WAVE

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 Contents
1. Mechanical waves
Transverse, longitudinal, surface waves
Speed of waves in solids, liquids, gases
Energy of Mechanical waves
2. Sound Wave
Intensity (dB), threshold of hearing , pain
threshold
Doppler effect

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The essence of wave motion - the transfer of energy
through space without the accompanying transfer of
matter.
Two mechanisms of energy tranfer depend on waves:
- Mechanical waves
- Electromagnetic radiation.

All mechanical waves require

(1)some source of disturbance,
(2)a medium that can be disturbed,
(3)and some physical mechanism through which elements
of the medium can influence each other.

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• The process of propagating mechanical oscillations in an elastic medium is called
elastic waves or mechanical waves.
• Mechanical waves cannot propagate in a vacuum because there is no elastic
medium
• The wave propagation direction is called the wave ray
• The collection of points in a wave field where particles oscillate in phase is called
the wavefront.

Spherical wave refers to a wave that propagates outward in all directions from a point
source, forming a spherical shape in three-dimensional space.
A plane wave is a type of wave in which the wavefronts (surfaces of constant phase)
are infinite, parallel planes. It is often used as an idealized model in physics and
engineering.
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Transverse waves are waves in which the particles of the elastic
medium oscillate perpendicular to the wave ray. Transverse waves can
propagate only in solids and on the surface of liquids.
Examples: electromagnetic waves, sound waves.
Longitudinal waves are waves in which the particles of the elastic
medium oscillate along the direction of the wave ray. Longitudinal
waves can propagate in solids, liquids, and gases.
Example: compressions and rarefactions in a spring.

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Transverse wave – Longitudinal wave – surface wave

A longitudinal pulse along a stretched

spring. The displacement of the coils is
parallel to the direction of the propagation

Wave that causes the

elements of the disturbed
medium to move The motion of water elements on the surface of
perpendicular to the direction deep water in which a wave is propagating is a
of propagation is called a combination of transverse and longitudinal
transverse wave. displacements, with the result that elements at
the surface move in nearly circular paths.
Each element is displaced both horizontally and
vertically from its equilibrium position 6
Earthquake Wave

The three-dimensional waves that travel out from points under the
Earth’s surface along a fault at which an earthquake occurs are of both
types—transverse and longitudinal.
The longitudinal waves are the faster of the two, traveling at speeds in
the range of 7 to 8 km/s near the surface. These are called P waves
(with “P” standing for primary) because they travel faster than the
transverse waves and arrive at a seismograph (a device used to detect
waves due to earthquakes) first.
The slower transverse waves, called S waves (with “S” standing for
secondary), travel through the Earth at 4 to 5 km/s near the surface.
By recording the time interval between the arrivals of these two types of
waves at a seismograph, the distance from the seismograph to the
point of origin of the waves can be determined.

longitudinal waves: P waves ( Primary ) : faster : 7 to 8 km/s near the surface..

transverse waves : S waves (secondary), slower: 4 to 5 km/s near the surface

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Characteristics of waves:
-Wavelength
-Frequency
-Period
-Amplitude

(a) The wavelength λ of a wave is the

distance between adjacent crests
or adjacent troughs.

(b) The period T of a wave is the time

interval required for the wave to
travel one wavelength.

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Speed of Sound

-Depends on the property of the medium: BULK MODULUS B , and DENSITY ρ

-Does not depend on the wave characteristics: Amplitude, frequency, period

elastic property B
v= =
inertial property ρ

∆P
Bulk Modulus : B = (N / m2 )
∆V / V The ratio of the change in
1 ∆V / V pressure to the fractional
Compressibility : χ = = volume compression is called
B ∆P
the bulk modulus of the
material.
Bulk modulus B Density ρ Sound speed
(N/m2) (kg/m3) (m/s) Solid is difficult to be
compressed, ∆V/V small,
Steel:160 x 10 ^9 7860 4512
B is large.
Water: 2.2 x 10^9 1000 1483

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 Sound speed
Gases v (m/s) elastic property B
v= =
Hydrogen (0°C) 1286 inertial property ρ
Helium (0°C) 972
Air (20°C) 343
Air (0°C) 331
Liquids at 25°C Bsolid > Bliquid > Bgas
Glycerol 1904
Sea water 1533 ρsolid > ρliquid > ρgas
Water 1493
Mercury 1450 v solid > v liquid > v gas
Solids
Diamond 12000
Pyrex glass 5640
Iron 5130
Aluminum 5100
Copper 3560
Gold 3240
Rubber 1600
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 Sound Speed in
an ideal gas m
PV = nRT = RT (1)
Ideal gas law µ
γRT The process of sound PV γ = const (2)
v=
µ travelling through an ideal
gas can be expected to be
adiabatic and therefore the
pressure and volume obey
Where: the relationship
γ: adiabatic constant Differentiate PγV γ −1dV + V γ dP = 0 (3)
Gas constant: R=8.31 J/mol K
µ: molecular mass of gas (g/mol) Bulk modulus B = dP
= Pγ
T: absolute temperature (K) | dV | / V
m Pµ
Density: ρ = =
Air : γ =1.4, T=300K, V RT
Sound speed B γRT
µ =29 g/mol, R=8.31 J/mol K v= =
ρ µ
V= 347m/s

The adiabatic assumption for sound waves means that the compressions
associated with the sound wave happen so quickly that there is no opportunity
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for heat transfer in or out of the volume of air.
Temperature from Sound Speed

The speed of sound in liquids depends upon the temperature.

