Magnetic Circuits

Electric Machinery Fundamentals by Stephen J.

Chapman

Dr. Lakshmi Varaha Iyer

1
Copper and Steel in an Electric Motor
– Magnetic Circuit
 The Magnetic Field
Magnetic fields are the fundamental mechanism by which energy is converted from
one form to another in motors, generators, and transformers.

Four basic principles describe how magnetic fields are used in these devices:
1. A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field in the area around it.
2. A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil of wire if it passes
through that coil. (This is the basis of transformer action.)
3. A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a force induced on
it. (This is the basis of motor action.)
4. A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage induced in it.
(This is the basis of generator action.)
 Production of a Magnetic Field
The basic law governing the production of a magnetic field by a current is Ampere's law:

where H is the magnetic field intensity produced by the current Inet and dl is a differential
element of length along the path of integration. In SI units, I is measured in amperes and H is
measured in ampere-turns per meter.

• Figure shows a rectangular core with a

winding of N turns of wire wrapped about
one leg of the core.
• if the core is composed of iron or certain
other similar metals (collectively called
ferromagnetic materials),
• essentially all the magnetic field produced
by the current will remain inside the core,
• so the path of integration in Ampere's law is
the mean path length of the core lc
 Production of a Magnetic Field
The magnitude or the magnetic field intensity in the core due to the applied current is

• The magnetic field intensity H is in a sense a measure of the "effort" that a current is putting
into the establishment of a magnetic fi eld.
• The strength of the magnetic field flux produced in the core also depends on the material of
the core.
• The relationship between the magnetic field intensity H and the resulting magnetic flux
density B produced within a material is given by
where
H = magnetic field intensity
The permeability of free space is called uo, and (ampere-turns per meter)
its value is u= magnetic permeability of material
(henrys per meter)
B = resulting magnetic flux density
The permeability of any other material compared to the produced (Tesla)
permeability of free space is called its relative
permeability:
 The Magnetic Field
• The steels used in modern machines have relative permeabilities of 2000 to 6000 or even
more.
• This means that, for a given amount of current, 2000 to 6000 times more flux is
established in a piece of steel than in a corresponding area of air.
• because the permeability of iron is so much higher than that of air, the great majority of
the flux in an iron core remains inside the core instead of traveling through the
surrounding air, which has much lower permeability.
• The small leakage flux that does leave the iron core is very important in determining the
flux linkages between coils and the self-inductances of coils in
• transformers and motors.

where A is the cross-sectional area of the core, Phi is the total flux in the
core due to the current i in the winding
 Magnetic Field analogous to Electric Field
• In a simple electric circuit such as the one shown in Figure 1-4a, the voltage source V
drives a current I around the circuit through a resistance R. The relationship between these
quantities is given by Ohm's law:
V = IR
• In the electric circuit, it is the voltage or electromotive force that drives the current now.
• By analogy, the corresponding quantity in the magnetic circuit is called the
magnetomotive force (mmf). The magnetomotive force of the magnetic circuit is equal to
the effective current now applied to the core, or

magnetomotive force, measured in ampere-turns

• In an electric circuit, the applied voltage causes a current I to flow. Similarly, in a magnetic
circuit, the applied magnetomotive force causes flux to be produced.

• Reluctance of a magnetic circuit is the counterpart of electrical resistance, and its units
are ampere-turns per weber.
 Right Hand Rule and Fringing Effect
• The polarity of the mmf from a coil of wire can be determined from a modification on of
the right-hand rule: If the fingers of the right-hand curl in the direction of the current now
in a coil of wire, then the thumb will point in the direction of the positive mmf

• If there are air gaps in the flux path in a

core, the effective cross-sectional area of
the air gap will be larger than the cross-
sectional area of the iron core on either
side. The extra effective area is caused by
the "fringing effect" of the magnetic
field at the air gap
Numerical Problem (pg. 14)
Example:
A ferromagnetic core is shown in Figure 1-7a.
Three sides of this core are of uniform width, while
the fourth side is somewhat thinner. The depth of
the core (into the page) is 10 cm. and the other
dimensions are shown in the figure. There is a 200-
turn coil wrapped around the left side of the core.
Assuming relative permeability of
2500. how much flux will be produced by a one
Ampere input current?

