressure sensors: These sensors Measure pressure changes. (e.g., strain gauges).
c. Proximity sensors: These sensors detect the presence or absence of objects in close proximity.
(e.g., Capacitive Proximity Sensor, Mutual inductive Proximity Sensor).
d. Optical sensors: These sensors Measure light intensity or properties (e.g., photodiodes or
phototransistors).
e. Gas sensors: These sensors Detect and measure the concentration of gases in the environment.
(e.g., Optical gas Sensor).
f. Force sensors: These sensors Measure force or load applied to an object. (e.g., Load Cell, Strain Gauge).
g. Humidity Sensors: These sensors Measure Humidity (moisture content in air) (e.g. Capacitive humidity
sensors, resistive humidity sensors)
h. Motion Sensors: These sensors Measure Motion/ Movement (e.g. Accelerometers, gyroscopes,
Potentiometer. Proximity Sensor)
Q4) Define following types of sensor. Give example of each
1) Analog sensor & Digital Sensor 2) Resistive sensor & capacitive sensor
Answer:-
Analog sensor & Digital Sensor:-
1) Analog sensors: The sensor that produces continuous signal with respect to time with analog output
is called as Analog sensors
Examples: LDR, Strain Gauge, RTD, Thermocouple
2) Digital sensors: Digital sensors are the one, which produces discrete output signals. When data is
converted and transmitted digitally, it is called as Digital sensors.
Examples: Digital Temperature Sensor, Encoders, Digital Accelerometer, Light Sensor
Resistive sensor & capacitive sensor :-
1) Resistive sensors: Resistive sensors are the sensors which sense physical quantity & Measure
changes in electrical resistance.
Examples: strain gauges, RTD, Thermistor
2) Capacitive sensors: Capacitive sensors are the sensors which sense physical quantity & Measure
changes in capacitance
Examples: Capacitive Humidity Sensor, Capacitive Level Sensor

Q5) Explain role of Signal conditioning circuit in sensor technology. Also list different signal condition
circuit used with sensor.
Answer:-
A signal conditioner is a circuit that performs a set of operations on a signal and makes it suitable for further
processing. It consists of an input and an output – where the input is, usually, a sensor that measures the
environmental and/or structural variable.
In real-world applications, sensors and transducers attached to the systems for measurements are often
exposed to hostile environments where faults are likely to occur. In addition, outputs of most sensors are
relatively weak. The output usually consists of small voltages, currents, or resistance changes. If the data
acquisition system is fed weak signals, the output is more likely to be meaningless. Signal conditioners
provide the essential circuitry between the sensor and the data acquisition system. This circuit ensures
proper conditioning of the output before any further signal processing can occur. For each specific sensor, a
signal conditioner serves as an interface to excite, scale, or buffer real-world signals.
Different signal condition circuit used with sensor:-
1. Amplifier
2. Isolator
3. Filter
4. Excitation circuit
5. Temperature Compensation circuit
6. Analog to Digital Converter
7. Digital to Analog converter
8. Attenuator
Q6) Write short note on sensor’s signal conditioning
Answer:-
A signal conditioner is a circuit that performs a set of operations on a signal and makes it suitable for further
processing. It consists of an input and an output – where the input is, usually, a sensor that measures the
environmental and/or structural variable.

 Why is Signal Conditioning Important?

Signal conditioners provide the essential circuitry between the sensor and the data acquisition system.
This circuit ensures proper conditioning of the output before any further signal processing can occur.
For each specific sensor, a signal conditioner serves as an interface to excite, scale, or buffer real-world
signals.

The following are common signal conditioning types:

1. Amplification: Sensors often generate weak electrical signals that need to be amplified to a level
suitable for processing by subsequent circuitry. Amplifiers are used to increase the signal strength
while maintaining the integrity of the signal. Thermocouples and strain gauges are sensors that
typically require amplification.
2. Isolation: In some applications, it is crucial to isolate the sensor signal from the rest of the circuitry
to prevent interference or ground loops. Isolation techniques, such as optocouplers or transformers,
are used for this purpose.
3. Linearization: Linearization is the action of converting a non-linear input signal to a linear output
signal – and is necessary when sensors produce signals that are not linearly related to the physical
measurement. A thermocouple is an example of a sensor that requires linearization.
4. Filtering: Sensors may pick up unwanted noise or interference from the environment. Filters (such
as low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, or notch filters) are used to remove unwanted frequencies and
improve the signal-to-noise ratio. Filtering is used to eliminate unwanted frequencies for a clean and
consistent signal.
 5. Excitation: Excitation voltage is required for the operation of an active sensor such as a thermistor,
an RTD, or a pressure sensor.
6. Temperature Compensation: Many sensors are sensitive to changes in temperature, which can
affect their output. Temperature compensation techniques are employed to minimize the impact of
temperature variations on sensor accuracy.
7. Cold-Junction Compensation: Cold-junction Compensation (CJC) is used for thermocouples – and
is required to ensure accurate measurements. CJC adjusts the thermocouple signal for fluctuations in
room temperature and improves measurement accuracy.
8. Signal Conversion: Depending on the application, analog signals from sensors may need to be
converted to digital format (analog-to-digital conversion, ADC) for further processing by digital
circuits or microcontrollers.