This is useful in monitoring the temperature of oceans and other large
bodies of water because pulses of low frequency sound can travel
thousands of kilometers through the ocean and still be detected.
The pulse traverse time can be measured with a network of
stations to monitor changes in the temperature of the
intervening water.

When compared to changes predicted by climate models, this can

give some indication of whether global warming from the greenhouse
effect is occurring.
Ocean experiments are capable of showing temperature variations in
the range of hundredths of degrees.
Experiments under the north polar icecap indicated a half degree of
warming in 10 years.

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 Speed of waves on a string

F F: Tension (N)
v= µ: the linear mass density (mass per unit length (kg/m)
µ

Example 15-1
The tension in a string is provided by hanging an object of mass M 3 kg
at one end as shown in Figure 15-4. The length of the string is L 2.5 m
and its mass is m 50 g. What is the speed of waves on the string?
L

m 50 × 10−3 kg
Linear mass density µ= = = 2 × 10− 2 (kg / m) M
Tension L 2.5m
F = Mg = 3 × 9.8 = 29.4( N)
29.4
speed of wave on the string v= −2
= 38.3m / s
2 × 10 13
Frequency of Sound wave

For Human being,

Sonic frequencies: : 20Hz – 20 000Hz.
Ultrasonic frequencies: > 20 000Hz
Infrasonic frequencies: < 20Hz

Ultrasound can be used in medical imaging,

detection of defects in objects.

Similar to light waves, sound waves can have

Interference, Diffraction, Reflection phenomena ,

but different from light waves, sound wave is a

longitudinal wave, it can not have polarization .

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 Mathematical Description of a Wave

Wave function
Let’s look at waves on a stretched string.
Waves on a string are transverse; during wave motion a particle with equilibrium
position x is displaced some distance y in the direction perpendicular to the x-
axis. The value of y depends on which particle we are talking about (that is, y
depends on x) and also on the time t when we look at it. Thus y is a function of
both x and t y(x,t);
We call y(x,t) the wave function that describes the wave
y
A wave moving in +x-direction
wave function at O: y(0,t)=Acos (ωt) M
wave at M: y(x,t )=Acos (ω(t-x/v))=Acos(ωt-kx)
 z
O
k x

A wave moving in - x-direction

wave function at O: y(0,t)=Acos (ωt)
wave at M: y(x,t )=Acos (ω(t+x/v))=Acos(ωt+kx) 15
 Graphing the wave function
ω 2π 2π
y= Acos(ωt-kx) k= = =
v vT λ

(a ) we plot y as a function of x for (a ) we plot y as a function of t

time t =0; y(x,t=0). for a point x=0: y(t=0,x) , the
the curve shows the shape of the curve shows the displacement
string at t =0. y of the particle at x=0 as a
function of time.

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 Wave equation
y = A cos(ωt − kx )
dy d2y
= −Aω sin(ωt − kx ); = −Aω2 cos(ωt − kx )
dt dt 2
dy d2y
= Ak sin(ωt − kx ); = −Ak 2 cos(ωt − kx )
dx dx 2
2π 2π ω
k= = =
λ v.T v
d2y
2
2
dt = ω 2
= v
d2y k2
dx 2

∂2y 1 ∂2y Wave equation

2
− 2 2
=0
∂x v ∂t 17
 A mechanical wave propagates along the Ox axis with the equation
u = Acos(ωt − kx)
Find the ratio between the maximum speed of the medium particles
and the speed of wave propagation.

