G.

PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Accredited by NAAC with A Grade of UGC, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi
Permanently Affiliated to JNTUA, Ananthapuramu
(Recognized by UGC under 2(f) and 12(B) & ISO 9001:2008 Certified Institution)
Nandikotkur Road, Venkayapalli, Kurnool – 518452.

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Bridge Course
On
Electrical Circuits
Basic Definitions &Circuit Elements:
 Familiarity with and understanding of the basic elements encountered in electric networks.
 To learn the fundamental differences between linear and nonlinear circuits.
 To understand the Kirchhoff s voltage and current laws and their applications to Circuits.
 Meaning of circuit ground and the voltages referenced to ground.
 Understanding the basic principles of voltage dividers and current dividers. Potentiometer and
loading effects.
 To understand the fundamental differences between ideal and practical voltage
 and current sources and their mathematical models to represent these source models in
electric circuits.
 Distinguish between independent and dependent sources those encountered in electric circuits.
 Meaning of delivering and absorbing power by the source.
1. Introduction:
The inter connection of various electric elements in a prescribed manner comprises as an electric
circuit in order to perform a desired function. The electric elements include controlled and uncontrolled
source of energy, resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc. Analysis of electric circuits refers to computations
required to determine the unknown quantities such as voltage, current and power associated with one
or more elements in the circuit. To contribute to the solution of engineering problems one must acquire
the basic knowledge of electric circuit analysis and laws. Many other systems, like mechanical, hydraulic,
thermal, magnetic and power system are easy to analyze and model by a circuit. To learn how to analyze
the models of these systems, first one needs to learn the techniques of circuit analysis. We shall discuss
briefly some of the basic circuit elements and the laws that will help us to develop the background of
subject.
1.1 Basic Elements & Introductory Concepts:
Charge:
 Is the quantity of electricity responsible for electric phenomena can be either positive or
negative.
 The fundamental (smallest) quantity of charge is that of a single electron or proton. Its
magnitude usually is denoted by the letter e .
 According to the law of conservation of charge, the (net) charge in a closed region can neither
be created nor destroyed.
 Two like charges repel one another, whereas two charges of opposite polarity attract.
 The unit of charge is coulomb (C) and the magnitude of e is :
e = 1.6 x 10-19 C
 The symbol is q
 The charge of a single proton is qp = e
 The charge of a single electron is qe = e–
  Note that the term charge implies net charge : combined charge of protons. Present any
given region of space MINUS combined charge of all electrons in that region. This is why charge
is always an integral multiple of e .

Current:
• The u e t th ough a spe ified a ea is defi ed the ele t i ha ge passi g through the
area per unit time.
• Cu e t is the ti e ate of flo of ele t i ha ge past a gi e poi t
𝑑
i=𝑑
• The u it is a pe e A , a a pe e is oulo pe se o d.

Voltage: EE220
• The voltage across an element is the work (energy) required to move a unit Positive charge from the –
terminal to the + terminal.
• The u it of oltage is the olt V .
• Voltage is also alled potential difference.
• Cu e t is asso iated ith the o e ent of electric charge and voltage is
Associated with the polarity of the charge

Electrical Network:
A combination of various electric elements (Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor, Voltage source,
Current source) connected in any manner what so ever is called an electrical network. We may
classify circuit elements in two categories, passive and active elements.

Passive Element:
The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and then either converts it into heat
(R) or stored it in an electric (C) or magnetic (L ) field is called passive element.

Active Element:
The elements that supply energy to the circuit is called active element. Examples of active
elements include voltage and current sources, generators, and electronic devices that require power
supplies. A transistor is an active circuit element, meaning that it can amplify power of a signal. On the
other hand, transformer is not an active element because it does not amplify the power level and
power remains same both in primary and secondary sides. Transformer is an example of passive
element.
Bilateral Element:
Conduction of current in both directions in an element (example: Resistance; Inductance;
Capacitance) with same magnitude is termed as bilateral element.