Q7)Write a short note on sensor selection

Answer:- (explain minimum 10 points)

Sensor characteristics refer to the properties or features of a sensor that determine its performance and
capabilities. Sensors will be selected for specific application based on following selection criterion
1. Sensitivity: Sensitivity is the ratio of change in output to the change in input. A more sensitive sensor
will be able to detect smaller changes and thus provide more accurate measurements.
2. Range: The range of a sensor refers to the minimum and maximum values of the measured parameter that
the sensor can accurately detect.
3. Accuracy: Accuracy is a measure of how closely a sensor's output matches the true value of the measured
parameter. A highly accurate sensor will provide measurements that are very close to the actual value.
4. Precision: Precision describes the level of repeatability and consistency in a sensor's measurements. A
highly precise sensor will consistently provide the same or very similar measurements when the same
conditions are present.
5. Response Time: The response time of a sensor is the time it takes for the sensor to detect and respond to
a change in the measured parameter. A faster response time is desirable in situations where real-time
monitoring and quick detection is required.
6. Selectivity: Selectivity refers to the ability of a sensor to respond only to the target parameter while
ignoring any interference or background noise. A sensor with high selectivity will be less affected by
external factors and provide more accurate measurements.
7. Resolution: Resolution refers to the smallest detectable change in the measured parameter that a sensor
can respond to. A sensor with higher resolution is capable of detecting finer changes and provides more
detailed measurements.
8. Linearity: Linearity is a measure of how well a sensor's response relates to changes in the measured
parameter. A sensor with good linearity will provide a linear output over the entire range, while a non-linear
sensor may have a distorted response.
9. Stability: Stability refers to the ability of a sensor to maintain its performance characteristics over time. A
stable sensor will provide consistent and reliable measurements without experiencing significant drift or
degradation in performance.
10. Power Consumption: Power consumption is an important characteristic in portable and battery-
operated sensors. Low power consumption allows for longer battery life and increased usability.
11. Span: It is the difference between the maximum and minimum values of input. In above example, the
span of RTD is 800 – (-200) = 1000oC.
12. Hysteresis: It is the difference in output when input is varied in two ways- increasing and decreasing.
13 Drift: The difference in the measurement of the sensor from a specific reading when kept at that value
for a long period of time.
14. Repeatability: It is defined as the ability of sensor to produce the same output every time when the
same input is applied and all the physical and measurement conditions kept the same
15. Cost is important especially when quantity involved is large in the end application.
These characteristics can vary depending on the type of sensor and its application. Different sensors may
prioritize different characteristics based on the specific requirements of the measurement task.
 Unit-II

Q1)State Working principle of LDR .Explain construction & working of it. Also state advantages,
Disadvantages & application of it.

Answer:-

Working Principle: LDR Works on principle of Photo conductivity. (Conductivity of material changes
based on intensity of light) It consists of semiconductor material whose electrical resistance decreases with
increases in light intensity.
Construction-
LDR is Light dependent resistor that includes a light sensitive material such as cadmium sulfide (CdS),
cadmium selenide (CdSe) (semiconductor material) that is placed in insulating substrate like ceramic. The
sensing material placed in zigzag shape in order to to get required power rating & resistance. The area of
zigzag separates the metal-placed areas into two regions. Two contacts (electrodes) are made on each sides
of the area Where the Ohmic contacts are made either on the sides of the area.

Fig. Construction of LDR

Working:-
When light falls on LDR its resistance changes. As light intensity increases resistance decreases and
resistance increased in the dark. When a light dependent resistor is kept in dark, its resistance is very
high. This resistance is called as dark resistance. Figure below shows resistance vs. illumination curve for
a particular LDR. LDR’s are non linear devices.
Advantages:-
1) High Sensitivity
2) Simple Design
3) Small Size
4) Low Cost
5) Low Power Consumption
Disadvantages:-
1) Non linear Response
2) Slow Response Time
3) Temperature Sensitive
4) Limited Range.
5) Not be suitable for harsh environmental conditions
Applications:-
1) Automatic Lighting Control:- Streetlights, Garden Lights etc
2) Light-sensitive Alarms
3) Brightness Adjustment
4) Light Measurement
5) Camera exposure control

Q2) State working principle of a strain gauge. Describe the strain measurement using a strain gauge.
Answer:-
Strain Gauge is a sensor whose resistance changes with applied force. It converts force, pressure, tension,
weight etc. into change in electrical resistance.
Working Principle:-
It works on a Piezo resistive effect.

