the probability of an event 𝐸 to happen by 𝑃(𝐸).

An event that is certain to happen has a

Probability is a numerical measure of the likelihood that a specific event will occur. We denote

probability equal to 1 is called a sure event and if an event will not occur has zero probability is
called an impossible event.

The probability of the occurrence of an event has four basic rules that help solve probability
problems.

0 ≤ 𝑃(𝐸) ≤ 1
1. The probability of an event is within the range of 0 to 1.

∑𝑃(𝐸𝑖) = 𝑃(𝐸1)+𝑃(𝐸2)+𝑃(𝐸3) + ⋯ = 1
2. The sum of the probabilities of all simple events for an experiment is always 1.

This means that the list of all outcomes must be a non-overlapping set of events that includes all
possible
outcomes.

3. If an event cannot occur, its probability is 0.

4. If an event is certain, then the probability is 1.

The complement of an event 𝐸 is the set of outcomes in the sample space that are not included
Complementary Events

event 𝐸. The complement of 𝐸 is denoted by 𝐸′ (read as E prime). The rule for the
in the outcome of an

𝑃(𝐸′) = 1− 𝑃(𝐸) 𝑜𝑟 𝑃(𝐸) = 1− 𝑃(𝐸′) 𝑜𝑟 𝑃(𝐸) + 𝑃(𝐸′) = 1

complementary events is denoted by

Conceptual Approaches to Probability

1. Classical Probability. It assumes that all outcomes in the sample space are equally likely to
occur. The classical
approach of assigning the probability of an event is used to determine the probability associated
with games of
chance. If all possible outcomes can be listed and each outcome is assumed to have an equal
probability of
occurrence, then we can compute for the probability using the formula: ( PAKICOPY NALANG
NG FORMULA DUN SA SINEND NI SIR DIKO KASI MACOPY, PHONE LANG GAMIT KO.
Thanks)

Example 3:
In rolling a die once, what is the probability of getting a number greater than 4?
Example 4:
In a standard deck of cards, what is the probability of getting a letter card?

2. Empirical or Relative Frequency Probability. It is the type of probability that uses

frequency distribution based
on observations or cumulated historical data and not from theories to determine numerical
probabilities of events. (PAKICOPY NA LANG NG FORMULA DUN SA SINEND NI SIR DIKO
KASI MACOPY, PHONE LANG GAMIT KO. THANKS)

Example 5:
CTRL S Store tracks the daily sales of laptop in the past 15 days. The data shows below:

Laptop Sold No. of Days

0 1

1 3

2 6

3 5

4 or more 0

What is the probability that the store will sell 1 laptop on any given day?

3. Subjective Probability. This is the probability assigned to an event based on the subjective
judgement, experience, information, and belief.

Example 6:
A. A sportswriter may say that there is 90% probability that Ateneo Volleyball Lady Blue Eagles
will win the UAAP Season 82.
B. A Physician may say that, on the basis of his diagnosis, there is a 70% chance that the
patient will recover.
C. The weather forecaster said that there is 60% chance of rain in Bicol Region due to tail-end
of cold front.

ADDITION RULE OF PROBABILITY

There a lot of problems involving two or more events, that is the time when we learn about
compound events. Events can either be mutually exclusive or non-mutually exclusive.

Mutually exclusive events are those events which do not have common sample point. Events
A and B are mutually exclusive if there are no elements in A that are in B or the two events A
and B cannot occur at the same time. This is characterized by the conjunction “or” or the
symbol " ∪ ".

Example 7:
In a random experiment wherein, we draw a card from a standard deck, we say event A is
drawing a face card and drawing an odd number card as event B.

( MAY EXPLANATION DITO, PACHECK NALANG SA SINEND NI SIR DIKO MAILAGAY)

Rule 1: When two events A and B are mutually exclusive, the probability that A or B will occur

𝑃( 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃( 𝐴)+ 𝑃( 𝐵)
is:

𝑃(𝐴) = probability of event A

𝑃(𝐵) = probability of event B
where:

Example 8:
In rolling two dice, what is the probability that the sum of the results will be “7” or “at most 3”?

Example 9:
The probabilities of teams Alpha, Beta, and Gamma winning a volleyball tournament are 1/5,¼
and 2/7 respectively.

Determine the probability that

a. either Beta or Gamma will win.
b. either Alpha or Gamma will win.
c. neither Alpha nor Beta will win.