Fig 1(a): Bilateral Element

 Unilateral Element:
Conduction of current in one direction is termed as unilateral (example: Diode, Transistor)
element.

Fig 1(b): Unilateral element

Meaning of Response:
An application of input signal to the system will produce an output signal, the behavior of
output signal with time is known as the response of the system.

1.2 Linear and Nonlinear Circuits:

Linear Circuit:
Roughly speaking, a linear circuit is one whose parameters do not change with voltage or
current. More specifically, a linear system is one that satisfies
i ho oge eit p ope t [ espo se of α u t e uals α ti es the espo se of u t ,S α u t = α S u t
fo all α ; a d u t ]

ii Additi e p ope t [that is the espo se of s ste due to a i put α1 u1 t + α2 u2 (t ) ) equals the
sum of the response of input α1 u1 t a d the espo se of i put α2 u2 (t) ,
S α1 u1 t + α2 u2 t = α1 S (u1 t + α2 S (u2 (t )) .

When an input u1 (t) or u2 (t) is applied to a system S , the corresponding output response of the
system is observed as
S (u1 (t)) = y1 (t) or S (u2 (t)) = y2 (t) respectively. Fig. 1(c ) explains

The meaning of homogeneity and additive properties of a system

Fig .1(c): Input Output behavior of a system

Non-Linear Circuit:
Roughly speaking, a non-linear system is that whose parameters change with voltage or
current. More specifically, non-linear circuit does not obey the homogeneity and additive
properties. Volt-ampere characteristics of linear and non-linear elements are shown in Figs 2 - 3.
In fact, a circuit is linear if and only if its input and output can be related by a straight line
 passing through the origin as shown in Fig 3. Otherwise, it is a nonlinear system.

Fig 2: V-I characteristics of linear element

Fig 3: V-I characteristics of non - linear element

Potential Energy Difference:
The voltage or potential energy difference between two points in an electric circuit is the
amount of energy required to move a unit charge between the two points.

1.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws:

Kirchhoff s laws are basic analytical tools in order to obtain the solutions of currents and voltages for
any electric circuit; whether it is supplied from a direct-current system or an alternating current system.
But with complex circuits the equations connecting the currents and voltages may become so numerous
that much tedious algebraic work is involve in their solutions.
Elements that generally encounter in an electric circuit can be interconnected in various possible ways.
Before discussing the basic analytical tools that determine the currents and voltages at different parts
of the circuit, some basic definition of the following terms are considered.
 Fig 4: A sample Resistive circuit
 Node- A node in an electric circuit is a point where two or more components are connected
together. This point is usually marked with dark circle or dot. The circuit in Fig 4 has nodes a, b,
c, and g. Generally, a point, or a node in an circuit specifies a certain voltage level with respect
to a reference point or node.
 Branch- A branch is a conducting path between two nodes in a circuit containing the electric
elements. These elements could be sources, resistances, or other elements. Fig 5(a) shows that
the circuit has six branches: three resistive branches (a-c, b-c, and b-g) and three branches
containing voltage and current sources (a-, a-, and c-g).
 Loop- A loop is any closed path in an electric circuit i.e., a closed path or loop in a circuit is a
contiguous sequence of branches which starting and end points for tracing the path are, in
effect, the same node and touches no other node more than once. Fig. 5(b) shows three loops
or closed paths namely, a-b-g-a; b-c-g-b; and a-c- b-a. Further, it may be noted that the outside
closed paths a-c-g-a and a-b-c-g-a are also form two loops.
 Mesh- a mesh is a special case of loop that does not have any other loops within it or in its
interior. Fig. 5(b) indicates that the first three loops (a-b-g-a; b-c-g-b; and a-c-b-a) just identified
are also meshes but other two loops (a-c-g-a and a-b-c-g) are not. With the introduction of the
Kirchhoff s laws, a various types of electric circuits can be analyzed.
 Fig. 5: Illustration of Kirchhoff s laws

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL):

KCL states that at any node (junction) in a circuit the algebraic sum of currents entering and
leaving a node at any instant of time must be equal to zero. Here currents entering (+ve sign) and
currents leaving (-ve sign) the node must be assigned opposite algebraic signs (see Fig 5 (a), I1 − I2 + I3 −
I4 + I5 − I6 = 0 ).

