τ -bench: A Benchmark for Tool-Agent-User

Interaction in Real-World Domains

Shunyu Yao∗ Noah Shinn Pedram Razavi Karthik Narasimhan

Sierra
arXiv:2406.12045v1 [cs.AI] 17 Jun 2024

Abstract

Existing benchmarks do not test language agents on their interaction with human
users or ability to follow domain-specific rules, both of which are vital for deploying
them in real world applications. We propose τ -bench, a benchmark emulating
dynamic conversations between a user (simulated by language models) and a
language agent provided with domain-specific API tools and policy guidelines.
We employ an efficient and faithful evaluation process that compares the database
state at the end of a conversation with the annotated goal state. We also propose
a new metric (pass^k) to evaluate the reliability of agent behavior over multiple
trials. Our experiments show that even state-of-the-art function calling agents (like
gpt-4o) succeed on < 50% of the tasks, and are quite inconsistent (pass^8 < 25%
in retail). Our findings point to the need for methods that can improve the ability
of agents to act consistently and follow rules reliably.

1 Introduction
There is increasing excitement around the potential of language agents [20, 24, 18, 1] to enable new
levels of automation across various industries. However, their deployment in real-world systems
requires several key desiderata to be satisfied. Agents must (1) interact seamlessly with both humans
and programmatic APIs over long horizons to incrementally gather information and resolve intents,
(2) accurately adhere to complex policies and rules specific to a task or domain, and (3) maintain
consistency and reliability at scale, across millions of interactions. For instance, consider the case of
an airline booking agent (Figure 1). When a user wants to change their flight reservation to a different
destination airport, the agent needs to gather the required information by interacting with the user,
check the airline policies using the guidelines provided, and find new flights and (if possible) rebook
the user using complex reservation APIs. In addition, the agent should be consistent in its behavior
across different kinds of users with the same request, and robust to small changes in the conversation
flow that should not affect the end outcome.
Modeling realistic human interaction and rule following in agent evaluation is vital for developing
and deploying trustworthy agents in the wild, and tackling challenges like long-context reasoning
and planning in a methodical fashion. Existing benchmarks [27, 29, 12, 14, 16] for language agents
often feature simplified instruction-following setups, where the agent autonomously interacts with an
environment (web, code terminal, or APIs) given all the information upfront, without any human-in-
the-loop interaction and without the need to consult any domain-specific guidelines.
In this work, we introduce τ -bench (short for Tool-Agent-User Interaction Benchmark) to measure
an agent’s ability to interact with (simulated) human users and programmatic APIs while following
domain-specific policies in a consistent manner. τ -bench is built in a modular framework with
(1) realistic databases and APIs, (2) domain-specific policy documents, and (3) instructions for
∗
Work done during internship. Code and data: https://github.com/sierra-research/tau-bench.

Preprint. Under review.

 (a) τ-bench setup (b) Example trajectory in τ-airline

Change flight
get_user_details book_reservation ……
……
get_reservation_details[JK9O19]
Tools cancel_reservation update_reservation_flights
{‘cabin’: ‘basic_economy’,
‘created_at’: ‘20240514-1800’…} (Read database)
Domain policy as system prompt
Current time is 2024-5-15 15:00:00 EST. JK9O19 is basic economy and cannot
- Basic economy cannot be modified. be changed. But since it is within
- Basic economy cannot be cancelled after 24 hours 24h, I can cancel it and book a new
Agent of booking… (more rules omitted) one. Do you want me to do it?

Oh… In that case just cancel it

User instruction as system prompt
You are mia_li_2017, and want to change the your
most recent reservation to fly to SF instead of LA on cancel_reservation[JK9O19]
the same day. If change is not possible, you want the
User agent to cancel and rebook … You are concise. {…, ’status’: ‘cancelled’} (Write database)
……

Figure 1: (a) In τ -bench, an agent interacts with database API tools and an LM-simulated user to
complete tasks. The benchmark tests an agent’s ability to collate and convey all required information
from/to users through multiple interactions, and solve complex issues on the fly while ensuring it
follows guidelines laid out in a domain-specific policy document. (b) An example trajectory in
τ -airline, where an agent needs to reject the user request (change a basic economy flight) following
domain policies and propose a new solution (cancel and rebook). This challenges the agent in
long-context zero-shot reasoning over complex databases, rules, and user intents.

diverse user scenarios and corresponding ground truth annotations. As a first demonstration, we
focus on the realm of customer service and create two different domains where agents need to assist
simulated users with diverse requests (τ -retail and τ -airline). We leverage the generative capabilities
of language models (LMs) for data creation and realistic human user simulation [15] in conjunction
with manual annotation and verification.
We constructed τ -bench in three stages, including manual schema and API design, LM-assisted
generation of data entries, and manual scenario generation and verification for the user simulator.
Our evaluation scheme compares the database state at the end of each episode with the ground truth
expected state. This allows for objective measurement of the agent’s decision making, while also
providing room for stochastic variation in the conversation itself, since the user may pose the same
request in different ways that result in the same end state of the database. We also introduce the
metric of pass^k, which measures the consistency and robustness of the agent across k i.i.d. trials.
Our experiments reveal that agents built with simple LM constructs (like function calling or ReAct)
perform poorly, highlighting the need for more sophisticated agent architectures. For instance, even
state-of-the-art LMs like gpt-4o achieve low task success rates (pass^1) using function calling
(∼61% on τ -retail and ∼35% on τ -airline). With increasing k, the chance of consistently solving a
task drops rapidly, to as low as ∼25% for pass^8 on τ -retail for the same model. This showcases
the fragile nature of such agents in handling stochasticity and partial information, which is common
in human-agent interaction. Upon analyzing the failure cases, we find that current agents struggle
with complex reasoning over databases, understanding and following ad-hoc policies, and handling
compound (more than one) requests. We hope that τ -bench enables the evaluation and development
of more consistent and capable agents for real-world digital tasks involving human interaction.

2 Related Work
Most existing benchmarks for agents and task-oriented dialogue systems focus on evaluating either
conversational or tool-use capabilities. τ -bench aims to unify both under realistic settings, while also
testing how well agents can follow domain-specific policies in a consistent manner.
Benchmarks for language agents and tool use. Several benchmarks have been developed to
evaluate agents powered by LMs [27, 29, 12, 14, 16] . Recent efforts have focused specifically on
evaluating tool use capabilities of LMs, i.e., their ability to generate the right function calls from a
set of functions in an API. Projects like the Berkeley Function Calling Leaderboard (BFCL) [23],

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ToolBench [22] and MetaTool [11] test tool use/function calling in multiple programming languages
and propose various methods for evaluating the accuracy of function calls. ToolEmu [16] uses
language models themselves to emulate the execution of tools, with a focus on exposing potential
safety risks when LM agents fail to use tools correctly. However, all these works only contain a
single-step user interaction, where the human interacting with the agent provides an initial instruction
containing all the required information. In contrast, our benchmark focuses on a more realistic setting
where the agent has to interact with human users to gather information and authorization.
Task-oriented dialogue. Task-oriented dialogue has been a long-standing challenge for NLP, with
several efforts over the years to build domain-specific offline datasets or user simulators. The former
types of benchmarks are static and only test the conversational agent on pre-collected conversation
trajectories[4, 3, 2]. The latter either rely on user simulators that are rule-based or rely on symbolic
specifications [17, 8] or perform tests with real humans through crowdsourcing platforms [9]. Some
very recent work explores the use of LMs as response raters to train dialogue systems [10] or evaluates
their capability for simulating users [7]. τ -bench leverages the powerful text generation capabilities
of state-of-the-art LMs to simulate realistic user utterances and long-context conversations using
textual scenario descriptions, with the goal of evaluating agents. The stochastic sampling from LMs
allows for diverse yet faithful variations in the dialogue when re-run with the exact scenario – this is
extremely useful for testing agent consistency, as we show in § 5.1.
User simulation with LMs. Our work is also related to recent efforts on using LMs as simulators
of human characters. This includes papers on simulating non-player characters (NPCs) in text
adventure games [13] multiple agents in human-like societies [15] or specific collaborative tasks [21],
and enabling human-in-the-loop interaction for tasks like online shopping [6] or web search [28].
However, all these past works have not used such simulators to benchmark the reliability of agents,
instead focusing on showcasing the ability of LMs to enable realistic simulations. Our work uses
such realistic user simulation to provide an accurate assessment of the reliability and robustness of
AI agents for deployment in systems that undertake millions of real-world interactions with humans.

3 τ -bench: A benchmark for Tool-Agent-User Interaction

Each individual task in τ -bench can be formulated as a partially observable Markov decision process
(POMDP) (S, A, O, T , R, U) with state space S, action space A, observation space O, transition
function T : S × A → S × O, reward function R : S → [0, 1], and instruction space U. The agent
interacts with both (1) databases (db) via API tools, and (2) a (simulated) user (user) to complete a
task, i.e., S = Sdb ⊗ Suser , A = Adb ∪ Auser , O = Odb ∪ Ouser . In addition, the agent is provided a
domain-specific policy document containing rules it must adhere to – one can think of this as partially
describing the world model of the domain. We describe each component in more detail below.
Databases and APIs. Each τ -bench domain has several databases and associated APIs. The
contents of the database form the state sdb (Figure 2a), which is hidden from the agent and the
user, and can only be read from or written to using API actions adb , which are usually in the
form tool_name(**kwargs). When an action is executed on the database, the transition Tdb :
(sdb , adb ) 7→ (s′db , odb ) is deterministic and implemented as a Python function (Figure 2b).
Domain policy. Each domain has a policy (Figure 2c) that explains the domain databases, task proce-
dures, and restrictions for the agent to follow in its interactions. Some restrictions are implemented
as checks in the API, e.g., using a payment ID not in the user profile will lead to odb = "Error:
payment not found", and others not, e.g., the airline policy states different baggage allowances for
different membership statuses and cabin classes, but the agent needs to fill in the number of baggage
items to be paid for in the book_reservation API, similar to the freedom given real-world agents.
User simulation. We use a language model (gpt-4-0613) to simulate a human user interacting with
the agent. The user state suser consists of an initial system prompt with the task instruction (Figure 2d)
along with the entire conversation history between the user and the agent so far. The user cannot see the
interaction history between the agent and API tools. The agent can interact with the user using any nat-
ural language message, e.g., auser can be "Your reservation has been updated, is there
anything else I can help with?". The transition Tuser : (suser , auser ) 7→ (s′user , ouser ) is
stochastic and attaches the agent’s message to the chat history followed by sampling a new user mes-
sage from the LM, e.g., ouser can then be "Yes, I also want to cancel another flight."
When the user issues ouser ="###STOP###", the episode finishes and the agent is evaluated.

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{"order_id": "#W2890441", ## Return delivered order
"user_id": "mei_davis_8935", - After user confirmation, the order status
"items": [{ will be changed to 'return requested'...
"name": "Water Bottle",
"product_id": "8310926033", ## Exchange delivered order
"item_id": "2366567022", - An order can only be exchanged if its
"price": 54.04, status is 'delivered'...
"options": {
"capacity": "1000ml", (c) Domain policy excerpts in τ -retail.
"material": "stainless
steel", {"instruction": "You are Mei Davis in 80217.
"color": "blue" You want to return the water bottle, and
}}, ...], ...} exchange the pet bed and office chair to the
cheapest version. Mention the two things
(a) An orders database entry in τ -retail. together. If you can only do one of the two
things, you prefer to do whatever saves you
def return_delivered_order_items( most money, but you want to know the money
order_id: str, you can save in both ways. You are in debt
item_ids: List[str], and sad today, but very brief.",
payment_method_id: str, "actions": [{
) -> str: ... "name": "return_delivered_order_items",
"arguments": {
def exchange_delivered_order_items( "order_id": "#W2890441",
order_id: str, "item_ids": ["2366567022"],
item_ids: List[str], "payment_method_id":
new_item_ids: List[str], "credit_card_1061405",
payment_method_id: str, }}],
) -> str: ... "outputs": ["54.04", "41.64"]}

(b) An API tool in τ -retail. (d) User instruction ensures only one possible outcome.
Figure 2: τ -bench is constructed in a modular fashion with several components: (a) JSON databases,
(b) Python API tools, (c) Markdown domain policies, and (d) JSON task instances. The agent can
only access API tools and domain policies, and indirectly access databases via API tools. Task
annotation is not visible to the agent and is used only for user simulation and evaluation.

Task instances. As shown in Figure 2d, each τ -bench task instance has two parts: an instruction
for the user simulation (hidden from agents), and an annotation of the ground truth database write
actions (and optionally, ground truth outputs for user questions). The instruction sets up user identity,
intent, and preferences in a way that guarantees only one possible outcome under the domain policy.
Each task episode consists of the simulated user starting with a request, which the agent handles in
a conversational manner while being able to call tools at any point and refer to the provided policy.
Once the episode ends, the database state and agent-to-user messages are used to compute the reward.
Reward. The reward of a task episode r = raction × routput ∈ {0, 1} is based on (1) whether the final
database is identical to the unique ground truth outcome database (raction ), and (2) whether the agent’s
responses to the user contain all necessary information (routput ). So for the task of Figure 2d, the agent-
user dialogue can be varied and the agent can call various (read) actions, but the agent is successful
if the only database write action is return_delivered_order_items(order_id="#W2890441",
item_ids=["2366567022"], payment_method_id="credit_card_1061405"), and the user
responses contain "54.04", "41.64" as substrings. Note that r = 1 might be a necessary but not
sufficient condition for a successful episode e.g., the agent might issue the return without explicit
user confirmation, which violates the policy. Nevertheless, our proposed rule-based reward is fast to
compute and faithful, and already poses significant challenges for current models and methods as we
show in § 5.
Pass^k metric. For tasks like code generation with good verification techniques (unit tests), the
community has defined the pass@k (pass at k) metric as the chance that at least one out of k i.i.d. task
trials is successful, which captures the trend of agents enabling discovery of solutions with scaling
of inference-time compute [5]. For real-world agent tasks requiring reliability and consistency like
customer service, we propose a new metric – pass^k (pass hat k), defined as the chance that all k
i.i.d. task trials are successful, averaged across tasks. Therefore, if a task is run for n trials and c of

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 τ -retail τ -airline
Databases 500 users, 50 products, 1,000 orders 500 users, 300 flights, 2,000 reservations
API tools 7 write, 8 non-write 6 write, 7 non-write
Tasks 115 50

Table 1: Key statistics from τ -retail and τ -airline.

those trials end up successful (r = 1), unbiased estimates for pass^k and pass@k would be:
     
c n n−c n
pass^k = Etask , pass@k = 1 − Etask .
k k k k
In our case, for the same task, the user prompt and database transitions are the same, with just the
LM sampling of the user and agent messages generating sufficient stochasticity. Thus, pass^k can
capture the reliability of the agent at handling variations in conversations with the same underlying
semantics while adhering to the domain policies and rules. By default, we report the average reward
across tasks, pass^1=pass@1=E[r] = E[c/n], as the main metric for comparing agents.