• Let us denote 𝛼 for Alpha, 𝛽 for Beta and 𝛾 for Gamma.

Given:

𝑃(𝛼) =1/5
𝑃(𝛽) =1/4
𝑃(𝛾) =2/7

Non-mutually exclusive events are those events that have at least one common element or
point of intersection.

Example 10:
In a random experiment wherein, we draw a card from a standard deck, we say event A is
drawing a Jack and drawing a heart as event B.

(MAY EXPLANATION DITO PACHECK NALANG SA SINEND NI SIR DIKO MAILAGAY)

𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)

Rule 2: If A and B are non-mutually exclusive, then
 𝑃(𝐴) = probability of event A
𝑃(𝐵) = probability of event B
where:

𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = probability of A intersection B (A and B)

Example 11:
A card is drawn from a deck, what is the probability of drawing a Jack (J) or Heart (H)?

Example 12:
Dana is a SHS student taking Basic Calculus and General Biology 1. The probability of passing
Basic Calculus is 68%, and 55% for General Biology 1. If the probability of passing both
subjects is 50%, what is the probability of passing at least one subject?

MULTIPLICATION RULE OF PROBABILITY

The rules in multiplication is applicable to find the probability of two or more events that occur in

written as 𝑃(𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵) or 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵). The following rules are for independent are dependent
sequence. The probability of the intersection of two events is called their joint probability. It is

events.

Two events, say A and B, are independent events if the occurrence of A does not affect the

𝑃(𝐴|𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) or 𝑃(𝐵|𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐵)

probability of B occurring. In other words, A and B are independent events if,

𝑃(𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) ⋅ 𝑃(𝐵)

Rule 1: When two events A and B are independent, the probability of both occurring is

Example 13:
Two cards are drawn in succession with replacement, what is the probability of drawing a
number card (N) in the first draw and letter card (L) on the second draw?

Example 14:
A researcher found out that 21% of SHS students say they suffer great stress at least once a
month. If three students are selected at random, find the probability that all three will say they
suffer great stress at least once a month.

Two events A and B are dependent events if the occurrence of A affects the outcome or
occurrence of event B in such a way that the probability is changed. Symbolically, A and B are

𝑃(𝐴|𝐵) ≠ 𝑃(𝐴). or 𝑃(𝐵|𝐴) ≠ 𝑃(𝐵)

dependent events if,

𝑃(𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) ⋅ 𝑃(𝐴|𝐵)

Rule 2: When two events A and B are dependent, the probability of both occurring is

Example 15:
Jerome has a pocket with 7 chewing gum, 8 mint candies, and 4 chocolate candies. Two items
are drawn without replacement from his pocket. What is the probability that:
a. the first choice is chewing gum, followed by mint candy?
b. both choices are chocolate candies?

Example 16:
A box contains 30 bulbs, 24 of which are non-defective while the rest are defective. Suppose
that the quality control inspector selects two bulbs without replacement, what is the probability of
selecting non-defective bulb on the first draw and defective bulb on the second draw?

Note:
✓ Mutually exclusive events are always dependent.
✓ Independent events are never mutually exclusive.

Activity 1.1
Answer the following problems below and show your complete solution.

1. The Office of Prefect of Students conducted a survey to students to determine their

preferred mode of learning. Out of 600 students, 365 favored synchronous online
learning, 158 favored asynchronous, while the rest favored modular instruction. What is
the probability that a randomly selected student favored:
a. asynchronous mode of learning
b. modular or asynchronous mode of learning?
c. synchronous or modular mode of learning?
d. neither synchronous nor asynchronous mode of learning?

2. A coin is tossed and a die is rolled, what is the probability of getting head in tossing a coin
and getting an odd number when casting a fair die?

3. A vase contains 8 pink, 9 purple, and 11 yellow tulips. You randomly choose a flower from
the vase to take home. Your best friend randomly chooses another flower from the vase to
take home. What is the probability that you choose pink tulips and your best friend
chooses purple tulips?

4. Ace is planning to enroll short courses in TESDA. He plans to take Bread and Pastry
Production, and Food and Beverage Service. The probability of finishing Bread and Pastry
Production is 48%, and 53% for Food and Beverage Service. If the probability of finishing
both courses is 40%, what is the probability of passing at least one course?

5. According to DOST-FNRI, 24.7% of the population of Filipino elderly, 60 years old and
above, are obese. If we select three elderly at random, what is the probability that all
selected will be obese?