EEE 489 Smart Grid

(Power electronic interfaces between

Renewable Sources and Grid)
Lectures prepared by

Prof. S. Shahnawaz Ahmed

For subsequent materials assistance taken mainly from :

1. Smart Grid: Technology and Applications, Janaka Ekanayake, Kithsiri

Liyanage, Jianzhong Wu, Akihiko Yokoyama and Nick Jenkins. John Wiley & Sons,
Ltd, 2012. Chapter 10.

2. Various URLs
Key technologies that enable smart grid are:

1. Communication
2. Sensors and smart monitoring
3. Power electronics

In subsequent slides the way power electronics

is applied for smart grid is discussed.
Line Drop Compensation (LDC) is a technique used in electrical power systems to ensure that the voltage at the far end of a distribution feeder
remains within acceptable limits, despite voltage drops caused by line resistance and reactance. It is typically implemented in Automatic Voltage
Control (AVC) systems for transformers equipped with On-Load Tap Changers (OLTCs)

Necessity of power electronics in smart grid or modern power system

•With the connection of a large number of distributed generators,

including micro-generators at the consumer side (medium or low voltage
level), traditional methods of active power/frequency control and
reactive power/voltage control will no longer be effective at distribution
side.

The traditional voltage control method in a distribution circuit is an on

load tap changer and automatic voltage control relay, sometimes with
line drop compensation.

This control system may not operate satisfactorily when power flow in
the distribution circuit becomes reversed. Furthermore, the tap changer
is a mechanical device whose operating time may be not fast enough for
some dynamic voltage control functions.
A Load Tap Changer (LTC), also known as an On-Load Tap Changer (OLTC), is a mechanism integrated into power transformers that allows for the
adjustment of the transformer’s turns ratio while the transformer is energized and carrying load. This adjustment changes the output voltage to maintain
it within a desired range, even when the input voltage or load conditions vary.
•The power electronic interface between a renewable energy source and the grid
can be used to control reactive power output and hence the network voltage as well
as curtailing or utilizing the maximum of the available real power output, and so
enable the generator to respond to the requirements of the grid.

e.g. Variable speed turbines are used for wind, small hydro and tidal power
generation. These generally use AC–DC–AC power conversion where the turbine is
arranged to rotate at optimum speed to extract the maximum power from the fluid
flow or minimize mechanical loads on the turbine.

•For photovoltaic plants DC-DC and then DC-AC converters are used to adjust the PV
voltage so that maximum power can be extracted.

•To interface loads with some of the renewable generation sources, power electronic
converters are used.

e.g. a)The output of a PV system is DC and therefore a DC–AC converter is essential

for grid connection.

b)The variable frequency power output from the wind turbine generator is first
converted (rectified) to DC. A second converter is used to convert (invert) DC into
50/60 Hz AC.
 Interfacing PV system with grid

Figure 10.1 Block diagram of a domestic PV system

Figure 10.1 shows the main elements of a grid-connected domestic PV
system. It typically consists of
(1) a DC–DC converter for Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) and
to increase the voltage;
(2) a single phase DC–AC inverter;
(3) an output filter and sometimes a transformer (to ensure no DC is
injected into the grid); and
(4) a controller.
 •The DC voltage on the inverter side of the DC–DC converter is
normally maintained to be constant by the inverter control.

•The MPPT algorithm is used to find continually a PV array DC

voltage which extracts the most power from the PV array while the
cell temperatures and operating conditions of the module change.

Renewable energy sources like solar panels or wind turbines have a non-linear power-voltage or power-speed characteristic. The
Maximum Power Point (MPP) is the point on this curve where the system produces the maximum possible power. MPPT ensures that
the system operates at this point, optimizing energy extraction.
 MPPT methods

•The most widely used MPPT algorithm is ‘perturb and observe’ sometime known as
‘hill climbing’ as it is easy to implement in a digital controller.

• In this method, the terminal voltage of the PV array is perturbed in one direction
and if the power from the PV array increases, then the operating voltage is further
perturbed in the same direction. Otherwise if the power from the PV array
decreases, then the operating voltage is perturbed in the reverse direction.

Another technique more easily implemented with analogue electronics is

incremental conductance.

•This is based on the fact that at maximum power point, (di/dv) + (i/v) of the PV
array is zero (derived from dP/dv = 0).