4 Benchmark Construction
τ -bench defines domain-agnostic environment and user simulation classes shared by various domains,
and domain-specific data in terms of database JSON files, database API Python code and documenta-
tion, domain policy text, and task instances. Each domain is created in a three-stage approach with a
mix of LM and code runs, and human labeling and checking.
Stage I: Manual design of database schema, APIs, and policies. We start by co-designing the
simplest possible database schemas, APIs, and policies with inspiration (and simplification) from their
real-world counterparts. Simplicity is important for the logical consistency of various components
and the ease of API and task annotation. Still, a minimally realistic domain requires at least tens of
schemas, APIs, rules, and turns out to be challenging enough for existing agents. See § B.1 for more.
Stage II: Automatic data generation with LMs. Once the data schema is set up, we create an
example entry and use gpt-4 to generate a systematic code snippet to sample scalable entries, and
manually polish minor bugs in the code. See § B.2 for an example snippet and more details.
Stage III: Manual task annotation and validation with agent runs. Here, the key challenge is
to ensure the user instruction leads to a unique database outcome. For example, if the preferred
payment method is not specified, the user might answer differently and cause the final database to be
different across trials. So we write an initial user instruction, run a trial with gpt-4-turbo function
calling agent, polish the user instruction by examining the trajectory, and do this iteratively until
we are certain no ambiguities exist (see Figure 7 in § A, where we run each τ -retail task with > 40
gpt-4-turbo trials and check all tasks with zero or low success rates). We can copy and edit agent
actions and outputs for ground truth annotation, which is easier than annotating from scratch.
In practice, we might update minor details of database schemas or policies during data or task creation,
but the three stages are mostly linear, and the constructed data is organized in a modular structure.

4.1 Domains

Using the above procedures, we modularly construct two domains, τ -retail and τ -airline. We choose
these two domains as they are relatively easy to synthesize data (e.g., products, prices, flights) and
craft policies (e.g., product return, baggage allowance) based on common sense, allow for diverse
tasks, and are close to real-world applications. For more capable agents in the future, more advanced
domains (e.g., medical, tax, or legal) with more complex data and rules can be studied. Below, we
briefly describe the domain policies of two domains (full details of the domains in § B.1).
τ -retail. In this domain, the agent is tasked with helping users cancel or modify pending orders,
return or exchange delivered orders, modify user addresses, or provide information. Each product
(e.g., “Water Bottle” in Figure 2a) has various item options with unique IDs (e.g., 1000ml, stainless
steel, blue). Each pending order can only be canceled or modified once, and each delivered order can
only be returned or exchanged once. An item cannot be modified or exchanged for another product

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type. These constraints simplify task and API design, and challenge agents to follow domain-specific
rules, and inform and collect complete information from users before taking actions.
τ -airline. Here, the agent has to help users book, modify, or cancel flight reservations, or provide
refunds. We construct 300 flights between 20 US cities with realistic durations and prices, and
API tools to query direct or one-stop flights. The domain policy is more complex than τ -retail,
with ad-hoc constraints about combining payment methods, checked bag allowance, flight changes
and cancellations, etc. These constraints can also be over membership tier and cabin class specific,
creating challenging multi-hop reasoning puzzles for the agent.

4.2 Key Characteristics

Realistic dialogue and tool use. Compared to prior task-oriented dialogue benchmarks, τ -bench
has more complex databases and realistic user simulations thanks to the advances of LMs. Some
trajectories can be seen in § C.2 and § D.2. Notably, even if the user instruction is synthetic, the user
utterances generated via LMs are open-ended and natural-sounding.
Open-ended and diverse tasks. Each τ -bench domain’s data schemas, APIs, and rules are simplified
compared to real-world domains, but they are rich enough to support the creation of extremely diverse,
open-ended, and sometimes creative tasks (see § A, § C.2, § D.2). Importantly, we trade off quantity
for quality — as § 5 shows, running a small set of high-quality tasks for multiple trials (with pass^k
metric) can reliably reveal rich insights into different models, methods, and research challenges.
Faithful rule-based evaluation. Real-world agents are hard to evaluate as the trajectory can be
extremely diverse for the same task, and success criteria are multi-faceted. As a result, it often requires
human evaluation, e.g., end users to judge task resolution and domain experts to judge rule following.
In τ -bench, we trade off slow, careful task annotation for fast, faithful evaluation. By ensuring that
only one database outcome is possible based on domain policies and user desires, subjective and
noisy human judgments can be replaced by simple and objective database state comparisons.
Modular extension. The codebase structure of τ -bench is modular, and it is easy to add new
domains to τ -bench, or add or update database entries, domain functionalities, rules, APIs, tasks, and
evaluation metrics (given they are consistent with the existing domain data). We release our codebase
publicly to encourage the community to create new tasks and domains for τ -bench.

5 Experiments

Models. We test various state-of-the-art proprietary and open language models for agents
through their APIs: OpenAI GPT API (gpt-4o, gpt-4-turbo, gpt-4-32k, gpt-3.5-turbo),
Anthropic Claude API (claude-3-opus, claude-3-sonnet, claude-3-haiku), Google Gemini
API (gemini-1.5-pro-latest, gemini-1.5-flash-latest), Mistral API (mistral-large,
open-mixtral-8x22b), AnyScale API (meta-llama-3-70B-instruct). Only the last two mod-
els openly release weights. We do not test small models (7/13B) due to the difficulty of the benchmark.
Methods. Our main method for building the agent is through the use of function calling (FC), which
is natively supported by all tested LMs except Llama-3. In FC mode, the model’s system prompt
is set to be the domain policy, and at each turn, the model autonomously decides to generate a user
response message or a tool call. We also test text-formatted ReAct [26] and its Act-only ablation,
where the model is instructed to zero-shot generate “Thought: {some reasoning} Action: {some
JSON format action argument}” or only the action part. Notably, some agent methods are not suitable
for a user-in-the-loop setup, e.g., self-reflection [19] is unrealistic as real-world agents only have one
chance to serve the user, and planning approaches [25] might be too slow to help a user in real time.
We limit each task to at most 30 agent actions (either tool calls or user responses). For main results
(Table 2), we run at least 3 trials per task. The LM temperature is 0.0 for agent and 1.0 for user.

5.1 Main results

Model comparison. From Table 2, we see that gpt-4o is the best model with function calling,
and there is a wide spectrum of performances among various models. Notably, SoTA open-weight
models (llama-3-70b and mistral-8x22b) still have a significant gap to cover with respect to SoTA

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 Model retail airline avg 60 FC
gpt-4o 61.2 35.2 48.2 40
ReAct
gpt-4-turbo 57.7 32.4 45.1 Act
gpt-4-32k 56.5 33.0 44.8 20
gpt-3.5-turbo 20.0 10.8 15.4
0
claude-3-opus 44.2 34.7 39.5 gpt-4o gpt-4-turbo gpt-4-32k gpt-3.5-turbo
claude-3-sonnet 26.3 27.6 27.0
claude-3-haiku 19.0 14.4 16.7 Figure 3: pass^1 across models/methods in τ -retail.
100
gemini-1.5-pro 21.7 14.0 17.9
gemini-1.5-flash 17.4 26.0 21.7 80
gpt-4o
mistral-large 30.7 22.4 26.6 60 gpt-4-turbo
mixtral-8x22b 17.7 31.6 24.7 gpt-4-32k-0613
40 claude-3-opus
meta-llama-3-70B 14.8 14.4 14.6 gpt-3.5-turbo
20
0
Table 2: Pass^1 across models via function call- 12 4 8 16 32 k=#trials
ing, except Llama-3 via text-ReAct. Average is
weighted by domains, not by tasks. Figure 4: pass^k (–) and pass@k (..) in τ -retail.

proprietary models (gpt-4o, claude-3-opus). All models are still far from solving τ -bench, especially
the more challenging τ -airlinewhere even gpt-4o solves only 35.2% of the tasks. The diversity of
model performances (shown in Table 2) and task difficulties (shown in Figure 7 in § A) as well as
large remaining gaps from perfect resolution makes τ -bench ideal for benchmarking and developing
new models for agents, tool use, and dialogue.
Method comparison. Figure 3 shows that natively supported function calling consistently out-
performs text-formatted agent methods with the state-of-the-art models. For text-formatted agent
methods, adding reasoning traces still consistently helps (compare ReAct vs. Act columns) as
it helps bridge the gap between observations and actions that have unfamiliar formats. We have
also experimented with adding a “think” function for function-calling agents, but it did not boost
performance, perhaps because most FC models have not been trained toward such reasoning.
Agent consistency via pass^k. As shown in Figure 4, the chance of reliably and consistently solving
the same task multiple times significantly drops as the number of trials k increases. Even for the
best-performing gpt-4o function calling agent which has a > 60% average task success, pass^8 drops
to < 25%. In real-world scenarios, it is important and challenging not just to build agents with high
average success (pass^1), but with more robustness and consistency (pass^k trend).
Cost analysis. When we pair gpt-4o FC agent with gpt-4 user simulation on τ -retail, the agent /
user simulation costs are $0.38 / $0.23 per task respectively, so running one trial per task costs around
200 dollars. For the agent, the input prompt / completion output take up 95.9% / 4.1% of the price
respectively, so the cost is mainly due to long system prompt (domain policy + function definitions).

5.2 Research challenge analysis

In this subsection, we analyze in both quantitative and qualitative terms the challenges of τ -bench,
with a focus on the τ -retail split and the most advanced baseline: gpt-4o function calling agent.
Failure breakdown. We sample 115 gpt-4o FC agent tra-
Wrong argument
jectories in τ -retail (1 trial per task), out of which 40 tasks
have failed (pass^1=65.2%). Upon manual examination Wrong info 33.3%
of these failures, 4 of them are caused by user instruction
22.2%
typo or ambiguity (and then fixed), and the remaining 36
failure cases are agent issues, which are broken down into
more detail below and in Figure 5. 19.4%
25.0%
Failure 1: Wrong argument or information provided: Partially resolve
Wrong decision
the challenge of complex database reasoning. For
“wrong argument”, gpt-4o FC agent usually makes the
right type of tool call(s) but fills in one or more arguments Figure 5: Breakdown of 36 failed
incorrectly. In the example shown in § C.2.2, the user gpt-4o FC agent trajectories in τ -retail.

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wants to exchange a lamp for a less bright one and prefers
an AC adapter over battery or USB power source. The agent fails to reason over the complex inventory
of lamps and find the unique option given such a preference. Weaker models and methods struggle
with even more basic failures such as hallucinating arguments — for example, while gpt-4o FC
agent only makes 0.46 tool calls with non-existent user/product/order/item IDs per τ -retail task,
gpt-3.5-turbo FC / Act agents make 2.08 / 6.34, respectively.
For “wrong info”, agents omit user-required information (e.g., the user asks for a tracking ID but the
agent does not provide it), or calculate the wrong information (e.g., wrong total price), or provide the
user with incorrect information that causes the user request to diverge (e.g., the user might cancel or
exchange based on incorrect price information provided by the agent). These failures account for
5̃5% of overall failures and highlight the need for improved common sense and numerical reasoning
over complex databases and user intents for future models.
Failure 2: Incorrect decision-making: the challenge of domain understanding and rule following.
While the above failures can be recognized even without referring to the domain policy, “wrong
decision-making” failures (25% of overall failures) occur as the agent fails to understand the domain-
specific knowledge or rules and makes the wrong type of tool call. In the example of § C.2.1, the user
wants to exchange “a couple of items”, and according to the domain policy, “Exchange or modify
order tools can only be called once. Be sure that all items to be exchanged are collected into a list
before making the tool call”. However, the gpt-4o FC agent omits the domain knowledge and rule
and decides to exchange one item first, resulting in the second item not being exchanged.
To further understand how different agents follow rules in
τ -retail τ -airline
different domains, we perform an ablation study by remov-
ing the domain policy from the FC agent system prompt. gpt-4o 61.2 → 56.8 33.2 → 10.8
As seen in Table 3, in τ -retail where rules are simpler and gpt-3.5 20.0 → 14.5 10.8 → 9.6
closer to commonsense, gpt-4o and gpt-3.5-turbo
agents only degrade 4.4% and 5.5% in terms of pass^1, Table 3: pass^1 scores degrade when
suggesting that their successful cases mostly stem from the domain policy is not provided in the
using tools in an intuitive and common sense way, and that agent’s system prompt.
they may not actually be leveraging the policy documents
to the extent possible. In τ -airline where rules are more complex and ad-hoc (e.g., baggage allowance
varies for different membership tiers and cabins), removing the policy hurts gpt-4o significantly
(−22.4%) but gpt-3.5-turbo only slightly (−1.2%), suggesting the former follows rules at times
but the latter does not has the capacity to process complex airline rules. Overall, τ -bench poses
significant challenges for function calling agents to follow complex domain dynamics and rules, and
showcases there is still work to be done in this direction. Domain-specific fine-tuning or agent code
scaffolding might provide some remedy, which can be important future work.
Failure 3: Partial resolution of compound requests. Lastly, as
shown in Figure 6, when a task involves many user requests (rep- 75 gpt-4-turbo
resented by the number of ground truth write actions to databases), gpt-3.5-turbo
it becomes more challenging for function calling agents (19% of 50
cases). Sometimes the agent omits explicit user requests at the 25
beginning of the conservation, hinting at the need for better long- 0
context and memory capabilities. Other times, the agent omits 0 1 2 3 4
implicit actions, such as in § C.2.3, where the user wants to fix Number of Write API Actions
wrong addresses in all orders, but the agent stops after checking
only one order. Agents need to improve in their consistency and Figure 6: Retail tasks with more
systematicity in handling such cases. database writes are harder.

6 Discussion

We have presented τ -bench, a novel benchmark for evaluating the reliability of agents in interacting
with humans and tools in dynamic and realistic settings. The benchmark leverages the latest advances
in LMs to simulate users, allows for automated testing of agents and provides an assessment of an
agent’s ability to follow domain-specific rules in a consistent manner. Our results show that even
SOTA LMs are far from being reliable for use in real-world settings.