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):

It states that in a closed circuit, the algebraic sum of all source voltages must be equal to the
algebraic sum of all the voltage drops. Voltage drop is encountered when current flows in an
element (resistance or load) from the higher-potential terminal toward the lower potential terminal.
Voltage rise is encountered when current flows in an element (voltage source) from lower potential
terminal (or negative terminal of voltage source) toward the higher potential terminal (or positive
terminal of voltage source). Kirchhoff s voltage law is explained with the help of fig. 3.5(b).
KVL equation for the circuit shown in Fig 5(b) is expressed as (we walk in clockwise direction starting
from the voltage source V1 and return to the same point)
V1 − IR1 − IR2 −V2 − IR3 − IR4 +V3 − IR5 −V4 = 0

V1 −V2 +V3 −V4 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + IR4 + IR5

Example: L-3.1 For the circuit shown in Fig 6, calculate the potential of points A, B, C , and E with
respect to point D . Find also the value of voltage source V1 .
 Fig 6: A part of DC resistive Circuit is presented
Solution:
Let us assume we move in clockwise direction around the close path D-E- A-B-C-D and stated the
following points.

• 5 olt sou e is o e ted et ee the te i als D & E a d this i di ates that the point E is lower
potential than D. So, VED

(i.e., it means potential of E with respect to D) is -50 volt and similarly VCD = 50 volt or VDC = −5 olt .

• 5 mA current is flo i g th ough Ω esisto f o A to E a d this i plies that point A is higher

potential than E . If we move from lower potential ( E ) to higher potential (A), this shows there
is a rise in potential. Naturally, VAE

=5 × − × = olt

and VAD = −5 + =5 olt .

Similarly, VCB = 5 × − × = 5 olt

• V1 voltage source is connected between A & B and this indicates that the terminal B is lower potential
than A i.e., VAB = V1 volt or VBA = −V1 volt. . One can write the voltage of point B with respect to D is
VBD = 5 −V1 volt.

•O e a ite KVL law around the closed-loop D-E-A-B-C-D as VED + VAE + VBA + VCB + VDC = 0
−5 + −V + 5 − 5 = ⇒V1 = 35 volt. Now we have VED = −5 olt, VAD = − 5 + = 5 olt,
VBD = 5 − 5 = 5 olt, VCD = 15 + 35 = 50 volt.

1.4 Meaning of Circuit Ground and the Voltage referenced to Ground:

In electric or electronic circuits, usually maintain a reference voltage that is named ground
voltage to which all voltages are referred. This reference voltage is thus at ground potential or zero
potential and ach other terminal voltage is measured with respect to ground potential, some terminals
in the circuit will have voltages above it (positive) and some terminals in the circuit will have voltages
below it (negative) or in other words, some potential above or below ground potential or zero
potential.

Consider the circuit as shown in Fig 7 and the common point of connection of elements V1 &
V3is selected as ground (or reference) node. When the voltages at different nodes are referred to this
ground (or reference) point, we denote them with double subscripted voltages VED ,VAD ,VBD , and VCD .
Since the point D is selected as ground potential or zero potential, we can write VED as VE , VAD as VA and
so on.

Fig 7: A sample dc resistive circuit

In many cases, such as in electronic circuits, the chassis is shorted to the earth itself for safety
reasons.

1.5 Understanding the Basic Principles of Voltage Dividers and Current

dividers:

1.5.1 Voltage Divider:

Very often, it is useful to think of a series circuit as a voltage divider. The basic idea behind
the voltage divider is to assign a portion of the total voltage to each resistor. In Fig 8 (a),
suppose that the source voltage is E . By the circuit configuration shown one can divide off
any voltage desired (Vout ), less than the supply voltage E , by adjusting R1 , R2 and R3 .