•This equation suggests that the voltage corresponding to the maximum power can
be found by measuring the incremental conductance (di/dv) and instantaneous
conductance (i/v).
Example 10.1
The PV system shown in Figure 10.3 has two
series-connected PV modules with the V-I
characteristic shown in Figure 10.2. The single
phase inverter operates with sinusoidal
PWM and is connected directly to the 230 V
mains. The irradiance on the module is
1000 W/m2.

1. Describe a possible control strategy which could

be used.

2. What should be the amplitude modulation

index of the inverter to maintain VDC2 at 350 V?

3. Calculate the duty ratio of the switch SW that is

Figure 10.3 Figure for Example 10.1 required to extract maximum power.

4. If, due to constraints of the local power

network, the output of the PV system was
reduced by 50 per cent, calculate the new duty
ratio required for switch SW.
Solution:
For the boost converter: VDC2 = (1/(1 − D)) ×VDC1
where D is the duty ratio of the switch SW.

For a single phase inverter operating with sinusoidal PWM

V1 = ma ×VDC2 where
V1 is the peak value of fundamental of the inverter output voltage (should be
the same as grid voltage), ma is the amplitude modulation index for PWM
modulation

1. VDC2 is always maintained at a reference value by changing the

modulation index of the inverter.

When the MPPT algorithm detects that VDC1 should be increased, then the
duty ratio, D, is reduced. On the other hand when the MPPT algorithm detects
that VDC1 should be decreased, then the duty ratio, D, is increased.

2. V1 is 230 × √2 = 325 V. Hence from V1 = ma ×VDC2 , to maintain VDC2 at 350

V:
ma = 325/350= 0.93.
3. In order to extract peak power, voltage VDC1 should be maintained at 80 V
(voltage across each series modules should be maintained approximately at 40 V as
shown in point A on Figure 10.2).
Then:
VDC2 = (1/(1 − D)) ×VDC1
or, 350 = (1/(1 − D)) × 80
Therefore, D = 0.77.

4. If the power output of the PV system needs to be reduced by 50 per cent,

though the irradiance is not changed,

VDC1 should be changed to 40 V (see point B on Figure 10.2).

Then:
350 = (1/(1 − D)) × 40
Therefore, D = 0.89
 Wind energy systems
•Wind, hydro, wave and tidal generation systems all involve converting the potential
and/or kinetic energy in water or air into electrical energy.

•In recent years there has been a dramatic increase in power generation from the wind
with the capacity of wind turbines (that have been installed across the globe) now
approaching around 600 GW.

•Wind farms are now being developed both onshore and offshore. Placing a wind
turbine in the sea (off shore) is more challenging and expensive but offshore wind
farms enjoy a stronger and more consistent wind resource and reduced environmental
impact.

•The majority of generators used in offshore wind turbines are variable speed.

•Some years ago, fixed speed wind turbines were common onshore but the majority of
new onshore installations also use variable speed wind turbines.
 Tidal energy systems

•Tidal stream generation is a more recent innovation and the subject of considerable
research and development effort.

•Different turbine designs are available for tidal stream technologies. Some stand on
the seabed and are shrouded and some are floating.

Hydro energy systems

•In developed countries the economically attractive sites for large hydropower plants have
now almost all been exploited but there are still opportunities for the development of mini
and micro hydropower plants (for mini hydro the water head 15m to 30m, output 500 kW
to 5 MW; and for micro the water head 3m to 15m, output 10 to 500 kW).

•The efficiency of these smaller units across a wide range of water flows can be improved
by using a variable speed generator with a power electronic interface.
 Power electronic converters

•For variable speed operation of wind, hydro and

tidal stream turbines, Doubly Fed Induction
Generators (DFIG) or Full Power Converter (FPC)
based generators (see Figure 10.4) may be used.

•The DFIG has a wound rotor induction machine

where the rotor is connected to back-to-back power
electronic converters.

•The four quadrant converters control both active

and reactive power flow to and from the rotor
circuit. The rotor speed can be changed by absorbing
or injecting active power by the rotor side converter.
Figure 10.4 Different variable speed generator
configurations
•In the FPC generator, a diode bridge or a four-quadrant converter is connected to the stator
terminals of the generator. The generator may be a synchronous or cage asynchronous
machine.
•The generator speed is controlled to track the maximum power (for wind or tidal) or
maximum efficiency (for hydro) from the source and the generator output frequency varies
with wind/hydraulic/tidal flow conditions. The variable frequency power is then converted to
DC using the power electronic converter and then inverted back to 50 Hz AC.