8
Directions for improvement. While τ -bench is a step towards dynamic evaluation of agents in
real-world scenarios, there are several directions for improvement. The simulated user can have
some limitations: (1) the user instruction might contain typos or ambiguities, which annotators can
examine and fix; (2) the user instruction may not contain all domain knowledge, e.g., in § C.2.1,
the user authorizes the single item exchange without knowing that the agent could only issue one
exchange action, which reflects real-world users who (rightfully) do not know complex domain
policies; or (3) the user simulation LM might have limited capacity at reasoning, calculation, long-
context memorization, or alignment with the instruction prompt, e.g., in § C.2.2 the user authorizes
the agent-recommended lamp without double checking its features. While these can all be improved
in future work, one can also argue that this is indicative of the real world where users can have a wide
range of skill sets and knowledge, and the onus is on the agents to handle diverse users.
In addition, one can also add more systematic checks to the simulator to ensure unique outcomes.
The domain policies can also be made more complex to match real-world scenarios. More evaluation
metrics can be added to define agent success (e.g., LM checks that certain rules are followed). The
manual annotation process for the benchmark is difficult and requires a deep understanding of both
the domain and agent capabilities. There is also some element of implicit bias during the task
curation process since we use the gpt-4-turbo FC agent to tune the user’s system prompt. Future
work can investigate alternative ways of using LMs for improving data curation and user simulation.
Finally, while we don’t believe this work has potential negative societal implications directly, it helps
real-world agents which can have various consequences for the economy and society in the future.

Challenges for agents. At the core, the main results from our experiments demonstrate a critical
fact: agents built on top of LM function calling lack sufficient consistency and rule-following ability
to reliably build real-world applications. Solving both of these problems can have outsized impact
on automating several real-world tasks and ensuring smoother human-in-the-loop interaction. Other
specific features to improve in agents include long-horizon information tracking and memory, as well
as the ability to focus on the right pieces of information in context for the decision at hand, especially
when there may be conflicting facts present.

Acknowledgements
We thank Clay Bavor, Honghua Dong and Yangjun Ruan for feedback on earlier drafts of the paper,
and Nate White for helping set up the different LLM APIs for the experiments.

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11
Checklist
1. For all authors...
(a) Do the main claims made in the abstract and introduction accurately reflect the paper’s
contributions and scope? [Yes]
(b) Did you describe the limitations of your work? [Yes]
(c) Did you discuss any potential negative societal impacts of your work? [Yes]
(d) Have you read the ethics review guidelines and ensured that your paper conforms to
them? [Yes]
2. If you are including theoretical results...
(a) Did you state the full set of assumptions of all theoretical results? [N/A]
(b) Did you include complete proofs of all theoretical results? [N/A]
3. If you ran experiments (e.g. for benchmarks)...
(a) Did you include the code, data, and instructions needed to reproduce the main experi-
mental results (either in the supplemental material or as a URL)? [Yes]
(b) Did you specify all the training details (e.g., data splits, hyperparameters, how they
were chosen)? [Yes]
(c) Did you report error bars (e.g., with respect to the random seed after running experi-
ments multiple times)? [Yes]
(d) Did you include the total amount of compute and the type of resources used (e.g., type
of GPUs, internal cluster, or cloud provider)? [Yes]
4. If you are using existing assets (e.g., code, data, models) or curating/releasing new assets...
(a) If your work uses existing assets, did you cite the creators? [Yes]
(b) Did you mention the license of the assets? [Yes]
(c) Did you include any new assets either in the supplemental material or as a URL? [Yes]
(d) Did you discuss whether and how consent was obtained from people whose data you’re
using/curating? [N/A]
(e) Did you discuss whether the data you are using/curating contains personally identifiable
information or offensive content? [N/A]
5. If you used crowdsourcing or conducted research with human subjects...
(a) Did you include the full text of instructions given to participants and screenshots, if
applicable? [N/A]
(b) Did you describe any potential participant risks, with links to Institutional Review
Board (IRB) approvals, if applicable? [N/A]
(c) Did you include the estimated hourly wage paid to participants and the total amount
spent on participant compensation? [N/A]

12
A Additional Results
As shown in Figure 7, τ -bench tasks have a well-balanced and diverse spectrum of difficulties. We
use such a plot to find tasks with zero success, and examine the task annotations in a targeted way.
Average Rewards by Task for Each Model
1.0 gpt-4-turbo
gpt-4-32k-0613
claude-3-opus
gpt-3.5-turbo

0.8
Average Reward

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

Figure 7: The success rate of each τ -retail task, sorted by gpt-4-turbo success rate. Each task has
at least 40 gpt-4-turbo trials to ensure reliable per-task success rates.

B Benchmark Construction
B.1 Stage I: design of database schemas, APIs, and policies

The data schema examples can be seen in § C.1 and § D.1.

τ -retail τ -airline
Databases users, products, orders users, flights, reservations
Read APIs find_user_id_by_email get_reservation_details
find_user_id_by_name_zip get_user_details
list_all_product_types list_all_airports
get_order_details search_direct_flight
get_product_details search_onestop_flight
get_user_details
Write APIs cancel_pending_order book_reservation
exchange_delivered_order_items cancel_reservation
modify_pending_order_address send_certificate
modify_pending_order_items update_reservation_baggages
modify_pending_order_payment update_reservation_flights
modify_user_address update_reservation_passengers
return_delivered_order_items
Non-DB APIs calculate, transfer_to_human_agents
Policies See B.1 See B.1

Table 4: Overview of τ -retail and τ -airline databases and APIs.

API design example Here is the Python implementation of an API in τ -retail.

import json
from typing import Any, Dict, List

def exchange_delivered_order_items(
data: Dict[str, Any],
order_id: str,
item_ids: List[str],
new_item_ids: List[str],
payment_method_id: str,

13
) -> str:
products, orders, users = data["products"], data["orders"], data["users"]

# check order exists and is delivered

if order_id not in orders:
return "Error: order not found"
order = orders[order_id]
if order["status"] != "delivered":
return "Error: non-delivered order cannot be exchanged"

# check the items to be exchanged exist

all_item_ids = [item["item_id"] for item in order["items"]]
for item_id in item_ids:
if item_ids.count(item_id) > all_item_ids.count(item_id):
return f"Error: {item_id} not found"

# check new items exist and match old items and are available
if len(item_ids) != len(new_item_ids):
return "Error: the number of items to be exchanged should match"

diff_price = 0
for item_id, new_item_id in zip(item_ids, new_item_ids):
item = [item for item in order["items"] if item["item_id"] == item_id][0]
product_id = item["product_id"]
if not (
new_item_id in products[product_id]["variants"]
and products[product_id]["variants"][new_item_id]["available"]
):
return f"Error: new item {new_item_id} not found or available"

old_price = item["price"]
new_price = products[product_id]["variants"][new_item_id]["price"]
diff_price += new_price - old_price

diff_price = round(diff_price, 2)

# check payment method exists and can cover the price difference if gift card
if payment_method_id not in users[order["user_id"]]["payment_methods"]:
return "Error: payment method not found"

payment_method = users[order["user_id"]]["payment_methods"][payment_method_id]
if payment_method["source"] == "gift_card" and payment_method["balance"] <
,→ diff_price:
return "Error: insufficient gift card balance to pay for the price
,→ difference"

# modify the order

order["status"] = "exchange requested"
order["exchange_items"] = sorted(item_ids)
order["exchange_new_items"] = sorted(new_item_ids)
order["exchange_payment_method_id"] = payment_method_id
order["exchange_price_difference"] = diff_price

return json.dumps(order)

exchange_delivered_order_items.__info__ = {
"type": "function",
"function": {
"name": "exchange_delivered_order_items",
"description": "Exchange items in a delivered order to new items of the same
,→ product type. For a delivered order, return or exchange can be only done
,→ once by the agent. The agent needs to explain the exchange detail and
,→ ask for explicit user confirmation (yes/no) to proceed.",
"parameters": {

14
 "type": "object",
"properties": {
"order_id": {
"type": "string",
"description": "The order id, such as '#W0000000'. Be careful
,→ there is a '#' symbol at the beginning of the order id.",
},
"item_ids": {
"type": "array",
"items": {
"type": "string",
},
"description": "The item ids to be exchanged, each such as
,→ '1008292230'. There could be duplicate items in the list.",
},
"new_item_ids": {
"type": "array",
"items": {
"type": "string",
},
"description": "The item ids to be exchanged for, each such as
,→ '1008292230'. There could be duplicate items in the list.
,→ Each new item id should match the item id in the same
,→ position and be of the same product.",
},
"payment_method_id": {
"type": "string",
"description": "The payment method id to pay or receive refund
,→ for the item price difference, such as 'gift_card_0000000'
,→ or 'credit_card_0000000'. These can be looked up from the
,→ user or order details.",
},
},
"required": [
"order_id",
"item_ids",
"new_item_ids",
"payment_method_id",
],
},
},
}

Retail policies
# Retail agent policy

As a retail agent, you can help users cancel or modify pending orders, return or
exchange delivered orders, modify their default user address, or provide
information about their own profile, orders, and related products.

- At the beginning of the conversation, you have to authenticate the user identity
by locating their user id via email, or via name + zip code. This has to be done
even when the user already provides the user id.

- Once the user has been authenticated, you can provide the user with information
about order, product, profile information, e.g. help the user look up order id.

- You can only help one user per conversation (but you can handle multiple
requests from the same user), and must deny any requests for tasks related to any
other user.

- Before taking consequential actions that update the database (cancel, modify,
return, exchange), you have to list the action detail and obtain explicit user
confirmation (yes) to proceed.

15
- You should not make up any information or knowledge or procedures not provided
from the user or the tools, or give subjective recommendations or comments.

- You should at most make one tool call at a time, and if you take a tool call,
you should not respond to the user at the same time. If you respond to the user,
you should not make a tool call.

- You should transfer the user to a human agent if and only if the request cannot
be handled within the scope of your actions.

## Domain basic

- All times in the database are EST and 24 hour based. For example "02:30:00"
means 2:30 AM EST.

- Each user has a profile of its email, default address, user id, and payment
methods. Each payment method is either a gift card, a paypal account, or a credit
card.

- Our retail store has 50 types of products. For each type of product, there are
variant items of different options. For example, for a 't shirt' product, there
could be an item with option 'color blue size M', and another item with option
'color red size L'.

- Each product has an unique product id, and each item has an unique item id. They
have no relations and should not be confused.

- Each order can be in status 'pending', 'processed', 'delivered', or 'cancelled'.

Generally, you can only take action on pending or delivered orders.

- Exchange or modify order tools can only be called once. Be sure that all items
to be changed are collected into a list before making the tool call!!!

## Cancel pending order

- An order can only be cancelled if its status is 'pending', and you should check
its status before taking the action.

- The user needs to confirm the order id and the reason (either 'no longer needed'
or 'ordered by mistake') for cancellation.

- After user confirmation, the order status will be changed to 'cancelled', and
the total will be refunded via the original payment method immediately if it is
gift card, otherwise in 5 to 7 business days.

## Modify pending order

- An order can only be modified if its status is 'pending', and you should check
its status before taking the action.

- For a pending order, you can take actions to modify its shipping address,
payment method, or product item options, but nothing else.

### Modify payment

- The user can only choose a single payment method different from the original
payment method.

- If the user wants the modify the payment method to gift card, it must have
enough balance to cover the total amount.

- After user confirmation, the order status will be kept 'pending'. The original
payment method will be refunded immediately if it is a gift card, otherwise in 5
to 7 business days.

16
### Modify items

- This action can only be called once, and will change the order status to
'pending (items modifed)', and the agent will not be able to modify or cancel the
order anymore. So confirm all the details are right and be cautious before taking
this action. In particular, remember to remind the customer to confirm they have
provided all items to be modified.

- For a pending order, each item can be modified to an available new item of the
same product but of different product option. There cannot be any change of
product types, e.g. modify shirt to shoe.

- The user must provide a payment method to pay or receive refund of the price
difference. If the user provides a gift card, it must have enough balance to cover
the price difference.

## Return delivered order

- An order can only be returned if its status is 'delivered', and you should check
its status before taking the action.

- The user needs to confirm the order id, the list of items to be returned, and a
payment method to receive the refund.

- The refund must either go to the original payment method, or an existing gift
card.

- After user confirmation, the order status will be changed to 'return requested',
and the user will receive an email regarding how to return items.

## Exchange delivered order

- An order can only be exchanged if its status is 'delivered', and you should
check its status before taking the action. In particular, remember to remind the
customer to confirm they have provided all items to be exchanged.

- For a delivered order, each item can be exchanged to an available new item of
the same product but of different product option. There cannot be any change of
product types, e.g. modify shirt to shoe.

- The user must provide a payment method to pay or receive refund of the price
difference. If the user provides a gift card, it must have enough balance to cover
the price difference.

- After user confirmation, the order status will be changed to 'exchange

requested', and the user will receive an email regarding how to return items.
There is no need to place a new order.

Airline policies
# Airline Agent Policy

The current time is 2024-05-15 15:00:00 EST.

As an airline agent, you can help users book, modify, or cancel flight reservations.

- Before taking any actions that update the booking database (booking, modifying
flights, editing baggage, upgrading cabin class, or updating passenger
information), you must list the action details and obtain explicit user
confirmation (yes) to proceed.

- You should not provide any information, knowledge, or procedures not provided
by the user or available tools, or give subjective recommendations or comments.

17
- You should only make one tool call at a time, and if you make a tool call, you
should not respond to the user simultaneously. If you respond to the user, you
should not make a tool call at the same time.

- You should deny user requests that are against this policy.

- You should transfer the user to a human agent if and only if the request
cannot be handled within the scope of your actions.

## Domain Basic

- Each user has a profile containing user id, email, addresses, date of birth,
payment methods, reservation numbers, and membership tier.

- Each reservation has an reservation id, user id, trip type (one way, round
trip), flights, passengers, payment methods, created time, baggages, and travel
insurance information.

- Each flight has a flight number, an origin, destination, scheduled departure

and arrival time (local time), and for each date:
- If the status is "available", the flight has not taken off, available
seats and prices are listed.
- If the status is "delayed" or "on time", the flight has not taken off,
cannot be booked.
- If the status is "flying", the flight has taken off but not landed, cannot
be booked.

## Book flight

- The agent must first obtain the user id, then ask for the trip type, origin,
destination.

- Passengers: Each reservation can have at most five passengers. The agent needs
to collect the first name, last name, and date of birth for each passenger. All
passengers must fly the same flights in the same cabin.

- Payment: each reservation can use at most one travel certificate, at most one
credit card, and at most three gift cards. The remaining amount of a travel
certificate is not refundable. All payment methods must already be in user profile
for safety reasons.

- Checked bag allowance: If the booking user is a regular member, 0 free checked
bag for each basic economy passenger, 1 free checked bag for each economy
passenger, and 2 free checked bags for each business passenger. If the booking
user is a silver member, 1 free checked bag for each basic economy passenger, 2
free checked bag for each economy passenger, and 3 free checked bags for each
business passenger. If the booking user is a gold member, 2 free checked bag for
each basic economy passenger, 3 free checked bag for each economy passenger, and 3
free checked bags for each business passenger. Each extra baggage is 50 dollars.