Construction:-
Strain gauges are made from long, thin pieces of metal conductor foil bonded to a flexible backing material
called the carrier. Two electrical leads connected to the resistant foil send current to the strain gauge and
cause it to stretch or contract in proportion to changes in length of material. Variations in the electrical
resistance occur when there are changes in the dimensions of the material.
Working:-
The resistance of the foil changes as the material to which the gauge is attached undergoes tension or
compression due to change in its length and diameter. This change in resistance is proportional to the
applied strain (force). The change in resistance can be measured using a Wheatstone bridge circuit, which is
commonly employed in strain gauge applications.

Fig: Wheatstone Bridge with Strain Gauge

The Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistive arms, with the strain gauge forming one of the arms. The
other three arms typically consist of fixed resistors. When no force applied to strain Gauge no change in
resistance and Wheatstone bridge is in balance condition. When the strain gauge experiences a strain, the
resistance of the gauge changes, leading to an unbalance in the Wheatstone bridge circuit. This unbalance
generates a small electrical output signal, which is proportional to the applied strain.

Advantages:

1) Electrical output is possible (direct measurement)

2) High Sensitivity

3) High Accuracy

4) Useful for High pressure/ force measurement

5) Small in size & less Cost.

Disadvantages:

1) Wheatstone Bridge Circuit is required.

2) affected due to shock & Vibration.

3) Affected due to temperature.

4) Complex circuit

Applications:

1) Weight Measurement, Strain Measurement

2) Force /Pressure measurement

3) Structural health monitoring,

Q3) Explain how magnetic field sensed by using magnetic field sensor with diagram.
Answer:-

A magnetic sensor usually refers to a sensor that converts the magnitude and variations of a magnetic field
into electric signals. Hall sensor is used to sense magnetic field.
Hall Sensor works on a Hall effect.
The principle of the Hall Effect states that when a current-carrying conductor or a semiconductor is
introduced to a perpendicular magnetic field, a voltage can be measured at the right angle to the
current path known as Hall Voltage. This effect of obtaining a measurable voltage is known as the
Hall effect.
Hall Effect Sensors consist basically of a thin piece of rectangular p-type semiconductor material such as
gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium antimonide (InSb) or indium arsenide (InAs) passing a continuous current
through itself.
When the device is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic flux lines exert a force on the
semiconductor material which deflects the charge carriers, electrons and holes, to either side of the
semiconductor slab. This movement of charge carriers is a result of the magnetic force they experience
passing through the semiconductor material.

As these electrons and holes move side wards a potential difference is produced between the two sides of
the semiconductor material by the build-up of these charge carriers. Then the movement of electrons
through the semiconductor material is affected by the presence of an external magnetic field which is at
right angles to it and this effect is greater in a flat rectangular shaped material.

Q4) Define & state different examples of following 1) Temperature Sensor 2) Magnetic field Sensor
Answer:-
1) Temperature Sensor:- It is a sensor used to measure the temperature of its surroundings and convert that
measurement into electrical signal. A thermometer is the most basic form of a temperature meter that is used
to measure the degree of hotness and coolness.
Example:-RTD, Thermistor, Thermocouple
2) Magnetic field Sensor:- A magnetic sensor usually refers to a sensor that converts the magnitude and
variations of a magnetic field into electric signals.
Example:- Magneto-resistive sensor, Hall Effect Sensors
Q5) Write a note on: -1) Temperature sensing 2) Light Intensity 3) Magnetic field Sensor

Answer:-
1) Temperature sensing:-
Temperature is measure of degree of hotness or coldness measured by a thermometer with numerical scale.
The sensor used to sense temperature & convert into electrical signal is called temperature sensor or
Thermometer.
Classification of Temperature Sensor:-
Temperature Sensors can be classified as follows
1) Non electrical sensors:-These sensors sense heat and convert into non electrical signal.
Example:-Bimetallic Thermometer, Glass tube Thermometer, etc
2) Electrical Sensors:- These sensors sense heat and convert into electrical signal.
Example: RTD, Thermistor, Thermocouple etc
3) Radiation Sensors:-These sensors works on a principle of heat radiation.
Example: Pyrometer
4) Semiconductor Temperature sensors:- A semiconductor-based temperature sensor works with dual
integrated circuits (ICs).
Example: LM35, DHT22 etc.

2) Light Intensity:-
Light is defined as electromagnetic radiation with wavelength between 380nm & 750nm which is visible to
human eye. Light intensity is defined as amount of Light energy that passes through given area in a specific
direction per unit time. Typically measures in watt/m2.
The sensor used to sense Light & convert into electrical signal is called Light Sensor.
Light sensors works on photoelectric effect. It is phenomenon in which electrons are emitted from a
material when it absorbs light or electromagnetic radiation.
There are different light sensors
1) LDR (Light Dependent Resistor):- In This as light intensity increases resistance decreases.
2) Photo diode:-It convert light in to electric current.
3) Photo Transistor:- It convert light in to electric current. It also provide Light signal amplification.
4) CCD(charges Couple device) & CMOS Sensors:- In this light converts into digital signal used for
imaging. These sensors used in cameras
 3) Magnetic field Sensor:-
Magnetic field is defined as the area around a magnet in which the force of attraction or repulsion produced by the
magnet can be detected.
A magnetic sensor usually refers to a sensor that converts the magnitude and variations of a magnetic
field into electric signals.
Different types of Magnetic Sensor:-
1) Coil:-
These sensors measure the induced voltage generated by a changing magnetic field in a coil. The voltage is
proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic field.