Solution:
Three sides of the core have the same cross-
sectional areas. while the fourth side has a different
area. Thus. the core can be divided into two
regions: (I) the single thinner side
and (2) the other three sides taken together. The
magnetic circuit corresponding to this core
is shown in Figure 1-7b.
Numerical Problem (pg. 14)
Numerical Problem (pg. 17)
Numerical Problem (pg. 17)
 Saturation Curve or Magnetization Curve
• Apply a direct current to the electrical steel core, starting with 0 A and slowly
working up to the maximum permissible current.
• When the flux produced in the core is plotted versus the magnetomotive force
producing it, the resulting plot looks like Figure below.

• In contrast, the region where the flux changes very rapidly is called
the unsaturated region of the curve, and the core is said to be
unsaturated.
• The transition region between the unsaturated region and the
saturated region is sometimes called the knee of the curve.
 Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core
• Instead of applying a direct current to the
windings on the core, let us now apply an
alternating current
• When the flux produced in the core is plotted
versus the magnetomotive force producing it,
the resulting plot looks like Figure below.
• As the current increases for the first time, the
flux in the core traces out path ab
• when the current falls again, the flux traces
out a different path from the one it followed
when the current increased.
• As the current decreases, the flux in the core
traces out path bcd, and later when the current
increases again, the flux traces out path deb.
 Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core
• the amount of flux present in the core depends
not only on the amount of current applied to
the windings of the core, but also on the
previous history of the flux in the core.
• This dependence on the preceding flux history
and the resulting failure to retrace flux paths
is called hysteresis.
• Path bcdeb traced out in Figure (b) as the
applied current changes is called a hysteresis
loop.
• Magnetic field is left in the core is called the
residual flux in the core.
• To force the flux to zero, an amount of
magnetomotive force known as the coercive
magnetomotive force must be applied to the
core in the opposite direction.
 Hysteresis Loss – Core Loss
• The hysteresis loss in an iron core is the energy
required to accomplish the reorientation of
domains during each cycle of the alternating
current applied to the core.
• It can be shown that the area enclosed in the
hysteresis loop formed by applying an alternating
current to the core is directly proportional to the
energy lost in a given ac cycle.
• The smaller the applied magnetomotive force
excursions on the core, the smaller the area of the
resulting hysteresis loop and so the smaller the
resulting losses.
H

+
e

Fig. a. Iron sample and coil for applying H Fig. b. Magnetic domains
 Eddy Current Loss – Core Loss
• This current leads to core loss for ac operation.
• The solid iron core itself is an electrical conductor, acting much like shorted turns.
• As the magnetic field changes, voltages are induced in the core causing current,
known as eddy currents to circulate in the core material.
• As a result, power is dissipated in the core according to P = V2/R.

The eddy current loss can be reduced in two ways:

• A high-resistivity core material can be used.
• A laminated core can be used. The core can be laminated with thin sheets of iron
that are electrical insulated from one another. The orientation of the sheets is
selected to interrupt the flow of current. Thus, the resistance is higher for eddy
currents, and the loss is greatly reduced.
• Another approach is to make the core with powdered iron held together by an
insulated binder.
 Faradays Law and Lenz Law
• Faraday's law states that if a flux passes through a turn of a coil of wire, a voltage
will be induced in the turn of wire that is directly proportional to the rate of
change in the flux with respect to time.

where eind is the voltage induced in the turn of the coil and phi is the flux passing
through the turn. If a coil has N turns and if the same flux passes through all of them,
then the voltage induced across the whole coil is given by

• The minus sign in the equations is an expression of Lenz slaw. Lenz's law states
that the direction of the voltage build up in the coil is such that if the coil ends
were short circuited, it would produce current that would cause a flux opposing the
original flux change. Since the induced voltage opposes the change that causes it, a
minus sign is included in Equation.

• It is left out of Faraday's law, henceforth for simplicity.