- Travel insurance: the agent should ask if the user wants to buy the travel
insurance, which is 30 dollars per passenger and enables full refund if the user
needs to cancel the flight given health or weather reasons.

## Modify flight

- The agent must first obtain the user id and the reservation id.

- Change flights: Basic economy flights cannot be modified. Other reservations

can be modified without changing the origin, destination, and trip type. Some
flight segments can be kept, but their prices will not be updated based on the
current price. The API does not check these for the agent, so the agent must make
sure the rules apply before calling the API!

18
- Change cabin: all reservations, including basic economy, can change cabin
without changing the flights. Cabin changes require the user to pay for the
difference between their current cabin and the new cabin class. Cabin class must
be the same across all the flights in the same reservation; changing cabin for
just one flight segment is not possible.

- Change baggage and insurance: The user can add but not remove checked bags.
The user cannot add insurance after initial booking.

- Change passengers: The user can modify passengers but cannot modify the number
of passengers. This is something that even a human agent cannot assist with.

- Payment: If the flights are changed, the user needs to provide one gift card
or credit card for payment or refund method. The agent should ask for the payment
or refund method instead.

## Cancel flight

- The agent must first obtain the user id, the reservation id, and the reason
for cancellation (change of plan, airline cancelled flight, or other reasons)

- All reservations can be cancelled within 24 hours of booking, or if the

airline cancelled the flight. Otherwise, basic economy or economy flights can be
cancelled only if travel insurance is bought and the condition is met, and
business flights can always be cancelled. The rules are strict regardless of the
membership status. The API does not check these for the agent, so the agent must
make sure the rules apply before calling the API!

- The agent can only cancel the whole trip that is not flown. If any of the
segments are already used, the agent cannot help and transfer is needed.

- The refund will go to original payment methods in 5 to 7 business days.

## Refund

- If the user is silver/gold member or has travel insurance or flies business,

and complains about cancelled flights in a reservation, the agent can offer a
certificate as a gesture after confirming the facts, with the amount being $100
times the number of passengers.

- If the user is silver/gold member or has travel insurance or flies business,

and complains about delayed flights in a reservation and wants to change or cancel
the reservation, the agent can offer a certificate as a gesture after confirming
the facts and changing or cancelling the reservation, with the amount being $50
times the number of passengers.

- Do not proactively offer these unless the user complains about the situation
and explicitly asks for some compensation. Do not compensate if the user is
regular member and has no travel insurance and flies (basic) economy.

19
B.2 Stage II: data generation

Below is the Python code to generate the users database in τ -retail. As mentioned in the paper, the
code is mostly generated by gpt-4 with some minor human editing. More data generation code can be
seen in https://github.com/sierra-research/tau-bench.
We execute the code and use gpt-4 to refine the code based on execution for a few initial iterations,
and manually refine the code to polish minor details. The data generation code uses random package
to directly sample numeric and categorical entries like dates, prices, flight cabins, and sample from
LM-generated lists for textual entries like product types or last names. This approach allows scalable
data generation (i.e., we can sample 10,000 users if needed) with minimal human efforts.
import random
import json
import numpy as np

# Updated cities list with corresponding zip code ranges for realism
cities_info = {
"New York": ("NY", [10001, 10292]),
"Los Angeles": ("CA", [90001, 91607]),
"Chicago": ("IL", [60601, 60657]),
"Houston": ("TX", [77001, 77299]),
"Phoenix": ("AZ", [85001, 85099]),
"Philadelphia": ("PA", [19019, 19190]),
"San Antonio": ("TX", [78201, 78299]),
"San Diego": ("CA", [92101, 92199]),
"Dallas": ("TX", [75201, 75398]),
"San Jose": ("CA", [95101, 95196]),
"Austin": ("TX", [78701, 78799]),
"Jacksonville": ("FL", [32099, 32290]),
"Fort Worth": ("TX", [76101, 76199]),
"Columbus": ("OH", [43085, 43299]),
"Charlotte": ("NC", [28201, 28299]),
"San Francisco": ("CA", [94102, 94188]),
"Indianapolis": ("IN", [46201, 46298]),
"Seattle": ("WA", [98101, 98199]),
"Denver": ("CO", [80201, 80299]),
"Washington": ("DC", [20001, 20599])
}

first_names = ["Emma", "Liam", "Olivia", "Noah", "Ava", "Yusuf", "Isabella",

,→ "Lucas", "Mia", "Mason",
"Sophia", "Ethan", "Aarav", "James", "Amelia", "Lei", "Harper",
,→ "Sofia", "Evelyn", "Mohamed",
"Yara", "Raj", "Fatima", "Juan", "Daiki", "Mei", "Chen", "Ivan",
,→ "Anya", "Omar"]
last_names = ["Smith", "Johnson", "Patel", "Nguyen", "Garcia", "Silva", "Kim",
,→ "Santos", "Khan", "Li",
"Kovacs", "Muller", "Rossi", "Hernandez", "Sanchez", "Ito",
,→ "Johansson", "Lopez", "Gonzalez", "Ahmed",
"Brown", "Davis", "Wilson", "Anderson", "Thomas", "Taylor", "Moore",
,→ "Jackson", "Martin", "Lee"]

# Function to generate an address with a city-realistic zip code

def generate_address():
streets = ["Maple Drive", "Oak Street", "Pine Lane", "Elm Street", "Cedar
,→ Avenue",
"Hillcrest Drive", "Willow Lane", "Sunset Drive", "River Road",
,→ "Lakeview Drive",
"Main Street", "Park Avenue", "Broadway", "Elm Avenue", "Highland
,→ Drive",
"Chestnut Street", "Hickory Lane", "Spruce Street", "Cedar Street",
,→ "Laurel Lane"]

city, (state, zip_range) = random.choice(list(cities_info.items()))

20
 address1 = f"{random.randint(100, 999)} {random.choice(streets)}"
address2 = f"Suite {random.randint(100, 999)}"
zip_code = str(random.randint(zip_range[0], zip_range[1]))
return {
"address1": address1,
"address2": address2,
"city": city,
"country": "USA",
"province": state,
"zip": zip_code
}

def poisson_sample(lam, max_val):

sample = 0
# Use rejection sampling to ensure sample is capped at max_val
while sample == 0 or sample >= max_val:
sample = np.random.poisson(lam)
return sample

def generate_payment_method_id(source): # like

,→ "card_2423"/"paypal_2423"/"gift_card_0912"
random_id = f"{source}_{random.randint(1000000, 9999999)}"
existing_ids = [method["id"] for user in user_profiles.values() for method in
,→ user["payment_methods"].values()]
if random_id not in existing_ids:
return random_id
else:
return generate_payment_method_id(source)

# Generate payment methods

def payment_method():
payment_types = ["credit_card", "paypal", "gift_card"]
count_methods = poisson_sample(1, 5)
payment_methods = []
existing_methods = set()
for _ in range(count_methods):
payment_source = random.choice(payment_types)
if payment_source == "credit_card":
brand = random.choice(["visa", "mastercard"])
if ("credit_card", brand) in existing_methods:
continue
payment_methods.append({
"source": "credit_card",
"brand": brand,
"last_four": f"{random.randint(1000, 9999)}",
"id": generate_payment_method_id("credit_card")
})
existing_methods.add(("credit_card", brand))
elif payment_source == "paypal":
if ("paypal",) in existing_methods:
continue
payment_methods.append({
"source": "paypal",
"id": generate_payment_method_id("paypal")
})
existing_methods.add(("paypal",))
else:
if ("gift_card",) in existing_methods:
continue
payment_methods.append({
"source": "gift_card",
"balance": random.randint(0, 100),
"id": generate_payment_method_id("gift_card")
})
existing_methods.add(("gift_card",))

21
 return payment_methods

# Generate user profiles with adjusted zip codes

user_profiles = {}
for i in range(500):
first_name = random.choice(first_names)
last_name = random.choice(last_names)
email_suffix, user_id_suffix = random.sample(range(1000, 10000), 2)
email = f"{first_name.lower()}.{last_name.lower()}{email_suffix}@example.com"
user_id = f"{first_name.lower()}_{last_name.lower()}_{user_id_suffix}"
# addresses = [generate_address() for _ in range(poisson_sample(1, 3))]
payment_methods = payment_method()

user_profiles[user_id] = {
"name": {
"first_name": first_name,
"last_name": last_name
},
"address": generate_address(),
"email": email,
"payment_methods": {method['id']: method for method in payment_methods},
}

22
C Retail Examples
C.1 Data examples

Here are some examples from users/products/orders.json respectively. All data is generated
by code, and the code is mostly generated by gpt-4, and the gpt-4 prompt is generated by authors.

{
"name": { "first_name": "James", "last_name": "Li" },
"address": {
"address1": "215 River Road",
"address2": "Suite 991",
"city": "New York",
"country": "USA",
"province": "NY",
"zip": "10083"
},
"email": "[email protected]",
"payment_methods": {
"gift_card_1725971": { "source": "gift_card", "balance": 17, "id": "gift_card_1725971" }
},
"orders": ["#W2611340", "#W3632959", "#W4435622", "#W3638028"]
}

Listing 1: An example entry from users database in τ -retail.

{
"name": "Office Chair",
"product_id": "4794339885",
"variants": {
"1793929609": {
"item_id": "1793929609",
"options": {
"material": "fabric",
"color": "black",
"armrest": "none",
"backrest height": "high-back"
},
"available": true,
"price": 514.34
},
"4274709903": {
"item_id": "4274709903",
"options": {
"material": "mesh",
"color": "red",
"armrest": "none",
"backrest height": "standard"
},
"available": true,
"price": 544.29
}, ...
}
}

Listing 2: An example entry from products database in τ -retail (more variants omitted).

23
{
"order_id": "#W2611340",
"user_id": "james_li_5688",
"address": {
"address1": "215 River Road",
"address2": "Suite 991",
"city": "New York",
"country": "USA",
"state": "NY",
"zip": "10083"
},
"items": [
{
"name": "Water Bottle",
"product_id": "8310926033",
"item_id": "6469567736",
"price": 47.84,
"options": {
"capacity": "1000ml",
"material": "glass",
"color": "blue"
}
},
{
"name": "Office Chair",
"product_id": "4794339885",
"item_id": "8426249116",
"price": 488.81,
"options": {
"material": "fabric",
"color": "black",
"armrest": "fixed",
"backrest height": "standard"
}
}
],
"fulfillments": [
{
"tracking_id": ["357962501027"],
"item_ids": ["6469567736", "8426249116"]
}
],
"status": "processed",
"payment_history": [
{
"transaction_type": "payment",
"amount": 536.65,
"payment_method_id": "gift_card_1725971"
}
]
}

Listing 3: An example entry from orders database in τ -retail.

24
C.2 Task and trajectory examples

Here, tasks are not cherry-picked, and the trajectories are based on gpt-4o function calling agent.
Note that the task annotation (in JSON) is hidden to the agent.

C.2.1 Task 0: wrong decision

Here, the agent omits the policy that only one exchange per order is possible, and issues one item
exchange first without informing the user about this policy or recalling such a policy itself.
{
"instruction": "You are Yusuf Rossi in 19122. You received your order #W2378156
and wish to exchange the mechanical keyboard for a similar one but with clicky
switches and the smart thermostat for one compatible with Google Home instead of
Apple HomeKit. If there is no keyboard that is clicky, RGB backlight, full size,
you'd go for no backlight. You are detail-oriented and want to make sure
everything is addressed in one go.",
"actions": [
{
"name": "exchange_delivered_order_items",
"arguments": {
"order_id": "#W2378156",
"item_ids": [
"1151293680",
"4983901480"
],
"new_item_ids": [
"7706410293",
"7747408585"
],
"payment_method_id": "credit_card_9513926"
}
}
]
}
user: Hello there! I've just received my order with the number W2378156, and I'd
like to inquire about making a couple of exchanges.

assistant: Sure, I can help you with that. First, I need to authenticate your
identity. Could you please provide your email address?

user: Apologies, but I am not comfortable sharing my email in chat. However, I can
confirm the name on the order is Yusuf Rossi and shipping zip code as 19122. Would
that be sufficient?

assistant:
Function(arguments='{"first_name":"Yusuf","last_name":"Rossi","zip":"19122"}',
name='find_user_id_by_name_zip')

tool: yusuf_rossi_9620

assistant: Thank you, Yusuf. I have successfully authenticated your identity.

Now, let's proceed with the exchange. Could you please provide the details of the
items you want to exchange and the new items you want in return?

user: Absolutely. Starting with the mechanical keyboard from this order, I'd like
to exchange it for a similar one but with clicky switches. It's also important
that it has RGB backlighting and that it's a full-size model.