Fig 8(a): Voltage Divider

 Fig 8(b): Voltage divider with load
From Fig 8(b) the output of the voltage divider Vout is computed by the relation:
𝐸
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = 𝑅 (1)
+ +⋯+ 𝑛

Equation (1) indicates that the voltage across any resistor Ri i= , ….. i a se ies i uit is e ual to the
applied voltage ( E ) across the circuit multiplied by a factor
𝑅 = ∑𝑛 (2)
=

It should be noted that this expression is only valid if the same current I flows through all the resistors. If
a load resistor 𝑅 is connected to the voltage divider (see figure 3.8(b)), one can easily modify the
expression (1) by simply combining 𝑅𝐿 & 𝑅 in parallel to find a new 𝑅 − and replacing 𝑅 by 𝑅 − in
equation (2).

Example:
For the circuit shown in Figure 9,
(i) Calculate Vout , ignoring the internal resistance Rs division. of the source E . Use voltage
(ii) Re calculate Vout taking into account the internal resistance Rs of the source.
What percent error was introduced by ignoring Rs in part (i)?

Fig 9: original circuit

Part (i):
From equation (1) the output voltage Vout across the resistor R2
𝐸
R2= +
×𝑅 = +
× = 37.9V (when the internal resistance Rs of the source is considered zero.)
Similarly, Vout = 37.27 volt
When Rs is taken into account for calculation
. − .
Percentage error is computed as
.
× = . %
1.5.2 Current divider:
Another frequently encountered in electric circuit is the current divider. Fig 10 shows that the
current divider divides the source current Is between the two resistors

Fig 10: Current divider

The parallel combination of two resistors is sometimes termed as current divider, because the supply
current is distributed between the two branches of the circuit. For the circuit, assume that the voltage
across the branch is V and the current expression in can be written as:

𝑉
𝐼
= = Or 𝐼 = ×𝐼
𝐼 𝑉 + + +

Similarly, the current flowing through the R2 can be obtained as

𝑅
𝐼 = ×𝐼
𝑅 +𝑅

It can be noted that the expression for I1 has R2 on its top line, that forI2 has R1 on it top line.

Example: L-3.3 Determine I1, I2,I3, & I5 using only current divider formula when I4 = 4A.
Solution:
When I4 = 4A
 Fig 11: Circuit diagram

Solution:
Using the current division formula we can write
×
𝐼 = 𝐼 = 𝐼 → 𝐼 = = . 𝐴
+
Similarly −𝐼 = 𝐼 = × . = . 𝐴

. .
And we can write 𝐼 = 𝐼 = 𝐼 = 𝐼 → 𝐼 = ×𝐼 = × . = . 𝐴
+ || + . .
. .
Then 𝐼 = ×𝐼 = × . = . 𝐴
+ . .

1.6 Potentiometer and its function:

The potentiometer has a resistance Rp and its wiper can move from top position x = xmax to bottom
position such that x = 0 . The resistance Rx corresponds to the position x of the wiper. Potentiometer is
same throughout its length. Fig 12 represents a potentiometer whose output is connected to a
voltmeter. In true sense, the measurement of the output

Fig 12: A voltmeter connected across the output terminals of potentiometer

𝑅𝑥 𝑅 𝑅
= ⇒ 𝑅𝑥 = ( )𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
voltage Vo with a voltmeter is affected by the voltmeter resistance R v and the relationship
between Vo and x ( x = wiper distance from the bottom position) can easily be established. We know
that the voltmeter resistance is very high in M Ω a ge a d p a ti all egligi le u e t is flo i g
through the voltmeter. Under this condition, one can write the expression for voltage between the
wiper and the bottom end terminal of the potentiometer as

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑥 𝑅𝑥
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅𝑥 = × 𝑥= 𝑉 × = 𝑉 =𝑉 ×
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑅

It may be noted that depending on the position of movable tap terminal the output voltage (Vout ) can be
controlled. By adjusting the wiper toward the top terminal, we can increase Vout . The opposite effect
can be observed while the movable tap moves toward the bottom terminal. A simple application of
potentiometer in real practice is the volume control of a radio receiver by adjusting the applied voltage
to the input of audio amplifier of a radio set. This audio amplifier boosts this voltage by a certain fixed
factor and this voltage is capable of driving the loudspeaker.