2) Reed Switches:-
A reed switch is a type of magnetic sensor that detects presence of magnetic field. It consists of two reed
blades sealed inside glass capsule with electrical blades coming out of each end.
When a magnetic field (typically from a permanent magnet or an electromagnet) is brought close to the reed
switch, the magnetic field causes the reeds to move and make contact. When the magnetic field is removed,
the reeds return to their open position due to a spring or gravity.
3) Magneto-resistive sensor:-
A magneto-resistive sensor is a type of sensor that measures magnetic fields by detecting changes in
resistance in a material in response to an external magnetic field.

4)Hall Effect Sensors:

These sensors operate based on the Hall effect, where a voltage (Hall voltage) is generated perpendicular to
the current and magnetic field in a conductor.

Q6) Define Motion Transducer. Explain different types of motion sensor with example./ Describe concept
of motion transducer in detail./ Describe concept of motion transducer in detail.

Answer:-

Motion transducer is a device that converts mechanical motion into an electrical signal.It sense
displacement, velocity, acceleration etc.
Types of Motion sensor:-
1. Strain Gauge:
 Use: Measures the deformation or strain of an object due to applied forces. By detecting changes in
strain, it can infer motion or load changes.
 Example Application: Monitoring structural health in bridges or buildings, measuring force in load
cells.
2. Potentiometer:
 Use: Measures rotational or linear displacement by varying resistance as a wiper moves along a
resistive track.
 Example Application: Position sensing in servo motors, throttle position sensors in vehicles.
3. LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer):
 Use: Measures linear displacement by detecting changes in the electromagnetic coupling between a
primary coil and two secondary coils.
  Example Application: Precision measurement of linear movement in machinery or aerospace
components.
4. Capacitive Displacement Sensor:
 Use: Measures changes in capacitance caused by the displacement of an object, which can be used to
detect motion or position changes.
 Example Application: Non-contact measurement of position or thickness in manufacturing
processes.
5. Accelerometer:
 Use: Measures acceleration forces in one or more directions, detecting changes in motion,
orientation, or vibration.
 Example Application: Motion detection in smartphones, vehicle crash detection systems, fitness
trackers.
6. Gyroscope:
 Use: Measures angular velocity or rotational movement around an axis, which can be used to detect
orientation changes.
 Example Application: Navigation systems in drones and spacecraft, stabilization in camera
systems.
7. Optical Encoder:
 Use: Measures rotational or linear displacement by counting optical pulses generated as a coded disk
or scale moves past a sensor.
 Example Application: Precise position sensing in robotics and CNC machines, rotary position
feedback in motors.
8. Ultrasonic Sensor:
 Use: Measures distance or detects motion by emitting ultrasonic sound waves and analyzing the time
it takes for the echo to return.
 Example Application: Parking assistance systems, obstacle detection in robots, distance
measurement in level sensing.
9. IR Sensor (Infrared Sensor):
 Use: Detects motion or presence by measuring changes in infrared light, either emitted or reflected
by objects.
 Example Application: Motion detection in security systems, object detection in automatic doors.
10. Proximity Sensor:
 Use: Detects the presence or absence of an object without physical contact, often using
electromagnetic fields or light.
 Example Application: Object detection in manufacturing, proximity-based switching in
automation.
Q7) What is Motion sensor. Discuss Motion Transducer Selection for different applications
Answer:-
Motion Sensor is a device that converts mechanical motion into an electrical signal.It sense displacement,
velocity, acceleration etc.
Motion Transducer Selection for different applications:-
When selecting a motion sensor, evaluating it based on various criteria is crucial to ensure it meets the needs
of your specific application. Here’s a detailed explanation of how to choose a motion sensor based on the
following criteria:

1. Types of Motion:

 Linear Motion: For applications requiring the measurement of displacement or movement in a