25
assistant: Function(arguments='{"order_id":"#W2378156"}', name='get_order_details')

tool: {"order_id": "#W2378156", "user_id": "yusuf_rossi_9620", "address":

{"address1": "763 Broadway", "address2": "Suite 135", "city": "Philadelphia",
"country": "USA", "state": "PA", "zip": "19122"}, "items": [{"name": "Headphones",
"product_id": "6992792935", "item_id": "4202497723", "price": 342.81, "options":
{"type": "over-ear", "connectivity": "wireless", "color": "blue"}}, {"name":
"Vacuum Cleaner", "product_id": "1762337868", "item_id": "4602305039", "price":
561.05, "options": {"type": "robotic", "bagged/bagless": "bagged", "features":
"cordless"}}, {"name": "Mechanical Keyboard", "product_id": "1656367028",
"item_id": "1151293680", "price": 272.33, "options": {"switch type": "linear",
"backlight": "RGB", "size": "full size"}}, {"name": "Smart Thermostat",
"product_id": "4896585277", "item_id": "4983901480", "price": 262.47, "options":
{"compatibility": "Apple HomeKit", "color": "black"}}, {"name": "Smart Watch",
"product_id": "6945232052", "item_id": "9408160950", "price": 381.26, "options":
{"color": "gold", "band material": "leather", "display": "LCD"}}], "fulfillments":
[{"tracking_id": ["843053632392"], "item_ids": ["4202497723", "4602305039",
"1151293680", "4983901480", "9408160950"]}], "status": "delivered",
"payment_history": [{"transaction_type": "payment", "amount": 1819.92,
"payment_method_id": "credit_card_9513926"}]}

assistant: Function(arguments='{"product_id":"1656367028"}',
name='get_product_details')

26
tool: {"name": "Mechanical Keyboard", "product_id": "1656367028", "variants":
{"9690244451": {"item_id": "9690244451", "options": {"switch type": "clicky",
"backlight": "RGB", "size": "60%"}, "available": false, "price": 236.51},
"7706410293": {"item_id": "7706410293", "options": {"switch type": "clicky",
"backlight": "none", "size": "full size"}, "available": true, "price": 269.16},
"3616838507": {"item_id": "3616838507", "options": {"switch type": "tactile",
"backlight": "white", "size": "full size"}, "available": true, "price": 226.11},
"8484921793": {"item_id": "8484921793", "options": {"switch type": "linear",
"backlight": "RGB", "size": "80%"}, "available": true, "price": 230.15},
"1340995114": {"item_id": "1340995114", "options": {"switch type": "tactile",
"backlight": "none", "size": "full size"}, "available": false, "price": 235.13},
"6342039236": {"item_id": "6342039236", "options": {"switch type": "clicky",
"backlight": "white", "size": "full size"}, "available": true, "price": 244.91},
"1421289881": {"item_id": "1421289881", "options": {"switch type": "linear",
"backlight": "none", "size": "80%"}, "available": true, "price": 268.77},
"7867398203": {"item_id": "7867398203", "options": {"switch type": "linear",
"backlight": "RGB", "size": "60%"}, "available": true, "price": 232.7},
"4648814700": {"item_id": "4648814700", "options": {"switch type": "linear",
"backlight": "white", "size": "60%"}, "available": false, "price": 228.84},
"5222576926": {"item_id": "5222576926", "options": {"switch type": "linear",
"backlight": "white", "size": "full size"}, "available": false, "price": 249.95},
"4402162122": {"item_id": "4402162122", "options": {"switch type": "tactile",
"backlight": "RGB", "size": "60%"}, "available": true, "price": 233.9},
"1151293680": {"item_id": "1151293680", "options": {"switch type": "linear",
"backlight": "RGB", "size": "full size"}, "available": true, "price": 272.33},
"2299424241": {"item_id": "2299424241", "options": {"switch type": "clicky",
"backlight": "RGB", "size": "80%"}, "available": true, "price": 237.48},
"4843487907": {"item_id": "4843487907", "options": {"switch type": "clicky",
"backlight": "white", "size": "80%"}, "available": false, "price": 254.84},
"9025753381": {"item_id": "9025753381", "options": {"switch type": "clicky",
"backlight": "RGB", "size": "full size"}, "available": false, "price": 231.58},
"6439196450": {"item_id": "6439196450", "options": {"switch type": "tactile",
"backlight": "none", "size": "60%"}, "available": false, "price": 254.56},
"9991484137": {"item_id": "9991484137", "options": {"switch type": "tactile",
"backlight": "white", "size": "80%"}, "available": true, "price": 240.97},
"9665000388": {"item_id": "9665000388", "options": {"switch type": "clicky",
"backlight": "none", "size": "80%"}, "available": true, "price": 269.46},
"9570044148": {"item_id": "9570044148", "options": {"switch type": "linear",
"backlight": "none", "size": "full size"}, "available": true, "price": 231.37},
"7658724607": {"item_id": "7658724607", "options": {"switch type": "tactile",
"backlight": "none", "size": "80%"}, "available": true, "price": 256.73}}}

assistant: Here are the available options for mechanical keyboards with clicky
switches and RGB backlighting in a full-size model:

1. **Item ID: 7706410293**

- Switch Type: Clicky
- Backlight: None
- Size: Full Size
- Price: $269.16

2. **Item ID: 6342039236**

- Switch Type: Clicky
- Backlight: White
- Size: Full Size
- Price: $244.91

Unfortunately, there are no full-size models with clicky switches and RGB
backlighting currently available. Would you like to proceed with one of the
available options, or would you prefer to wait until the desired model is back in
stock?

27
user: Understandable. Hmm, in that case, I think I'll prioritize the clicky
switches and go with the full-size model with no backlight, that is, the Item ID:
7706410293.

assistant: Great choice! Here are the details for the exchange:

- **Current Item:** Mechanical Keyboard (Item ID: 1151293680)

- Switch Type: Linear
- Backlight: RGB
- Size: Full Size
- Price: $272.33

- **New Item:** Mechanical Keyboard (Item ID: 7706410293)

- Switch Type: Clicky
- Backlight: None
- Size: Full Size
- Price: $269.16

The price difference will be refunded to your original payment method, which is a
credit card.

Please confirm if you would like to proceed with this exchange.

user: Yes, I can confirm that this exchange is satisfactory. The clicky switches
are far more significant to me than the backlight. Let's proceed with this
exchange.

assistant: Function(arguments='{"order_id":"#W2378156","item_ids":["1151293680"],"ne ⌋
w_item_ids":["7706410293"],"payment_method_id":"credit_card_9513926"}',
name='exchange_delivered_order_items')

tool: {"order_id": "#W2378156", "user_id": "yusuf_rossi_9620", "address":

{"address1": "763 Broadway", "address2": "Suite 135", "city": "Philadelphia",
"country": "USA", "state": "PA", "zip": "19122"}, "items": [{"name": "Headphones",
"product_id": "6992792935", "item_id": "4202497723", "price": 342.81, "options":
{"type": "over-ear", "connectivity": "wireless", "color": "blue"}}, {"name":
"Vacuum Cleaner", "product_id": "1762337868", "item_id": "4602305039", "price":
561.05, "options": {"type": "robotic", "bagged/bagless": "bagged", "features":
"cordless"}}, {"name": "Mechanical Keyboard", "product_id": "1656367028",
"item_id": "1151293680", "price": 272.33, "options": {"switch type": "linear",
"backlight": "RGB", "size": "full size"}}, {"name": "Smart Thermostat",
"product_id": "4896585277", "item_id": "4983901480", "price": 262.47, "options":
{"compatibility": "Apple HomeKit", "color": "black"}}, {"name": "Smart Watch",
"product_id": "6945232052", "item_id": "9408160950", "price": 381.26, "options":
{"color": "gold", "band material": "leather", "display": "LCD"}}], "fulfillments":
[{"tracking_id": ["843053632392"], "item_ids": ["4202497723", "4602305039",
"1151293680", "4983901480", "9408160950"]}], "status": "exchange requested",
"payment_history": [{"transaction_type": "payment", "amount": 1819.92,
"payment_method_id": "credit_card_9513926"}], "exchange_items": ["1151293680"],
"exchange_new_items": ["7706410293"], "exchange_payment_method_id":
"credit_card_9513926", "exchange_price_difference": -3.17}

assistant: The exchange request has been successfully processed. Here are the details:

- **Current Item:** Mechanical Keyboard (Item ID: 1151293680)

- Switch Type: Linear
- Backlight: RGB
- Size: Full Size
- Price: $272.33

28
- **New Item:** Mechanical Keyboard (Item ID: 7706410293)
- Switch Type: Clicky
- Backlight: None
- Size: Full Size
- Price: $269.16

- **Price Difference:** $3.17 (will be refunded to your credit card)

You will receive an email with instructions on how to return the current item.
Once the return is processed, the new item will be shipped to you.

Is there anything else I can assist you with today?

user: Yes, there's another item I'd like to discuss for exchange. Specifically, the
smart thermostat from my order; it's currently compatible with Apple HomeKit, but
I'd like to exchange it for one that's compatible with Google Home.

assistant: Function(arguments='{"product_id":"4896585277"}',
name='get_product_details')

tool: {"name": "Smart Thermostat", "product_id": "4896585277", "variants":

{"8722653925": {"item_id": "8722653925", "options": {"compatibility": "Google
Assistant", "color": "white"}, "available": false, "price": 227.8}, "8593894906":
{"item_id": "8593894906", "options": {"compatibility": "Amazon Alexa", "color":
"white"}, "available": false, "price": 263.11}, "2791467853": {"item_id":
"2791467853", "options": {"compatibility": "Google Assistant", "color": "stainless
steel"}, "available": false, "price": 242.53}, "7747408585": {"item_id":
"7747408585", "options": {"compatibility": "Google Assistant", "color": "black"},
"available": true, "price": 249.01}, "4953074738": {"item_id": "4953074738",
"options": {"compatibility": "Amazon Alexa", "color": "black"}, "available": true,
"price": 226.02}, "4983901480": {"item_id": "4983901480", "options":
{"compatibility": "Apple HomeKit", "color": "black"}, "available": true, "price":
262.47}, "9480266227": {"item_id": "9480266227", "options": {"compatibility":
"Apple HomeKit", "color": "stainless steel"}, "available": true, "price": 255.98},
"6243148452": {"item_id": "6243148452", "options": {"compatibility": "Amazon
Alexa", "color": "stainless steel"}, "available": true, "price": 247.0},
"3377900078": {"item_id": "3377900078", "options": {"compatibility": "Apple
HomeKit", "color": "white"}, "available": true, "price": 260.68}}}

assistant: Here are the available options for smart thermostats that are compatible
with Google Assistant:

1. **Item ID: 7747408585**

- Compatibility: Google Assistant
- Color: Black
- Price: $249.01

Unfortunately, this is the only available option that matches your requirement.
Would you like to proceed with this exchange?

user: That item fits the particular requirement I had in mind. Yes, let's proceed
with the exchange for the thermostat.

assistant: Here are the details for the exchange:

- **Current Item:** Smart Thermostat (Item ID: 4983901480)

- Compatibility: Apple HomeKit
- Color: Black
- Price: $262.47

29
- **New Item:** Smart Thermostat (Item ID: 7747408585)
- Compatibility: Google Assistant
- Color: Black
- Price: $249.01

The price difference will be refunded to your original payment method, which is a
credit card.

Please confirm if you would like to proceed with this exchange.

user: Yes, I confirm that I would like to exchange the thermostat as well. The
compatibility with Google Assistant is really crucial for me, so it seems like the
right choice.

assistant: Function(arguments='{"order_id":"#W2378156","item_ids":["4983901480"],"ne ⌋
w_item_ids":["7747408585"],"payment_method_id":"credit_card_9513926"}',
name='exchange_delivered_order_items')

tool: Error: non-delivered order cannot be exchanged

assistant: Function(arguments='{"summary":"User Yusuf Rossi wants to exchange a

smart thermostat (Item ID: 4983901480) for a Google Assistant compatible model
(Item ID: 7747408585). The system returned an error stating the order is not
marked as delivered, but the order status is indeed \'delivered\'. Please assist
with the exchange."}', name='transfer_to_human_agents')

tool: Transfer successful

30
C.2.2 Task 7: wrong argument

Here, the agent fails as it is not able to reason over complex product inventories to find the desired
exchange item option.

{
"instruction": "You are mei_kovacs_8020 (28236) and you want to exchange the
water bottle and the desk lamp. You want to exchange the water bottle to a
bigger one, and the desk lamp to a less bright one (prefer AC adapter > battery
> USB). If the agent asks for confirmation, only exchange the desk lamp.",
"actions": [
{
"name": "exchange_delivered_order_items",
"arguments": {
"order_id": "#W6390527",
"item_ids": ["8384507844"],
"new_item_ids": ["1569765161"],
"payment_method_id": "paypal_7644869"
}
}
]
}

user: Hello! I bought a water bottle and a desk lamp from your store and I'd like
to exchange them both. Could you assist me with it?

assistant: Sure, I can help you with that. First, I need to authenticate your
identity. Could you please provide your email address?

user: Sure, it's [email protected].

assistant: Function(arguments='{"email":"[email protected]"}',
name='find_user_id_by_email')

tool: Error: user not found

assistant: It seems I couldn't find a user with that email address. Could you please
provide your first name, last name, and zip code instead?

user: Oh, my apologies for the confusion. My name is Mei Kovacs and my zip code is
28236.

assistant:
Function(arguments='{"first_name":"Mei","last_name":"Kovacs","zip":"28236"}',
name='find_user_id_by_name_zip')

tool: mei_kovacs_8020

assistant: Function(arguments='{"user_id":"mei_kovacs_8020"}',
name='get_user_details')

31
tool: {"name": {"first_name": "Mei", "last_name": "Kovacs"}, "address":
{"address1": "317 Elm Street", "address2": "Suite 461", "city": "Charlotte",
"country": "USA", "province": "NC", "zip": "28236"}, "email":
"[email protected]", "payment_methods": {"paypal_7644869": {"source":
"paypal", "id": "paypal_7644869"}}, "orders": ["#W6390527", "#W7800651",
"#W8065207"]}

assistant: Thank you, Mei. I have successfully authenticated your identity. Now, I
need to check the details of the orders containing the water bottle and desk lamp.
Could you please provide the order ID for these items?

user: I'm afraid I don't remember the order ID as of now. I am unable to provide
you with it, I'm sorry.

assistant: Function(arguments='{"order_id": "#W6390527"}', name='get_order_details')

tool: {"order_id": "#W6390527", "user_id": "mei_kovacs_8020", "address":

{"address1": "317 Elm Street", "address2": "Suite 461", "city": "Charlotte",
"country": "USA", "state": "NC", "zip": "28236"}, "items": [{"name": "Desk Lamp",
"product_id": "6817146515", "item_id": "8384507844", "price": 137.94, "options":
{"color": "white", "brightness": "medium", "power source": "USB"}}, {"name":
"Hiking Boots", "product_id": "7363354090", "item_id": "1615379700", "price":
253.89, "options": {"size": "10", "material": "synthetic", "waterproof": "yes"}},
{"name": "Water Bottle", "product_id": "8310926033", "item_id": "8538875209",
"price": 45.13, "options": {"capacity": "500ml", "material": "glass", "color":
"black"}}], "fulfillments": [{"tracking_id": ["745984883162"], "item_ids":
["8384507844", "1615379700", "8538875209"]}], "status": "delivered",
"payment_history": [{"transaction_type": "payment", "amount": 436.96,
"payment_method_id": "paypal_7644869"}]}

assistant: I have found the order containing both the water bottle and the desk
lamp. Here are the details:

- **Order ID:** #W6390527

- **Status:** Delivered
- **Items:**
- Desk Lamp (Item ID: 8384507844)
- Water Bottle (Item ID: 8538875209)

To proceed with the exchange, I need the details of the new items you would like
to exchange these for. Please provide the item IDs of the new items.

user: I don't have the exact item IDs right now. However, could I tell you what I
am looking for exactly instead?

assistant: Sure, you can describe the new items you want to exchange for, and I can
look up the item IDs for you. Please provide the details of the new desk lamp and
water bottle you are looking for.

user: Great! I would like to exchange my current water bottle for a larger one, and
the desk lamp for one that is less bright. For the lamp, I would prefer one with
an AC adapter over a battery-powered one, and definitely over a USB one, if
possible.

assistant: Function(arguments='{"product_id": "8310926033"}',

name='get_product_details')