Example- L-3.4 A pote tio ete has V applied a oss it. Adjust the positio of 5 k−Rbot Ω such that
47.5 V appears between the movable tap and the bottom end terminal (refer Fig. 12).
Solution-
Since the output voltage (Vbot ) is not connected to any load, in turn, we can write the following
expression

𝑥 𝑉 𝑅 𝑉 .
𝑉 =𝑉 × = →𝑅 = 𝑅 = × = 𝐾Ω
𝑥 𝑥 𝑉 𝑅 𝑉
1.7 Practical Voltage and Current Sources
1.7.1 Ideal and Practical Voltage Sources:
 An ideal voltage source, which is represented by a model in Fig. 13, is a device that produces a
constant voltage across its terminals (V = E ) no matter what current is drawn from it (terminal
voltage is independent of load (resistance) connected across the terminals)

Fig 13: Ideal DC voltage source

For the circuit shown in Fig 13, the upper terminal of load is marked plus (+) and its lower terminal is
marked minus (-). This indicates that electrical potential of upper terminal is VL volts higher than that of
lower terminal. The current flowing through the load RL is given by the expression Vs = VL = I L RL and we
can represent the terminal V − I ha a te isti of a ideal d oltage as a st aight li e pa allel to the -
axis. This means that the terminal voltage VL remains constant and equal to the source voltage Vs
irrespective of load current is small or large. The V − I sou e is p ese ted in Fig 14.

Fig14: VI characteristics if Ideal Voltage Source

However, real or practical dc voltage sources do not exhibit such characteristics (see Fig 14) in
practice. We observed that as the load resistance RL connected across the source is decreased, the
corresponding load current IL increases while the terminal voltage across the source decreases (see
eq.1). We can realize such voltage drop across the terminals with increase in load current provided a
resistance element ( Rs ) present inside the voltage source. Fig. 3.15 shows the model of practical or real
voltage source of value Vs .

The te i al V − I E uatio ha a te isti s of the p a ti al oltage sou e a e des i ed a

VL = Vs − I L Rs (3.1)

and this equation is represented graphically as shown in Fig 15. In practice, when a load resistance RL
more than 100 times larger than the source resistance Rs , the source can be considered approximately
ideal voltage source. In other words, the internal resistance of the source can be omitted. This
statement can be verified using the relation RL = 100Rs in equation (3.1). The practical voltage source
is characterized by two parameters namely known as (i) Open circuit voltage (Vs ) (ii) Internal resistance
in the source s circuit model. In many practical situations, it is quite important to determine the source
parameters experimentally. We shall discuss briefly a method in order to obtain source parameters.

Fig 15: Practical DC voltage source

Method-:
Connect a variable load resistance across the source terminals (see fig. 3.15). A voltmeter is
connected across the load and an ammeter is connected in series with the load resistance. Voltmeter
and Ammeter readings for several choices of load resistances are presented on the graph paper (see fig.
3.16). The slope of the line is −Rs , while the curve intercepts with voltage axis ( at IL = 0 ) is the value of
Vs . The V − I ha a te isti of the sou e is also alled the sou e s regulation curve or load
line . The open-circuit voltage is also called the no-load voltage, Voc .The maximum allowable load
current (rated current) is known as full-load current I Fl and the corresponding source or load
terminal voltage is known as full-load voltage VFL . We know that the source terminal voltage varies
as the load is varied and this is due to internal voltage drop inside the source. The percentage
change in source terminal voltage from no-load to full-load current is termed the voltage regulation
of the source. It is defined as
V −V
Voltage regulation (%) = oc FL ×100
VFL
For ideal voltage source, there should be no change in terminal voltage from no-load to full-load and
this corresponds to zero voltage regulation . For best possible performance, the voltage
source should have the lowest possible regulation and this indicates a smallest possible internal voltage
drop and the smallest possible internal resistance.