straight line, sensors like LVDTs (Linear Variable Differential Transformers) or capacitive
displacement sensors are ideal.
 Rotational Motion: For measuring rotational angles or speed, optical encoders or rotary
potentiometers are suitable.
 Direction and Orientation: Gyroscopes are used to measure angular velocity and changes in
orientation.
2. Range of Measurement:
 Distance/Displacement: Choose a sensor that covers the required measurement range. For long-
distance measurements, ultrasonic sensors or radar sensors are suitable. For shorter distances or
precise measurements, LVDTs or capacitive sensors might be used.
 Angular Range: For rotational applications, ensure the sensor can measure the full range of angles
needed. Optical encoders and rotary sensors provide detailed measurements for rotational motion.
3. Accuracy:
Select a sensor with the required accuracy for your application. For high accuracy needs, LVDTs
and optical encoders offer very accurate measurements. For less critical applications, other sensors
like accelerometers or PIR sensors might suffice.
4. Resolution:
High-resolution sensors, like those used in optical encoders or LVDTs, provide detailed
measurement, which is critical for applications needing precise control.
5. Environmental Conditions:
 Temperature Range: Verify that the sensor can operate effectively within the temperature range of
your environment. Sensors like capacitive sensors or accelerometers generally handle a broad
temperature range, while others may need specific conditions.
 Humidity and Dust: Consider sensors with appropriate protection against moisture, dust, and other
contaminants, especially for industrial or outdoor applications.
6. Response Time:
 Speed of Detection: Select a sensor with a response time suitable for detecting the speed of the
motion involved. For high-speed applications, sensors like accelerometers or gyroscopes with fast
response times are essential.
 Signal Processing: Ensure the sensor’s response time aligns with the processing capabilities of your
data acquisition system.
7. Size & Space:
Ensure the sensor fits within the physical constraints of your application. Compact sensors like MEMS
accelerometers are ideal for space-constrained environments.
8. Cost:
 Budget Constraints: Balance the cost of the sensor with its performance and features. High-end
sensors with advanced features come at a higher cost, but for many applications, a more basic sensor
may be adequate.
9. Power Consumption:
Choose a sensor with power consumption that fits your system’s energy constraints. Low-power
sensors are preferable for battery-operated devices or energy-sensitive applications.

Q8) What is effort sensor? Discuss application where location of force sensor is important.

Answer:-

Effort sensor is a type of sensor designed to measure the force or effort exerted in various applications.
Location of force sensor in system is based on specific application & type of measurement.
The optimal location for a force sensor depends on the specific application and what you're measuring. Here
are a few general considerations:
1. For Structural Monitoring: If you're monitoring forces in a structure (like a bridge or building),
place the sensors at key stress points or areas where you expect the highest loads. These could be
near supports, joints, or other critical points.
2. For Robotics: In robotic arms or grippers, force sensors are often placed at the end effector (the part
that interacts with objects) or along the joints where force transmission is significant.
3. For Vehicle Testing: In vehicles, force sensors might be placed at suspension points,chassis, on
wheels, or in areas where load distribution is critical.
4. For Manufacturing: In automated systems, sensors can be placed on conveyors, presses, or other
machinery to monitor forces during processing or handling.
5. For Wearable Devices: If the sensor is for a wearable application, it should be placed in a location
where it can accurately measure forces related to the specific activity or interaction, like on the wrist,
foot, or around the waist.
 6. For sport: In different sport to track different parameters force sensor may be located in athletic
footwear’s, exercise equipments, rackets, bats, etc.

Q8) Why is the location of force sensors critical in motion measurement applications? Discuss
applications where location of force sensor is important.
Answer:-
The location of force sensors is critical in motion measurement applications because the accuracy and
relevance of the data they collect depend heavily on where they are placed. Force sensors measure the force,
pressure, or load being applied to a specific area, and their positioning influences several key factors in
motion analysis. Here's why their placement is so important:
1. Accuracy of Force Measurement
The forces acting on a system can vary depending on where they are applied. In motion applications, forces
may not be evenly distributed or may concentrate at specific points (e.g., joints, contact points, or
interfaces). Proper sensor placement ensures that you capture the forces at critical locations where they
significantly impact motion, such as at points where the system changes direction or where external loads
are applied.
2. Force Distribution
Forces in a mechanical system are often not uniformly distributed. If a force sensor is placed in the wrong
location, it might not capture the full range of forces affecting the system. Placing sensors at multiple points
along the structure provides a more accurate picture of force distribution.
3. Measuring Forces at Key Locations
In many motion applications, the dynamics of movement are particularly important at certain locations. For
instance:

 Joints in robotic arms or human limbs, where forces cause angular motion.
 End effectors (like tool tips or hands) where forces are applied to external objects.
 Supports or actuators, where forces are transmitted to the system.

Location of force sensor in system is based on specific application & type of measurement.
The optimal location for a force sensor depends on the specific application and what you're measuring. Here
are a few general considerations:
1. For Structural Monitoring: If you're monitoring forces in a structure (like a bridge or building),
place the sensors at key stress points or areas where you expect the highest loads. These could be
near supports, joints, or other critical points.
2. For Robotics: In robotic arms or grippers, force sensors are often placed at the end effector (the part
that interacts with objects) or along the joints where force transmission is significant.
3. For Vehicle Testing: In vehicles, force sensors might be placed at suspension points,chassis, on
wheels, or in areas where load distribution is critical.
4. For Manufacturing: In automated systems, sensors can be placed on conveyors, presses, or other
machinery to monitor forces during processing or handling.
5. For Wearable Devices: If the sensor is for a wearable application, it should be placed in a location
where it can accurately measure forces related to the specific activity or interaction, like on the wrist,
foot, or around the waist.
6. For sport: In different sport to track different parameters force sensor may be located in athletic
footwear’s, exercise equipments, rackets, bats, etc.
 Unit-III

Q1) Draw construction of LVDT. Discuss displacement measurement using LVDT with different
position of core. / With the help of neat sketch explain concept of LVDT

Answer:-

The LVDT stands for Linear Variable Differential Transformer. It converts the Linear motion into an
electrical signal using an inductive transducer.
Q2) With the help of neat sketch explain concept of RVDT.