•The FPC configuration also allows operation without a gearbox. A multi-pole permanent
magnet machine with a large number of poles (as high as 100) is used in gearless designs.
 Control of wind turbines

•Variable speed wind turbines can be controlled

to support the grid . For example, when a wind
turbine generator operates on electronic control
through its back-to-back VSC converters, the
power extracted from the wind can be reduced
by changing the operating speed of the rotor
and hence generator.

•This is useful when a high frequency occurs on

the grid network, perhaps due to the sudden
disconnection of a large load.

• Wind turbines can also provide low frequency

response, if they are de-loaded during normal
operation. Figure 10.5 Variable speed wind turbine operating regions.
Note: Power base is 2 MW and speed base is 1800 rev/min

•Figure 10.5 shows the power output of a 75 m

diameter rotor against generator rotor speed •The actual electromechanical torque developed by the converter is
with different wind speeds. Below rated wind compared against the set point torque.
speed, the generator speed is varied using a
power electronic controller to track the •When the rated rotor speed is reached at around 12 m/s wind speed,
maximum power curve. This is normally the blade pitch is altered to reduce the power generated by the
achieved using a torque controller where a aerodynamic rotor (point X).
torque set point, corresponding to the • Below point X only the torque controller is active and pitch demand
maximum power curve, is stored in a look-up is fixed at an op mum value, normally −2◦.
table with respect to rotational speed. • Above the rated wind speed, the pitch controller is active, and the
electronic controller maintains set point torque at its rated value.
Example 10.2
A wind turbine having the characteristic of Figure
10.5 operates in a wind speed of 11 m/s. The
generator used is a synchronous generator. Due to a
high frequency on the network, the grid operator
requests a reduction of the wind turbine output by
20 per cent. At rated speed the frequency
modulation index of the wind turbine side VSC is
30.
What should be the new modulation index required
to reduce the wind turbine power output?

Solution:
•At 11 m/s, the wind turbine output is given by the interception of the maximum
power extraction curve and 11 m/s curve. Thus, the turbine operates at point A
(Power ≈ 0.8 pu) of Figure 10.5. When power is reduced by 20 per cent, the new
operating point is B (Power = 0.8 × 0.8 = 0.64 pu).
In order to obtain this power, the speed of the turbine could either be reduced to
point B or increased to point C. Operation at point C is limited by the maximum
speed of the turbine.
The corresponding speed for operation at point B is approximately 0.7 pu, that is:
1800 × 0.7 = 1260 rev/min.
For a synchronous machine, the speed is proportional to frequency at the stator (say,
proportional constant k). At 1800 rev/min, the frequency of the triangular wave
carrier is:
fc = (1800/k) × 30 mf= fc/fm
Since the carrier frequency is the same, to obtain a speed of 1260 rev/min, the
frequency modulation index, mf, should satisfy:
fc = (1260/k ) × mf
Equating two equations: mf = 43
Control of hydro turbines
•The design of a hydro turbine is optimised
for a defined rotational speed, hydraulic
head and discharge.

•As the hydraulic conditions change, the

conversion efficiency of the turbine also
changes. Variable speed operation changes
the turbine speed so as to maximise its
efficiency over a range of different hydraulic
conditions.
Fig 10.6 Hill chart for a propeller turbine
•The net head and the opening of the guide
(η1 <η2 < η3. . .)
vanes control the discharge through the
turbine. •As can be seen from Figure 10.6, for a given
discharge, there is an optimum rotor speed
•The turbine performance is represented by which gives the maximum efficiency (see solid
the so-called hill chart. The hill chart gives dotted line).
the efficiency curve of the turbine for
different flow rates as the rotor speed •Once the hill chart has been established from
changes. •model tests, then it can be used for speed
control of the generator corresponding to
discharge by using a look-up table.
Control of tidal stream turbines

•In tidal stream devices, in order to extract maximum power, the torque presented by the
generator to the prime mover varies with the tidal flow conditions.

•One possible control approach is to use a hill climbing technique, as described for PV
systems.

•Alternatively, a control concept similar to that used for wind turbines may be employed for
tidal energy converters where the power extracted is determined by off-line calculations of
the rotor angular velocity relative to the tidal stream flow and the creation of a look-up
table.
Summary of object oriented operation of renewable sources

RE source Source side Objective Control Control

variable variable element
PV panel Sunshine Maximum Voltage DC-DC
power across PV boost
converter
and
inverter

Wind Wind Maximum Turbine AC-DC-AC

turbine velocity power rotor ‘s converter
speed

Mini or Water Maximum Hydro AC-DC-AC

micro discharge efficiency Turbine’s converter
hydro rotor
speed