1.7.2 Ideal and Practical Current Sources

 Another two-terminal element of common use in circuit modeling is `current source` as depicted
in Fig 16. An ideal current source, which is represented by a model in Fig 17(a), is a device that
delivers a constant current to any load resistance connected across it, no matter what the
terminal voltage is developed across the load (i.e., independent of the voltage across its
terminals across the terminals).

Fig 16: VI characteristic of practical voltage source

 Fig 17(a): Ideal Current source with Variable load
It can be noted from model of the current source that the current flowing from the source to the load is
always constant for any load resistance (see Fig 17(a)) i.e. whether RL is small (VL is small) or RL is large
(VL is la ge . The e ti al dashed li e i fig. . 8 ep ese ts the V − I ha a te isti of ideal u e t
source. In practice, when a load RL is connected across a practical current source, one can observe that
the current flowing in load resistance is reduced as the voltage across the current source s terminal is
increased, by increasing the load resistance RL . Since the distribution of source current in two
parallel paths entirely depends on the value of external resistance that connected across the source
(current source) terminals. This fact can be realized by introducing a parallel resistance R s in
parallel with the practical current source I s , as shown in fig. 3.17(b). The dark lines in fig. 18 show the
V-I characteristic (load-line) of practical current source. The slope of the curve represents the internal
resistance of the source. One can apply KCL at the top terminal of the current source in fig. 17(b) to
obtain the following expression.
𝑉𝐿
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼 −𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼 𝑅 − 𝐼𝐿 𝑅 = 𝑉𝑂𝐶 − 𝐼𝐿 𝑅
𝑅
The open circuit voltage and the short-circuit current of the practical current source are given by

Voc = I s Rs and I short = I s

Respectively. It can be noted from the Fig 17(b) that source 1 has a larger internal resistance than source
2 and the slope the curve indicates the internal resistance Rs of the current source. Thus, source 1 is
closer to the ideal source. More specifically, if the source internal resistance Rs ≥ RL then source acts
nearly as an ideal current source.

Fig 17(b): Practical Current source with Variable load

1.7.3 Conversion of a Practical Voltage Source to a Practical Current source and vice-versa:

Voltage Source to Current Source

For the practical voltage source in fig. 19(a), the load current is calculated as

I L = Vs/(Rs + RL) (3)

Note that the maximum current delivered by the source when circuit condition is given by I=V/R
expression for load current as

𝐼 ∗
IL =
+ 𝐿

1.8 Independent and Dependent Sources that encountered in electric circuits:

 Independent Sources
So far the voltage and current sources (whether ideal or practical) that have been discussed are
known as independent sources and these sources play an important role to drive the circuit in order to
perform a specific job. The internal values of these sources (either voltage source or current source) –
that is, the generated voltage Vs or the generated current Is (see Fig 15 & 17) are not affected by the
load connected across the source terminals or across any other element that exists elsewhere in the
circuit or external to the source.
 Dependent sources
Another class of electrical sources is characterized by dependent source or controlled source. In fact
the source voltage or current depends on a voltage across or a current through some other element
elsewhere in the circuit. Sources, which exhibit this dependency, are called dependent sources. Both
voltage and current types of sources may be dependent, and either may be controlled by a voltage or a
current.
In general, dependent source is represented by a diamond ( )-shaped symbol as not to confuse
it with an independent source. One can classify dependent voltage and current sources into four types
of sources as shown in fig.21. These are listed below:

(i) Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)

(ii) Current-controlled voltage source (ICVS)
(iii) Voltage-controlled current source (VCIS)
(iv) Current- controlled current source (ICIS)

Fig 21: Ideal dependent (controlled) Source