Answer:-Write construction detail by referring LVDT construction, Advantages & Disadvantages.

Q3) Discuss the working principle of a Mutual-Induction Proximity Sensor. How does it detect the
presence of an object in detail?
Answer:-
A mutual-induction proximity sensor is a type of sensor that uses the principle of mutual inductance to
detect the presence or absence of nearby objects.
Working principle of a Mutual-Induction Proximity Sensor:-
When two coils are brought in proximity to each other, the magnetic field in one of the coils tends to link
with the other. This further leads to generation of voltage in second coil. This property of coil which affects
or changes the current & voltage in secondary coil is called Mutual Induction.
Construction:-
The construction of a mutual-induction proximity sensor involves several key components and arrangements
to effectively detect the presence of nearby objects using the principle of mutual inductance. Here’s a
detailed look at its construction:
1. Electrical Coil
Electrical coil is usually a wire wound into a coil shape. Its design depends on the required range and
sensitivity of the sensor. It generates an alternating magnetic field when an alternating current (AC) passes
through it.
2. Oscillator Circuit
This circuit generates the alternating current that powers the coil. It typically includes components such as
capacitors, inductor, and transistors .It produces a stable and consistent AC signal, which is necessary for
creating a magnetic field.
3. Trigger circuit
Trigger block in proximity sensor is used to monitor the amplitude of oscillator & at particular level trigger
circuit switches on or off sensor.
4.Output:- It includes transistors to on or off load.
5. Power Supply
The power supply provides the necessary electrical power for the oscillator circuit and signal processing
unit. It can be a battery, a DC power source, or a regulated power supply.
Working:-
The oscillator circuit generates an alternating current that flows through the electrical coil. The coil
generates a magnetic field. When coil is exposed to this magnetic field, and mutual inductance is
established between the coils. When an metal object (target) enters the proximity of the sensor, it
changes the magnetic field and eddy current generated in target. Due to that load on oscillator
increases, which decreases field amplitude. Trigger circuit switched on or off based on oscillation
generated by oscillator. When target is absent Amplitude of oscillator increases & if target is present
then oscillations decreases. The sensor produces an output signal or action based on the detected
presence of the object.
 Advantages
1) Non-Contact type Detection
2) More reliable in harsh environments
3) High Sensitivity
4) No moving parts, ensuring a longer service life
Disadvantages
1) Can only detect metal objects
2) The effective detection range is typically shorter compared to other proximity sensor
3) Complex Circuit
4) High Cost
Application
1) Metal object detection
2) Used for detecting metal parts on conveyor belts, positioning of tools, and machinery control.
3) Used in vehicle systems for detecting the position of components, monitoring movements, and safety
systems.

Q4) Draw construction of Eddy current transducer. State applications of it.

Answer:-

Applications:-
1) Displacement Measurement
2) Used in manufacturing and quality control to measure the thickness of conductive materials such as
metal sheets
3) Vibration Monitoring
Q5) Write a note on Eddy Current transducer.

Answer:-

Eddy current transducers operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction, specifically using eddy
currents, to measure various physical properties such as displacement, velocity, or material thickness.
It uses effect of eddy current to sense the proximity of non magnetic but conductive material.
Construction:-

This type of transducer contains two coils active coil (Main coil) & compensating coil (balance Coil).
Active coil senses presence of nearby object & balance coil used to balance used to balance the output of
bridge circuit. It also provides temperature compensation (Compensating coil) by being the adjacent arm of
a bridge circuit. These coils are placed in probe. Low pass filter used to block AC signal & gives DC output.
Working:-
An eddy current transducer typically consists of an alternating current (AC) coil and a conductive target.
When AC flows through the coil, it generates an alternating magnetic field. When the alternating magnetic
field interacts with a conductive target (which could be metal or any other conductive material), it induces
currents within the target. These are called eddy currents. The induced eddy currents create their own
magnetic field, which opposes the original field produced by the coil. The eddy currents affect the
impedance of the coil & bridge goes into unbalance condition. Bridge produces output that is proportional
to position of object. Changes in the impedance of the coil are used to determine changes in the target’s
position.
Advantages:-
1) Non-Contact type Measurement
2) Eddy current transducers provide very accurate and high-resolution measurements
3) They are designed to withstand harsh environments
4) Fast Response Time
Dis advantages:-
1) Measurement Limited to Conductive Materials
2) Extreme temperature variations can affect the performance of eddy current transducers
3) Complicated Design
4) High Cost
Applications:-
1) Displacement Measurement
2) Used in manufacturing and quality control to measure the thickness of conductive materials such as
metal sheets
3) Vibration Monitoring

Q6) Explain Speed measurement using DC Tachometer. Compare it with AC Tachometer.