32
tool: {"name": "Water Bottle", "product_id": "8310926033", "variants":
{"1434748144": {"item_id": "1434748144", "options": {"capacity": "1000ml",
"material": "glass", "color": "red"}, "available": false, "price": 49.72},
"4579334072": {"item_id": "4579334072", "options": {"capacity": "750ml",
"material": "glass", "color": "black"}, "available": true, "price": 54.85},
"6469567736": {"item_id": "6469567736", "options": {"capacity": "1000ml",
"material": "glass", "color": "blue"}, "available": false, "price": 47.84},
"3453331371": {"item_id": "3453331371", "options": {"capacity": "500ml",
"material": "stainless steel", "color": "black"}, "available": true, "price":
52.79}, "2439754078": {"item_id": "2439754078", "options": {"capacity": "1000ml",
"material": "stainless steel", "color": "red"}, "available": true, "price":
49.51}, "7843064651": {"item_id": "7843064651", "options": {"capacity": "750ml",
"material": "stainless steel", "color": "blue"}, "available": true, "price":
50.14}, "7918497119": {"item_id": "7918497119", "options": {"capacity": "500ml",
"material": "glass", "color": "blue"}, "available": false, "price": 54.51},
"5758737025": {"item_id": "5758737025", "options": {"capacity": "500ml",
"material": "glass", "color": "green"}, "available": true, "price": 45.09},
"7533802601": {"item_id": "7533802601", "options": {"capacity": "500ml",
"material": "stainless steel", "color": "green"}, "available": true, "price":
48.59}, "3229676465": {"item_id": "3229676465", "options": {"capacity": "500ml",
"material": "plastic", "color": "black"}, "available": true, "price": 51.94},
"2366567022": {"item_id": "2366567022", "options": {"capacity": "1000ml",
"material": "stainless steel", "color": "blue"}, "available": false, "price":
54.04}, "6974536207": {"item_id": "6974536207", "options": {"capacity": "750ml",
"material": "plastic", "color": "blue"}, "available": true, "price": 49.3},
"6777246137": {"item_id": "6777246137", "options": {"capacity": "750ml",
"material": "stainless steel", "color": "red"}, "available": true, "price":
47.76}, "8538875209": {"item_id": "8538875209", "options": {"capacity": "500ml",
"material": "glass", "color": "black"}, "available": true, "price": 45.13},
"9127591879": {"item_id": "9127591879", "options": {"capacity": "750ml",
"material": "stainless steel", "color": "black"}, "available": false, "price":
48.47}, "7661609223": {"item_id": "7661609223", "options": {"capacity": "1000ml",
"material": "stainless steel", "color": "black"}, "available": true, "price":
46.51}, "4947921075": {"item_id": "4947921075", "options": {"capacity": "750ml",
"material": "stainless steel", "color": "green"}, "available": false, "price":
49.57}, "7199146548": {"item_id": "7199146548", "options": {"capacity": "750ml",
"material": "plastic", "color": "black"}, "available": true, "price": 48.02}}}

assistant: Function(arguments='{"product_id":"6817146515"}',
name='get_product_details')

33
tool: {"name": "Desk Lamp", "product_id": "6817146515", "variants": {"9083642334":
{"item_id": "9083642334", "options": {"color": "white", "brightness": "high",
"power source": "USB"}, "available": true, "price": 164.28}, "4385534692":
{"item_id": "4385534692", "options": {"color": "white", "brightness": "high",
"power source": "AC adapter"}, "available": false, "price": 138.07}, "7624783998":
{"item_id": "7624783998", "options": {"color": "black", "brightness": "high",
"power source": "AC adapter"}, "available": true, "price": 154.17}, "1270145486":
{"item_id": "1270145486", "options": {"color": "white", "brightness": "high",
"power source": "battery"}, "available": false, "price": 144.07}, "5320792178":
{"item_id": "5320792178", "options": {"color": "black", "brightness": "medium",
"power source": "AC adapter"}, "available": true, "price": 135.24}, "5370728469":
{"item_id": "5370728469", "options": {"color": "silver", "brightness": "medium",
"power source": "USB"}, "available": true, "price": 164.97}, "6805564527":
{"item_id": "6805564527", "options": {"color": "black", "brightness": "medium",
"power source": "USB"}, "available": true, "price": 158.41}, "1569765161":
{"item_id": "1569765161", "options": {"color": "silver", "brightness": "low",
"power source": "AC adapter"}, "available": true, "price": 143.02}, "7453605304":
{"item_id": "7453605304", "options": {"color": "silver", "brightness": "low",
"power source": "battery"}, "available": true, "price": 150.01}, "9190635437":
{"item_id": "9190635437", "options": {"color": "black", "brightness": "low",
"power source": "USB"}, "available": true, "price": 153.23}, "4447749792":
{"item_id": "4447749792", "options": {"color": "white", "brightness": "medium",
"power source": "AC adapter"}, "available": false, "price": 139.8}, "8384507844":
{"item_id": "8384507844", "options": {"color": "white", "brightness": "medium",
"power source": "USB"}, "available": false, "price": 137.94}}}

assistant: Here are the available options for the water bottle and desk lamp that
match your preferences:

### Water Bottle Options:

1. **Item ID:** 7661609223
- Capacity: 1000ml
- Material: Stainless Steel
- Color: Black
- Price: $46.51

2. **Item ID:** 2439754078

- Capacity: 1000ml
- Material: Stainless Steel
- Color: Red
- Price: $49.51

### Desk Lamp Options:

1. **Item ID:** 5320792178
- Color: Black
- Brightness: Medium
- Power Source: AC Adapter
- Price: $135.24

2. **Item ID:** 1569765161

- Color: Silver
- Brightness: Low
- Power Source: AC Adapter
- Price: $143.02

Please confirm which items you would like to exchange for, and provide the payment
method you would like to use for any price difference.

user: I would like to exchange the desk lamp for the one with item ID 5320792178.
As for the water bottle, I need some time to think about it. You can proceed with
the desk lamp exchange for now.

34
assistant: Please note that for a delivered order, return or exchange can only be
done once by the agent. If you proceed with the desk lamp exchange now, you won't
be able to exchange the water bottle later through me.

Would you like to proceed with the desk lamp exchange now, or would you prefer to
decide on both items before proceeding?

user: Alright, let's just proceed with the exchange for the desk lamp only. I
understand the limitations, thank you for explaining it to me.

assistant: To proceed with the exchange, here are the details:

- **Current Desk Lamp:**

- Item ID: 8384507844
- Color: White
- Brightness: Medium
- Power Source: USB
- Price: $137.94

- **New Desk Lamp:**

- Item ID: 5320792178
- Color: Black
- Brightness: Medium
- Power Source: AC Adapter
- Price: $135.24

The price difference will be refunded to your PayPal account.

Please confirm if you would like to proceed with this exchange (yes/no).

user: Yes, I would like to proceed with this exchange. Thank you.

assistant: Function(arguments='{"order_id":"#W6390527","item_ids":["8384507844"],"ne ⌋
w_item_ids":["5320792178"],"payment_method_id":"paypal_7644869"}',
name='exchange_delivered_order_items')

tool: {"order_id": "#W6390527", "user_id": "mei_kovacs_8020", "address":

{"address1": "317 Elm Street", "address2": "Suite 461", "city": "Charlotte",
"country": "USA", "state": "NC", "zip": "28236"}, "items": [{"name": "Desk Lamp",
"product_id": "6817146515", "item_id": "8384507844", "price": 137.94, "options":
{"color": "white", "brightness": "medium", "power source": "USB"}}, {"name":
"Hiking Boots", "product_id": "7363354090", "item_id": "1615379700", "price":
253.89, "options": {"size": "10", "material": "synthetic", "waterproof": "yes"}},
{"name": "Water Bottle", "product_id": "8310926033", "item_id": "8538875209",
"price": 45.13, "options": {"capacity": "500ml", "material": "glass", "color":
"black"}}], "fulfillments": [{"tracking_id": ["745984883162"], "item_ids":
["8384507844", "1615379700", "8538875209"]}], "status": "exchange requested",
"payment_history": [{"transaction_type": "payment", "amount": 436.96,
"payment_method_id": "paypal_7644869"}], "exchange_items": ["8384507844"],
"exchange_new_items": ["5320792178"], "exchange_payment_method_id":
"paypal_7644869", "exchange_price_difference": -2.7}

assistant: The exchange request for your desk lamp has been successfully processed.
You will receive an email with instructions on how to return the current desk
lamp. The price difference of $2.70 will be refunded to your PayPal account.

If you need any further assistance, feel free to ask. Have a great day!

user: ###STOP###

35
C.2.3 Task 42: partially solve compound requests

Here, the task requires the agent to check all orders to fix wrong addresses. However, the agent only
fixes the jigsaw order address as the user suggests.

{
"instruction": "Your name is Mei Patel, and you live in 445 Maple Drive, Suite
394, Fort Worth, Texas, 76165. You just created your user id mei_patel_7272 and
ordered some things, but realized you might have typed your address wrong. You
want to check it, and potentially correct all order addresses and your user
address. After this, you'd like to check the jigsaw you ordered, and if it's not
shipped yet, you want to change it to the easiest jigsaw (easiest level, least
pieces) because your kid is too young. By default you use PayPal. You are brief
and your memory is not too good sometimes, but you are polite.",
"actions": [
{
"name": "modify_pending_order_address",
"arguments": {
"order_id": "#W9583042",
"address1": "445 Maple Drive",
"address2": "Suite 394",
"city": "Fort Worth",
"state": "TX",
"country": "USA",
"zip": "76165"
}
},
{
"name": "modify_pending_order_address",
"arguments": {
"order_id": "#W4082615",
"address1": "445 Maple Drive",
"address2": "Suite 394",
"city": "Fort Worth",
"state": "TX",
"country": "USA",
"zip": "76165"
}
},
{
"name": "modify_user_address",
"arguments": {
"user_id": "mei_patel_7272",
"address1": "445 Maple Drive",
"address2": "Suite 394",
"city": "Fort Worth",
"state": "TX",
"country": "USA",
"zip": "76165"
}
},
{
"name": "modify_pending_order_items",
"arguments": {
"order_id": "#W4082615",
"item_ids": ["9779102705"],
"new_item_ids": ["1096508426"],
"payment_method_id": "paypal_4768213"
}
}
],
}

36
user: I think I might have entered my address wrongly during my recent order. Could
you please check that for me?

assistant: Sure, I can help with that. First, I need to authenticate your identity.
Could you please provide your email address?

user: I'm afraid I don't quite remember which email I used to register. Can we
proceed with my user id instead? It's mei_patel_7272.

assistant: I still need to authenticate your identity. Could you please provide your
first name, last name, and zip code? This will help me locate your user id.

user: Of course, my full name is Mei Patel and my zip code is 76165.

assistant:
Function(arguments='{"first_name":"Mei","last_name":"Patel","zip":"76165"}',
name='find_user_id_by_name_zip')

tool: mei_patel_7272

assistant: Thank you for the information. Your user id has been authenticated
successfully.

Could you please provide the order id for the order you want me to check the
address for?

user: I don't recall the exact order id, is there a way to find my recent orders
using my user id?

assistant: Function(arguments='{"user_id":"mei_patel_7272"}', name='get_user_details')

tool: {"name": {"first_name": "Mei", "last_name": "Patel"}, "address": {"address1":

"443 Maple Drive", "address2": "Suite 394", "city": "Fort Worth", "country":
"USA", "province": "TX", "zip": "76165"}, "email": "[email protected]",
"payment_methods": {"credit_card_9503061": {"source": "credit_card", "brand":
"visa", "last_four": "9904", "id": "credit_card_9503061"}, "paypal_4768213":
{"source": "paypal", "id": "paypal_4768213"}}, "orders": ["#W9583042",
"#W4082615"]}

assistant: I found your recent orders. Here are the details:

1. Order ID: #W9583042

2. Order ID: #W4082615

Please let me know which order you would like me to check the address for.

user: I can't remember exactly which one, but it's the jigsaw that I ordered
recently. Could we look into that one, please?

assistant: Function(arguments='{"order_id": "#W9583042"}', name='get_order_details')

37
tool: {"order_id": "#W9583042", "user_id": "mei_patel_7272", "address":
{"address1": "443 Maple Drive", "address2": "Suite 394", "city": "Fort Worth",
"country": "USA", "state": "TX", "zip": "76165"}, "items": [{"name": "Perfume",
"product_id": "6858788497", "item_id": "5421902839", "price": 328.25, "options":
{"scent family": "oriental", "size": "100ml", "gender": "men"}}, {"name":
"Dumbbell Set", "product_id": "7233192239", "item_id": "6245231688", "price":
522.03, "options": {"weight range": "30-50 lbs", "material": "iron", "set type":
"adjustable"}}, {"name": "Luggage Set", "product_id": "5426915165", "item_id":
"7160999700", "price": 499.29, "options": {"piece count": "2-piece", "color":
"red", "material": "softshell"}}, {"name": "Garden Hose", "product_id":
"6679515468", "item_id": "3230708338", "price": 99.51, "options": {"length":
"25ft", "material": "latex", "color": "green"}}], "fulfillments": [], "status":
"pending", "payment_history": [{"transaction_type": "payment", "amount": 1449.08,
"payment_method_id": "paypal_4768213"}]}

assistant: Function(arguments='{"order_id":"#W4082615"}', name='get_order_details')

tool: {"order_id": "#W4082615", "user_id": "mei_patel_7272", "address":

{"address1": "443 Maple Drive", "address2": "Suite 394", "city": "Fort Worth",
"country": "USA", "state": "TX", "zip": "76165"}, "items": [{"name": "Jigsaw
Puzzle", "product_id": "1808611083", "item_id": "9779102705", "price": 54.11,
"options": {"pieces": "1000", "theme": "art", "difficulty level":
"intermediate"}}, {"name": "Backpack", "product_id": "2524789262", "item_id":
"5917587651", "price": 212.79, "options": {"color": "grey", "size": "medium",
"material": "polyester", "compartment": "laptop"}}, {"name": "Grill",
"product_id": "6819683148", "item_id": "3876764226", "price": 981.47, "options":
{"type": "electric", "size": "portable", "features": "side burner"}}, {"name":
"Perfume", "product_id": "6858788497", "item_id": "8316205423", "price": 288.75,
"options": {"scent family": "woody", "size": "30ml", "gender": "women"}}, {"name":
"Smart Watch", "product_id": "6945232052", "item_id": "2540052208", "price":
346.42, "options": {"color": "gold", "band material": "silicone", "display":
"LCD"}}], "fulfillments": [], "status": "pending", "payment_history":
[{"transaction_type": "payment", "amount": 1883.54, "payment_method_id":
"paypal_4768213"}]}

assistant: The order with the jigsaw puzzle is Order ID: #W4082615. The current
shipping address for this order is:

- **Address Line 1:** 443 Maple Drive

- **Address Line 2:** Suite 394
- **City:** Fort Worth
- **State:** TX
- **Country:** USA
- **Zip Code:** 76165

Is this the address you intended to use? If not, please provide the correct
address, and I can update it for you.

user: That's not right, my correct address should be 445 Maple Drive, Suite 394,
Fort Worth, Texas, 76165. Could you please correct my user address and the order
address to this?

assistant: I can update both your default user address and the shipping address for
the pending order #W4082615 to the correct address:

- **Address Line 1:** 445 Maple Drive

- **Address Line 2:** Suite 394
- **City:** Fort Worth
- **State:** TX
- **Country:** USA

38
- **Zip Code:** 76165

Please confirm if this is correct, and I will proceed with the updates.

user: Yes, that's correct. Please go ahead and update them.

assistant: Function(arguments='{"user_id": "mei_patel_7272", "address1": "445 Maple

Drive", "address2": "Suite 394", "city": "Fort Worth", "state": "TX", "country":
"USA", "zip": "76165"}', name='modify_user_address')

tool: {"name": {"first_name": "Mei", "last_name": "Patel"}, "address": {"address1":

"445 Maple Drive", "address2": "Suite 394", "city": "Fort Worth", "state": "TX",
"country": "USA", "zip": "76165"}, "email": "[email protected]",
"payment_methods": {"credit_card_9503061": {"source": "credit_card", "brand":
"visa", "last_four": "9904", "id": "credit_card_9503061"}, "paypal_4768213":
{"source": "paypal", "id": "paypal_4768213"}}, "orders": ["#W9583042",
"#W4082615"]}

assistant: Function(arguments='{"order_id":"#W4082615","address1":"445 Maple

Drive","address2":"Suite 394","city":"Fort
Worth","state":"TX","country":"USA","zip":"76165"}',
name='modify_pending_order_address')

tool: {"order_id": "#W4082615", "user_id": "mei_patel_7272", "address":

{"address1": "445 Maple Drive", "address2": "Suite 394", "city": "Fort Worth",
"state": "TX", "country": "USA", "zip": "76165"}, "items": [{"name": "Jigsaw
Puzzle", "product_id": "1808611083", "item_id": "9779102705", "price": 54.11,
"options": {"pieces": "1000", "theme": "art", "difficulty level":
"intermediate"}}, {"name": "Backpack", "product_id": "2524789262", "item_id":
"5917587651", "price": 212.79, "options": {"color": "grey", "size": "medium",
"material": "polyester", "compartment": "laptop"}}, {"name": "Grill",
"product_id": "6819683148", "item_id": "3876764226", "price": 981.47, "options":
{"type": "electric", "size": "portable", "features": "side burner"}}, {"name":
"Perfume", "product_id": "6858788497", "item_id": "8316205423", "price": 288.75,
"options": {"scent family": "woody", "size": "30ml", "gender": "women"}}, {"name":
"Smart Watch", "product_id": "6945232052", "item_id": "2540052208", "price":
346.42, "options": {"color": "gold", "band material": "silicone", "display":
"LCD"}}], "fulfillments": [], "status": "pending", "payment_history":
[{"transaction_type": "payment", "amount": 1883.54, "payment_method_id":
"paypal_4768213"}]}

assistant: Both your default user address and the shipping address for the pending
order #W4082615 have been successfully updated to:

- **Address Line 1:** 445 Maple Drive

- **Address Line 2:** Suite 394
- **City:** Fort Worth
- **State:** TX
- **Country:** USA
- **Zip Code:** 76165

Is there anything else I can assist you with?

user: Yes, there's actually one more thing. Could you check the jigsaw that I
ordered, and let me know whether it has been shipped yet?

39
assistant: The order status for #W4082615 is currently "pending," which means it has
not been processed or shipped yet.

Is there anything else you would like to know or need assistance with?

user: Yes, I'm considering changing the jigsaw I ordered. Could you tell me what is
the easiest jigsaw available, like one with the least pieces fit for a young kid?

assistant: Function(arguments='{}', name='list_all_product_types')

tool: {"Action Camera": "3377618313", "Air Purifier": "3821016478", "Backpack":

"2524789262", "Bicycle": "9783735446", "Bluetooth Speaker": "4768869376",
"Bookshelf": "8600330539", "Coffee Maker": "7996920482", "Cycling Helmet":
"7765186836", "Desk Lamp": "6817146515", "Digital Camera": "8940227892", "Dumbbell
Set": "7233192239", "E-Reader": "3801771308", "Electric Kettle": "1075968781",
"Electric Toothbrush": "7352963235", "Espresso Machine": "4354588079", "Fleece
Jacket": "8560156827", "Gaming Mouse": "5713490933", "Garden Hose": "6679515468",
"Grill": "6819683148", "Headphones": "6992792935", "Hiking Boots": "7363354090",
"Indoor Security Camera": "2985987096", "Jigsaw Puzzle": "1808611083", "LED Light
Bulb": "2696197613", "Laptop": "4760268021", "Luggage Set": "5426915165", "Makeup
Kit": "5149340237", "Mechanical Keyboard": "1656367028", "Notebook": "2892623495",
"Office Chair": "4794339885", "Patio Umbrella": "9743693396", "Perfume":
"6858788497", "Pet Bed": "2747247837", "Portable Charger": "6942297802", "Running
Shoes": "6938111410", "Skateboard": "1968349452", "Smart Thermostat":
"4896585277", "Smart Watch": "6945232052", "Smartphone": "1801728040", "Sneakers":
"7471004230", "Sunglasses": "7314138884", "T-Shirt": "9523456873", "Tablet":
"8024098596", "Tea Kettle": "9832717871", "Vacuum Cleaner": "1762337868", "Wall
Clock": "2344688344", "Water Bottle": "8310926033", "Wireless Earbuds":
"9924732112", "Wristwatch": "6066914160", "Yoga Mat": "4635925001"}

assistant: Function(arguments='{"product_id":"1808611083"}',
name='get_product_details')

40
tool: {"name": "Jigsaw Puzzle", "product_id": "1808611083", "variants":
{"3614853563": {"item_id": "3614853563", "options": {"pieces": "2000", "theme":
"art", "difficulty level": "intermediate"}, "available": false, "price": 46.99},
"4772738468": {"item_id": "4772738468", "options": {"pieces": "1000", "theme":
"animals", "difficulty level": "beginner"}, "available": false, "price": 53.91},
"4068787148": {"item_id": "4068787148", "options": {"pieces": "500", "theme":
"art", "difficulty level": "intermediate"}, "available": true, "price": 52.01},
"3112842858": {"item_id": "3112842858", "options": {"pieces": "1000", "theme":
"fantasy", "difficulty level": "intermediate"}, "available": true, "price": 49.1},
"7869640094": {"item_id": "7869640094", "options": {"pieces": "2000", "theme":
"animals", "difficulty level": "expert"}, "available": false, "price": 47.59},
"1096508426": {"item_id": "1096508426", "options": {"pieces": "500", "theme":
"art", "difficulty level": "beginner"}, "available": true, "price": 46.13},
"9237024510": {"item_id": "9237024510", "options": {"pieces": "500", "theme":
"animals", "difficulty level": "expert"}, "available": true, "price": 53.53},
"5546244844": {"item_id": "5546244844", "options": {"pieces": "1500", "theme":
"art", "difficulty level": "intermediate"}, "available": true, "price": 51.59},
"1008948180": {"item_id": "1008948180", "options": {"pieces": "1000", "theme":
"art", "difficulty level": "beginner"}, "available": false, "price": 54.34},
"6245746168": {"item_id": "6245746168", "options": {"pieces": "1500", "theme":
"animals", "difficulty level": "intermediate"}, "available": true, "price": 46.0},
"7127170374": {"item_id": "7127170374", "options": {"pieces": "2000", "theme":
"fantasy", "difficulty level": "beginner"}, "available": false, "price": 52.03},
"9370300555": {"item_id": "9370300555", "options": {"pieces": "1000", "theme":
"art", "difficulty level": "expert"}, "available": false, "price": 45.9},
"9665100170": {"item_id": "9665100170", "options": {"pieces": "1500", "theme":
"animals", "difficulty level": "beginner"}, "available": true, "price": 45.39},
"4572024853": {"item_id": "4572024853", "options": {"pieces": "1000", "theme":
"animals", "difficulty level": "expert"}, "available": true, "price": 53.72},
"5645314103": {"item_id": "5645314103", "options": {"pieces": "2000", "theme":
"animals", "difficulty level": "intermediate"}, "available": true, "price":
46.19}, "9779102705": {"item_id": "9779102705", "options": {"pieces": "1000",
"theme": "art", "difficulty level": "intermediate"}, "available": false, "price":
54.11}, "9030221155": {"item_id": "9030221155", "options": {"pieces": "2000",
"theme": "art", "difficulty level": "beginner"}, "available": false, "price":
51.98}, "5172162216": {"item_id": "5172162216", "options": {"pieces": "2000",
"theme": "landscape", "difficulty level": "intermediate"}, "available": false,
"price": 48.51}}}

assistant: The easiest jigsaw puzzle available, suitable for a young kid, is the one
with the least pieces. Here are the options with 500 pieces:

1. **Item ID: 1096508426**

- **Theme:** Art
- **Difficulty Level:** Beginner
- **Price:** $46.13

2. **Item ID: 9237024510**

- **Theme:** Animals
- **Difficulty Level:** Expert
- **Price:** $53.53

Would you like to exchange your current jigsaw puzzle for one of these? If so,
please confirm which one and provide a payment method to handle any price
difference.

user: Could we go with the Art themed one, Item ID: 1096508426? I generally use
PayPal for my purchases.

assistant: To proceed with the exchange, I will change the current jigsaw puzzle
(Item ID: 9779102705) to the new one (Item ID: 1096508426) and use your PayPal
account for any price difference.

41
Here are the details of the exchange:
- **Current Item:** Jigsaw Puzzle (1000 pieces, Art theme, Intermediate difficulty)
- **New Item:** Jigsaw Puzzle (500 pieces, Art theme, Beginner difficulty)
- **Payment Method:** PayPal (ID: paypal_4768213)

Please confirm if this is correct, and I will proceed with the exchange.

user: Yes, everything looks correct. Please go ahead and make the exchange.

assistant: Function(arguments='{"order_id":"#W4082615","item_ids":["9779102705"],"ne ⌋
w_item_ids":["1096508426"],"payment_method_id":"paypal_4768213"}',
name='modify_pending_order_items')

tool: {"order_id": "#W4082615", "user_id": "mei_patel_7272", "address":

{"address1": "445 Maple Drive", "address2": "Suite 394", "city": "Fort Worth",
"state": "TX", "country": "USA", "zip": "76165"}, "items": [{"name": "Jigsaw
Puzzle", "product_id": "1808611083", "item_id": "1096508426", "price": 46.13,
"options": {"pieces": "500", "theme": "art", "difficulty level": "beginner"}},
{"name": "Backpack", "product_id": "2524789262", "item_id": "5917587651", "price":
212.79, "options": {"color": "grey", "size": "medium", "material": "polyester",
"compartment": "laptop"}}, {"name": "Grill", "product_id": "6819683148",
"item_id": "3876764226", "price": 981.47, "options": {"type": "electric", "size":
"portable", "features": "side burner"}}, {"name": "Perfume", "product_id":
"6858788497", "item_id": "8316205423", "price": 288.75, "options": {"scent
family": "woody", "size": "30ml", "gender": "women"}}, {"name": "Smart Watch",
"product_id": "6945232052", "item_id": "2540052208", "price": 346.42, "options":
{"color": "gold", "band material": "silicone", "display": "LCD"}}],
"fulfillments": [], "status": "pending (item modified)", "payment_history":
[{"transaction_type": "payment", "amount": 1883.54, "payment_method_id":
"paypal_4768213"}, {"transaction_type": "refund", "amount": 7.979999999999997,
"payment_method_id": "paypal_4768213"}]}

assistant: The exchange has been successfully completed. Your order #W4082615 now
includes the new jigsaw puzzle:

- **New Item:** Jigsaw Puzzle (500 pieces, Art theme, Beginner difficulty)

The payment difference has been handled using your PayPal account, and a refund of
$7.98 has been processed.

Is there anything else I can assist you with?

user: No, that would be all. Thank you for your help.

assistant: You're welcome! If you have any more questions or need assistance in the
future, feel free to reach out. Have a great day!

user: ###STOP###

42
D Airline Examples
D.1 Data examples

Here are some examples from users.json and flights.json respectively. All data is generated
by code, and the code is mostly generated by gpt-4, and the gpt-4 prompt is generated by authors.

{
"name": { "first_name": "Mia", "last_name": "Li" },
"address": {
"address1": "975 Sunset Drive",
"address2": "Suite 217",
"city": "Austin",
"country": "USA",
"province": "TX",
"zip": "78750"
},
"email": "[email protected]",
"dob": "1990-04-05",
"payment_methods": {
"credit_card_4421486": {
"source": "credit_card",
"brand": "visa",
"last_four": "7447",
"id": "credit_card_4421486"
},
"certificate_4856383": {
"source": "certificate",
"amount": 100,
"id": "certificate_4856383"
},
"certificate_7504069": {
"source": "certificate",
"amount": 250,
"id": "certificate_7504069"
},
"credit_card_1955700": {
"source": "credit_card",
"brand": "visa",
"last_four": "1907",
"id": "credit_card_1955700"
}
},
"saved_passengers": [{ "first_name": "Amelia", "last_name": "Ahmed", "dob": "1957-03-21" }],
"membership": "gold",
"reservations": ["NO6JO3", "AIXC49", "HKEG34"]
}

Listing 4: An example entry from the users database in τ -airline.

43
{
"flight_number": "HAT001",
"origin": "PHL",
"destination": "LGA",
"scheduled_departure_time_est": "06:00:00",
"scheduled_arrival_time_est": "07:00:00",
"dates": {
...,
"2024-05-12": {
"status": "landed",
"actual_departure_time_est": "2024-05-12T05:44:00",
"actual_arrival_time_est": "2024-05-12T06:39:00"
},
"2024-05-13": {
"status": "landed",
"actual_departure_time_est": "2024-05-13T05:30:00",
"actual_arrival_time_est": "2024-05-13T06:32:00"
},
"2024-05-14": { "status": "cancelled" },
"2024-05-15": {
"status": "landed",
"actual_departure_time_est": "2024-05-15T06:04:00",
"actual_arrival_time_est": "2024-05-15T07:30:00"
},
"2024-05-16": {
"status": "available",
"available_seats": { "basic_economy": 16, "economy": 10, "business": 13
,→ },
"prices": { "basic_economy": 87, "economy": 122, "business": 471 }
},
"2024-05-17": {
"status": "available",
"available_seats": { "basic_economy": 16, "economy": 13, "business": 9
,→ },
"prices": { "basic_economy": 76, "economy": 189, "business": 498 }
},
"2024-05-18": {
"status": "available",
"available_seats": { "basic_economy": 2, "economy": 17, "business": 20
,→ },
"prices": { "basic_economy": 91, "economy": 186, "business": 321 }
},
...
}
}

Listing 5: An example entry from the flights database in τ -airline.