• Vận
The speedtốc truyền
of wave sóng:
propagation v1 =
λ = λ =ω
T 2π / ω k
•The
Vận tốcofdao
speed động của
the medium phần tử môi trường: v2 = u ' = −Aω sin(ωt − kx)
particles

 vận tốc cựcspeed

the maximum đại của phần
of the tử môi
medium trường: v2max = Aω
particles

v2max Aω
 = = Ak
v1 ω/k

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 Wave function
The wave function for a one-dimensional sinusoidal wave traveling to the right can be
expressed as

Speed of propagation of the wave v

Angular wave number

Angular frequency

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 Wave function
The transverse speed vy (not to be confused with the wave speed- speed of propagation
of the wave v) and the transverse acceleration ay of elements of the string are

The maximum values of the transverse speed and transverse acceleration are
simply the absolute values of the coefficients of the cosine and sine functions:

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Wave Energy The essence of wave motion - the transfer of energy
through space without the accompanying transfer of
matter
The displacement of the medium
x
element of mass dm = ρdV from the y = A cos ω( t − )
equilibrium position: v
Its velocity: x
v y = − Aω sin ω( t − )
v
1
δKE = δmv2y
Its KE: 2
1  x 
= ρδV A 2ω2 sin 2 ω( t − ) 
2  v 
1
< δKE >= ρδVA 2ω2
Average KE 4

In oscillation, average KE=average PE 1

< δKE >=< δPE >= ρδVA 2 ω2
4
Average Mechanical energy: 1
< δW >=< δKE > + < δPE >= ρδVA 2 ω2
2
< δW > 1 2 2
Average energy density wo = = ρA ω (J/m 3 ) 24
δV 2
Vector Poynting:
is a vector that has the magnitude equal to the energy that goes across a
unit area perpendicular to the wave propagation direction during a unit
time
 
U = w o .v (W / m2 )
Energy that goes across area S during time interval
dt is contained in the volume with cross section S,
length vdt
wo S
dW = w o (S vdt)
Energy that goes across a unit area during a unit
vdt time
Energy Density
dW 1
U= = w o .v w o = ρA 2 ω 2 (J/m 3 )
 Sdt  2
U = w o .v

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Wave Intensity
If a point source emits waves uniformly in all directions, the energy at a
distance r from the source is distributed uniformly on a spherical surface of
radius r and area A = 4πr2.
If P is the power emitted by the source, The average power per unit area
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation is called the intensity

I
P 2
I= 2
(W/m ) r

4πr
P
the intensity equals the product of the
average energy density and the wave
speed v
Point source
dW
U= = w o .v (W/m 2 )
 Sdt 
U = w o .v

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Sound level - Threshold of hearing - Threshold of pain

 I  Threshold of hearing: at 1000Hz: I = Io, L=0dB

L(dB) = 10 log10   Threshold of pain: I = 1W/m2, L=120 dB
 Io 
Io = 10−12 W / m 2

Io is the reference intensity, taken to be at

the threshold of hearing
I is the intensity in watts per square meter
(W/m2) to which the sound level L
corresponds, where L is measured in
decibels (dB)

Prolonged exposure to high sound levels

may seriously damage the ear. Recent
evidence suggests that “noise pollution” may
be a contributing factor to high blood
pressure, anxiety, and nervousness.

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Sound level - Threshold of hearing - Threshold of pain

As group of students debates in a massive-wall class which ignores the sound

transmission. The sound level everywhere inside the class is 60 dB. When the
windows and doors are open, their total area is 25 m2. Calculate the radiated
power?

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Auditory Canal Resonance
The maximum sensitivity regions of
human hearing can be modeled as
closed tube resonances of the auditory
canal.
The observed peak at about 3700 Hz at
body temperature corresponds to a tube
length of 2.4 cm.
The higher frequency sensitivity peak is
at about 13 kHz which is somewhat
above the calculated 3rd harmonic of a
closed cylinder

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The sensation of loudness depends on the frequency as well as the
intensity of a sound.
Figure is a plot of intensity level versus frequency for sounds of
equal loudness to the human ear. (In this figure, the frequency is
plotted on a logarithmic scale to display the wide range of
frequencies from 20 Hz to 10 kHz.).
We note from this figure that the human ear is most sensitive at
about 4 kHz for all intensity levels.

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Doppler Effect
The change in frequency heard by an observer whenever there is relative motion
between a source of sound waves and the observer is called the Doppler effect.
We call the observed frequency is f’ , the source frequency f
When they are moving toward each other, the observed frequency is greater than
the source frequency: f’> f
when they are moving away from each other, the observed frequency is less than
the source frequency. : f’<f

v: sound speed in the medium

v ± vo
vs: speed of source f' = f ( )
vo: speed of observer
v ± vs

Observer at rest , source approaches v

f '= f( )
v − vs

Observer approaches, source at rest

v + vo
f '= f( )
v

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 Source approaches, Observer approaches

source v + vo
Observer f' = f ( )
vs vo v − vs

Source approaches. Observer moves away

v − vo
source Observer f' = f ( )
vs vo v − vs

=vs 20km/h
= , v o 10km/h: f' > f
=vs 20km/h
= , v o 30km/h: f' < f

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A motobike is moving parallel to a highway with a constant speed of
40 km/h. A car is traveling in the same direction as the motobike with a
speed of 60 km/h. The motobike whistle sounds at a frequency of 420
Hz. When the car is behind the motobike, what frequency does an
occupant of the car observe for the motobike whistle? Note that the
speed of sound in air is 340 m/s.

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