Answer:-
Q7) Explain how water level is measured by using capacitor with neat diagram./ With the help of neat
sketch explain concept of Capacitive Liquid Level Sensor.

Answer:-
Q8) With the help of neat sketch explain concept of AC Tachometer & DC Tachometer.

Answer:-

Tachometer:- Tachometers are instruments used to measure the rotational speed of a shaft or disk,
often in revolutions per minute (RPM)
 Unit-IV

Q1) Draw Construction & explain working of Ultrasonic sensor in detail./ Illustrate concept of
ultrasonic sensor in detail

Answer:-
An ultrasonic sensor is a device that uses ultrasonic sound waves to measure distance or detect objects. It
emits high-frequency sound waves (usually above 20 kHz) and listens for the echo that bounces back after
hitting an object. By calculating the time it takes for the sound waves to return, the sensor can determine the
distance to the object. It is non contact type sensor.
Construction:-

An ultrasonic sensor system typically consists of several key components: the ultrasonic sensor itself, a
processing circuit, and output devices like an LCD display, buzzer, or LED.
1. Ultrasonic Sensor:-
It includes Transmitter that emits ultrasonic sound waves in specific direction and Receiver that
captures the sound waves reflected from object.
2. Processing Circuit
 Microcontroller/Processor: This is the heart of the system, which processes the signals from the
ultrasonic sensor.
 Signal Conditioning Circuit: Amplifies and filters the received signal to improve accuracy and
reduce noise.
 Timing Circuit: Measures the time it takes for the sound waves to travel to the object and back.
3. Output Devices
 LCD Display: Shows the calculated distance in real-time.
 Buzzer: Provides audio feedback, such as alerts when an object is detected within a certain distance.
 LEDs: Can indicate distance ranges with different colors (e.g., green for safe distance, red for too
close).
Working:-
The microcontroller sends a trigger pulse to the ultrasonic sensor to initiate the measurement. Upon
receiving the trigger, the transmitter emits ultrasonic waves into the air. The sound waves travel until they
hit an object, reflecting back toward the sensor. The receiver detects the returning echo.

Processing circuit processes the received signal and performs calculations & measures distance.

Based on the calculated distance, the system provides feedback through various output devices:
Applications
1. Distance Measurement: Used in robotics for obstacle detection
2. Level Sensing: Monitor liquid levels in tanks
3. Parking Assistance: Assist in parking vehicles by measuring distance to obstacles.
4. Medical Applications: Employed in devices like ultrasonic imaging equipment.
5. Home Automation: Used in smart home devices for presence detection and automation.
6. Security Systems: Used in motion detectors to sense intruders.

Q2) State working principle of RTD. Explain how RTD used for measurement of Temperature.
Q3) With the help of neat sketch explain Thermocouple & Thermistor.

Answer:-

Thermocouple:-
Thermistor:- It is Thermally Sensitive Resistor.

Construction:
A thermistor is a type of temperature sensor made from semiconductor materials that exhibit a change in
resistance with temperature. It consist of following components:
1. Base Element:The thermistor element is usually a ceramic or polymer bead or disk, which is the
sensing part.
2. Encapsulation:The thermistor is often encapsulated in a protective material,protect it from
environmental factors (moisture, dust) and to enhance durability.
3. Leads/Wires:Wires are connected to the electrodes to connect the thermistor to a circuit for
measurement.
Q4) With the help of block diagram explain working of Pulse Oximetry (SpO2) sensor./ Write short
note on Pulse Oximetry Sensor.
Answer:-

Hemoglobin (Hb) is the main way that carries oxygen in our blood. Pulse oximetry sensors measure blood
oxygen saturation (SpO2) levels non-invasively, providing critical information about a patient's respiratory
and circulatory health.

Pulse oximetry incorporates light to determine the oxygen saturation in the blood (Indicated as SpO 2) along
with the pulse. Simply it consists of a light source that emits red light and infra-red light, a detector, and an
electronic setup including a display to show the relevant details.
When a finger is inserted into the gap, as shown above, the amount of light received by the detector varies,
as a certain amount of light is absorbed by the finger. This depends on some physical properties which are
used by the instrument to determine the levels of oxygen saturation.
Applications:
1) Continuous monitoring of oxygen saturation levels in ICU patients
2) Pulse oximeters are often used at home by patients with chronic respiratory conditions to monitor
their oxygen levels and manage their health more effectively.
3) Used to monitor oxygen saturation in individuals at high altitudes, helping to assess the risk of
altitude sickness.
Q5) Illustrate concept of Chemical and gas sensor in detail

Answer:-

Chemical and gas sensors are devices designed to detect the presence of specific chemicals or gases in the
environment. They convert the concentration of these substances into an electrical signal for analysis and
monitoring.
Types of Chemical and Gas Sensors
1. Electrochemical Sensors: Used for detecting gases like CO, NO2, and O3. They are sensitive and
often used in personal safety applications.
2. Semiconductor Sensors: Common for detecting various gases (e.g., LPG, CO, and NH3). They rely
on changes in resistance in a semiconductor material.
3. Optical Sensors: Utilize infrared light absorption to measure gas concentrations, suitable for
detecting CO2 and hydrocarbons.
4. Catalytic Sensors: Primarily used for combustible gases (e.g., methane, propane). They work by
measuring the heat generated during combustion.