44
{
"reservation_id": "4WQ150",
"user_id": "chen_jackson_3290",
"origin": "DFW",
"destination": "LAX",
"flight_type": "round_trip",
"cabin": "business",
"flights": [
{
"origin": "DFW",
"destination": "LAX",
"flight_number": "HAT170",
"date": "2024-05-22",
"price": 883
},
{
"origin": "LAX",
"destination": "DFW",
"flight_number": "HAT022",
"date": "2024-05-26",
"price": 779
}
],
"passengers": [
{ "first_name": "Chen", "last_name": "Jackson", "dob": "1956-07-07" },
{ "first_name": "Raj", "last_name": "Smith", "dob": "1967-04-01" },
{ "first_name": "Fatima", "last_name": "Martin", "dob": "1970-01-20" }
],
"payment_history": [{ "payment_id": "gift_card_3576581", "amount": 4986 }],
"created_at": "2024-05-02T03:10:19",
"total_baggages": 5,
"nonfree_baggages": 0,
"insurance": "no"
}

Listing 6: An example entry from the reservations database in τ -airline.

45
D.2 Task 0: successful trajectory

Here is a successful gpt-4o agent trajectory, where the agent handles dynamic user intents and
complex flight information across the conversation.
{
"instruction": "You are mia_li_3668. You want to fly from New York to Seattle
on May 20 (one way). You do not want to fly before 11am est. You want to fly
in economy. You prefer direct flights but one stopover also fine. If there are
multiple options, you prefer the one with the lowest price. You have 3
baggages. You do not want insurance. You want to use your two certificates to
pay. If only one certificate can be used, you prefer using the larger one, and
pay the rest with your 7447 card. You are reactive to the agent and will not
say anything that is not asked. Your birthday is in your user profile so you
do not prefer to provide it.",
"actions": [
{
"name": "book_reservation",
"arguments": {
"user_id": "mia_li_3668",
"origin": "JFK",
"destination": "SEA",
"flight_type": "one_way",
"cabin": "economy",
"flights": [
{
"flight_number": "HAT136",
"date": "2024-05-20",
},
{
"flight_number": "HAT039",
"date": "2024-05-20",
},
],
"passengers": [{"first_name": "Mia", "last_name": "Li", "dob":
"1990-04-05"}],
"payment_methods": [
{"payment_id": "certificate_7504069", "amount": 250},
{"payment_id": "credit_card_4421486", "amount": 5},
],
"total_baggages": 3,
"nonfree_baggages": 0,
"insurance": "no",
},
},
],
},

user: Hello! I am planning a trip and need to book a flight from New York to
Seattle. Could you please assist me with this?

assistant: Sure, I'd be happy to help you with that. First, I need to get your user
ID. Could you please provide it?

user: Certainly, my user ID is mia_li_3668.

assistant: Great, thank you! Next, could you please provide the following details
for your trip:

1. Trip type: One way or round trip?

2. Departure date (and return date if it's a round trip)?
3. Cabin class: Basic economy, economy, or business?

46
4. Number of passengers and their details (first name, last name, date of birth)?
5. Do you want to purchase travel insurance for this trip (30 dollars per
passenger)?

Once I have this information, I can proceed with searching for available flights.

user: 1. It's a one-way trip.

2. I want to depart on May 20.
3. I'll be flying in economy class.
4. It's just me, the details should be in my profile.
5. No, I do not want to purchase travel insurance.

assistant: Function(arguments='{"user_id":"mia_li_3668"}', name='get_user_details')

tool: {"name": {"first_name": "Mia", "last_name": "Li"}, "address": {"address1":

"975 Sunset Drive", "address2": "Suite 217", "city": "Austin", "country": "USA",
"province": "TX", "zip": "78750"}, "email": "[email protected]", "dob":
"1990-04-05", "payment_methods": {"credit_card_4421486": {"source": "credit_card",
"brand": "visa", "last_four": "7447", "id": "credit_card_4421486"},
"certificate_4856383": {"source": "certificate", "amount": 100, "id":
"certificate_4856383"}, "certificate_7504069": {"source": "certificate", "amount":
250, "id": "certificate_7504069"}, "credit_card_1955700": {"source":
"credit_card", "brand": "visa", "last_four": "1907", "id":
"credit_card_1955700"}}, "saved_passengers": [{"first_name": "Amelia",
"last_name": "Ahmed", "dob": "1957-03-21"}], "membership": "gold", "reservations":
["NO6JO3", "AIXC49", "HKEG34"]}

assistant:
Function(arguments='{"origin":"JFK","destination":"SEA","date":"2024-05-20"}',
name='search_direct_flight')

tool: [{"flight_number": "HAT069", "origin": "JFK", "destination": "SEA",

"scheduled_departure_time_est": "06:00:00", "scheduled_arrival_time_est":
"12:00:00", "status": "available", "available_seats": {"basic_economy": 17,
"economy": 12, "business": 3}, "prices": {"basic_economy": 51, "economy": 121,
"business": 239}}, {"flight_number": "HAT083", "origin": "JFK", "destination":
"SEA", "scheduled_departure_time_est": "01:00:00", "scheduled_arrival_time_est":
"07:00:00", "status": "available", "available_seats": {"basic_economy": 16,
"economy": 7, "business": 3}, "prices": {"basic_economy": 87, "economy": 100,
"business": 276}}]

assistant: Here are the available direct flights from New York (JFK) to Seattle
(SEA) on May 20, 2024:

1. **Flight HAT069**
- Departure: 06:00 AM EST
- Arrival: 12:00 PM EST
- Available Seats: 12 in Economy
- Price: $121

2. **Flight HAT083**
- Departure: 01:00 AM EST
- Arrival: 07:00 AM EST
- Available Seats: 7 in Economy
- Price: $100

Please confirm which flight you would like to book.

47
user: Both of the flights are scheduled too early for me. If possible, I would like
a flight that does not depart before 11am EST.

assistant:
Function(arguments='{"origin":"JFK","destination":"SEA","date":"2024-05-20"}',
name='search_onestop_flight')

tool: [[{"flight_number": "HAT057", "origin": "JFK", "destination": "ATL",

"scheduled_departure_time_est": "07:00:00", "scheduled_arrival_time_est":
"09:30:00", "status": "available", "available_seats": {"basic_economy": 7,
"economy": 3, "business": 9}, "prices": {"basic_economy": 76, "economy": 141,
"business": 477}, "date": "2024-05-20"}, {"flight_number": "HAT039", "origin":
"ATL", "destination": "SEA", "scheduled_departure_time_est": "22:00:00",
"scheduled_arrival_time_est": "03:00:00+1", "status": "available",
"available_seats": {"basic_economy": 18, "economy": 10, "business": 2}, "prices":
{"basic_economy": 52, "economy": 103, "business": 283}, "date": "2024-05-20"}],
[{"flight_number": "HAT136", "origin": "JFK", "destination": "ATL",
"scheduled_departure_time_est": "19:00:00", "scheduled_arrival_time_est":
"21:30:00", "status": "available", "available_seats": {"basic_economy": 15,
"economy": 14, "business": 2}, "prices": {"basic_economy": 52, "economy": 152,
"business": 277}, "date": "2024-05-20"}, {"flight_number": "HAT039", "origin":
"ATL", "destination": "SEA", "scheduled_departure_time_est": "22:00:00",
"scheduled_arrival_time_est": "03:00:00+1", "status": "available",
"available_seats": {"basic_economy": 18, "economy": 10, "business": 2}, "prices":
{"basic_economy": 52, "economy": 103, "business": 283}, "date": "2024-05-20"}],
[{"flight_number": "HAT218", "origin": "JFK", "destination": "ATL",
"scheduled_departure_time_est": "18:00:00", "scheduled_arrival_time_est":
"20:30:00", "status": "available", "available_seats": {"basic_economy": 12,
"economy": 1, "business": 4}, "prices": {"basic_economy": 76, "economy": 158,
"business": 342}, "date": "2024-05-20"}, {"flight_number": "HAT039", "origin":
"ATL", "destination": "SEA", "scheduled_departure_time_est": "22:00:00",
"scheduled_arrival_time_est": "03:00:00+1", "status": "available",
"available_seats": {"basic_economy": 18, "economy": 10, "business": 2}, "prices":
{"basic_economy": 52, "economy": 103, "business": 283}, "date": "2024-05-20"}],
[{"flight_number": "HAT268", "origin": "JFK", "destination": "ATL",
"scheduled_departure_time_est": "07:00:00", "scheduled_arrival_time_est":
"09:30:00", "status": "available", "available_seats": {"basic_economy": 17,
"economy": 19, "business": 12}, "prices": {"basic_economy": 91, "economy": 101,
"business": 453}, "date": "2024-05-20"}, {"flight_number": "HAT039", "origin":
"ATL", "destination": "SEA", "scheduled_departure_time_est": "22:00:00",
"scheduled_arrival_time_est": "03:00:00+1", "status": "available",
"available_seats": {"basic_economy": 18, "economy": 10, "business": 2}, "prices":
{"basic_economy": 52, "economy": 103, "business": 283}, "date": "2024-05-20"}]]

assistant: Here are some one-stop flight options from New York (JFK) to Seattle
(SEA) on May 20, 2024, with departure times after 11:00 AM EST:

1. **Flight Option 1**

- **First Leg:**
- Flight Number: HAT136
- Departure: 07:00 PM EST from JFK
- Arrival: 09:30 PM EST at ATL
- Available Seats: 14 in Economy
- Price: $152
- **Second Leg:**
- Flight Number: HAT039
- Departure: 10:00 PM EST from ATL
- Arrival: 03:00 AM EST (+1 day) at SEA
- Available Seats: 10 in Economy
- Price: $103

2. **Flight Option 2**

48
 - **First Leg:**
- Flight Number: HAT218
- Departure: 06:00 PM EST from JFK
- Arrival: 08:30 PM EST at ATL
- Available Seats: 1 in Economy
- Price: $158
- **Second Leg:**
- Flight Number: HAT039
- Departure: 10:00 PM EST from ATL
- Arrival: 03:00 AM EST (+1 day) at SEA
- Available Seats: 10 in Economy
- Price: $103

Please confirm which flight option you would like to book.

user: I'll go with the first option: Flight HAT136 departing from JFK at 07:00 PM
EST and Flight HAT039 departing from ATL at 10:00 PM EST.

assistant: Here are the details for your booking:

- **Trip Type:** One-way

- **Origin:** New York (JFK)
- **Destination:** Seattle (SEA)
- **Cabin Class:** Economy
- **Flights:**
- **First Leg:**
- Flight Number: HAT136
- Departure: 07:00 PM EST from JFK
- Arrival: 09:30 PM EST at ATL
- **Second Leg:**
- Flight Number: HAT039
- Departure: 10:00 PM EST from ATL
- Arrival: 03:00 AM EST (+1 day) at SEA
- **Passenger:**
- Mia Li (DOB: 1990-04-05)
- **Total Price:** $152 + $103 = $255
- **Checked Bags:** 3 free checked bags (Gold member in economy class)
- **Travel Insurance:** No

**Payment Methods:**
- You have the following payment methods available:
- Credit Card ending in 7447
- Credit Card ending in 1907
- Certificate with $100
- Certificate with $250

Please confirm if you would like to proceed with this booking and specify the
payment method(s) you would like to use.

user: Yes, the booking information is correct. For the payment, I would like to use
my two certificates first. If only one certificate can be used, please use the one
with $250, and charge the rest to the credit card ending in 7447.

assistant: For safety reasons, only one travel certificate can be used per
reservation. Therefore, I will use the $250 certificate and charge the remaining
amount to the credit card ending in 7447.

Here are the payment details:

- **Certificate:** $250
- **Credit Card (ending in 7447):** $5

49
Please confirm if you would like to proceed with this payment arrangement.

user: Yes, I confirm. Please proceed with the payment arrangement.

assistant: Function(arguments='{"user_id":"mia_li_3668","origin":"JFK","destination" ⌋
:"SEA","flight_type":"one_way","cabin":"economy","flights":[{"flight_number":"HAT1 ⌋
36","date":"2024-05-20"},{"flight_number":"HAT039","date":"2024-05-20"}],"passenge ⌋
rs":[{"first_name":"Mia","last_name":"Li","dob":"1990-04-05"}],"payment_methods":[ ⌋
{"payment_id":"certificate_7504069","amount":250},{"payment_id":"credit_card_442148 ⌋
6","amount":5}],"total_baggages":3,"nonfree_baggages":0,"insurance":"no"}',
name='book_reservation')

tool: {"reservation_id": "HATHAT", "user_id": "mia_li_3668", "origin": "JFK",

"destination": "SEA", "flight_type": "one_way", "cabin": "economy", "flights":
[{"flight_number": "HAT136", "date": "2024-05-20", "price": 152, "origin": "JFK",
"destination": "ATL"}, {"flight_number": "HAT039", "date": "2024-05-20", "price":
103, "origin": "ATL", "destination": "SEA"}], "passengers": [{"first_name": "Mia",
"last_name": "Li", "dob": "1990-04-05"}], "payment_history": [{"payment_id":
"certificate_7504069", "amount": 250}, {"payment_id": "credit_card_4421486",
"amount": 5}], "created_at": "2024-05-15T15:00:00", "total_baggages": 3,
"nonfree_baggages": 0, "insurance": "no"}

assistant: Your flight has been successfully booked! Here are the details of your
reservation:

- **Reservation ID:** HATHAT

- **Trip Type:** One-way
- **Origin:** New York (JFK)
- **Destination:** Seattle (SEA)
- **Cabin Class:** Economy
- **Flights:**
- **First Leg:**
- Flight Number: HAT136
- Departure: 07:00 PM EST from JFK
- Arrival: 09:30 PM EST at ATL
- **Second Leg:**
- Flight Number: HAT039
- Departure: 10:00 PM EST from ATL
- Arrival: 03:00 AM EST (+1 day) at SEA
- **Passenger:**
- Mia Li (DOB: 1990-04-05)
- **Checked Bags:** 3 free checked bags
- **Travel Insurance:** No

**Payment Details:**
- **Certificate:** $250
- **Credit Card (ending in 7447):** $5

If you have any further questions or need additional assistance, feel free to ask.
Have a great trip!

user: ###STOP###

50