 Sensor Input: The sensor collects the air sample or chemical substance to be analyzed.
 Signal Processing: The electrical signals generated by the sensing element are conditioned (amplified,
filtered, etc.) to make them suitable for analysis.
 Output Display/Communication Unit: Processed signals are converted into a readable format (like a
digital display) or transmitted to a control system or external device for monitoring and analysis.
Applications:
1) Sensors measure levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH in arterial blood, essential for assessing
respiratory and metabolic function.
2) Sensors monitor indoor air quality, detecting harmful gases and ensuring a safe environment for
patients and staff.
3) Sensors detect toxic gases in environments like laboratories or during procedures that involve
hazardous materials, ensuring staff and patient safety.
Q6) Define & list following concepts: Humidity Sensor, Vibration Sensor ,Gas Sensor

Answer:-
1)Humidity Sensor:
A humidity sensor, also known as a hygrometer, measures the moisture content in the air. It is widely used in various
applications, including HVAC systems, meteorology, agriculture, and industrial processes.
List of Humidity Sensors
1. Capacitive Humidity Sensors: Measure changes in capacitance caused by the moisture absorption of a
dielectric material.
2. Resistive Humidity Sensors: Measure changes in electrical resistance of a hygroscopic material as humidity
changes.
3. Thermal Conductivity Sensors: Measure the thermal conductivity of air, which varies with humidity.
4. Optical Humidity Sensors: Use light absorption principles to detect moisture levels.
2) Vibration Sensor:-
Vibration sensors are devices that detect vibration, shock, sound etc. Vibration sensor works by detecting motion of a
material or object by sensing it’s frequency. Vibration sensors convert mechanical vibrations into electrical signals,
which are then processed and displayed for monitoring or analysis.
List of Vibration Sensors:
1. Accelerometer – Measures acceleration forces to detect vibrations; commonly used in mobile devices and
industrial applications.
2. Piezoelectric Sensor – Generates an electric charge in response to mechanical stress, ideal for detecting
vibrations in harsh environments.
3. Strain Gauge – Measures the deformation (strain) of an object when subjected to force, often used for
detecting vibrations in structures.
4. Capacitive Sensor – Can detect changes in distance caused by vibration, often used in proximity detection
applications.

3) Gas Sensor:-
Gas sensors are devices designed to detect the presence of specific chemicals or gases in the environment. They
convert the concentration of these substances into an electrical signal for analysis and monitoring.
List of Gas Sensors
1. Electrochemical Sensors: Used for detecting gases like CO, NO2, and O3. They are sensitive and often used
in personal safety applications.
2. Semiconductor Sensors: Common for detecting various gases (e.g., LPG, CO, and NH3). They rely on
changes in resistance in a semiconductor material.
3. Optical Sensors: Utilize infrared light absorption to measure gas concentrations, suitable for detecting CO2
and hydrocarbons.
4. Catalytic Sensors: Primarily used for combustible gases (e.g., methane, propane). They work by measuring
the heat generated during combustion.
Q7) Write short note on pH sensor

Answer:-
pH (Potential of Hydrogen) describes the concentration of hydrogen ion’s in a solution. pH is a measure of
the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. A pH scale typically ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is considered
neutral (pure water).A pH less than 7 indicates acidity (more hydrogen ions).A pH greater than 7 indicates
alkalinity (fewer hydrogen ions).
Working principle:-
PH sensor works on measurement of hydrogen ion concentration in solution which affects the voltage
generated by sensor.
Construction:-

It Consist Of Glass Electrode & Reference Electrode.

Glass Electrode:- A Specialized Glass Membrane That Is Sensitive To Hydrogen Ions, It Typically
Contains A Thin Glass Bulb Filled With Solution Of Known Ph.
Reference Electrode:- It Is Made From Silver Providing A Stable Reference Voltage
Two Electrodes Are Attached To Both Electrodes Tht Connected To Measuring Devices.
Working:-
Glass membrane generates a voltage that varies with the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution.
when this electrode insert into solution hydrogen ions enters into glass membrane creating a potential
difference. This potential difference is measured against the reference electrode & PH is calculated.
Applications:
1) pH sensors are used in blood gas analyzers to assess the acid-base balance in patients, which can
indicate respiratory or metabolic disorders.
2) pH measurement in urine helps diagnose kidney function and metabolic issues, and it can guide
treatment for urinary tract infections.