Module 4: Week 6 - 8

Unit Title: Techniques of Circuit Analysis

Duration: 9 hours
Introduction:
This unit of the module will discuss the different techniques in analyzing electric
circuits. These techniques will simply show the solution or development of number of
equations which at times lead to long solutions.
The use of matrix analysis may also be important so the students are reminded to be
acquainted with the solutions to multiple equations solving for multiple unknowns.
These solutions are purely mathematics in nature and is not included in this particular
section.
This part also introduces the use of determining the maximum power transferred by
the circuit with the use of simplified equivalent circuits.

Objective: The goal for this module are:

1. Be able to apply the concept of node – voltage method and mesh –
current method in circuit analysis.
2. Know the different approach in determining the Thevenin and Norton
equivalent circuit of a given complex circuit.
3. Develop the ability to use different techniques in analyzing complex
circuits and eventually use that skill in designing circuits later.

Pretest:
Problem: For the circuit shown in Fig. 4.1, identify a) all nodes; b) all essential nodes;
c) all branches; d) all essential branches; e) all meshes; f) two paths that are not loops
or essential branches; and g) two loops that are not meshes.
Fig. 4.1

Answer: a) a, b, c, d, e, f, and g; b) b, c, e, and g; c) v1, v2, R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6,
R7, and I; d) v1 – R1, R2 – R3, v2 – R4, R5, R6, R7, and I; e) v1 – R1 – R5 – R3 - R2,
v2 – R2 – R3 – R6 - R4, R5 – R7 - R6 and R7 - I; f) R1 – R5 – R6 and v2 – R2; g)
v1 – R1 – R5 – R6 – R4 - v2 and I – R5 – R6
Lesson Proper:
Table 4.1 Terms for Describing Circuits
Name Definition Example From Fig. 4.1
node A point where two or more circuit a
elements join
essential node A node where three or more circuit b
elements join
path A trace of adjoining basic elements v1 – R1 – R5 – R6
with no elements include more
than once
branch A branch that connects two nodes R1
essential branch A path which connects two v1 – R1
essential nodes without passing
through an essential node
loop A path whose last node is the same v1 – R1 – R5 – R6 – R4 - v2
as the starting node
mesh A loop that does not enclose any v1 – R1 – R5 – R3 - R2
other loops
planar circuit A circuit that can be drawn on a Fig. 4.1 is a planar circuit
plane with no crossing branches Fig. 4.2 is a nonplanar
circuit

Fig. 4.2

4.1 The Node – Voltage Method

The Node – voltage method is the application of KCL in an essential node where the
currents are expressed in terms of the defined node voltages and given resistances.
Node – Voltage is defined as the voltage drop from non-reference node to the set
reference node of the circuit. (See Fig. 4.4 below)
The number of equations required in analyzing the circuit using node – voltage method
is, n
n = ne – 1
where,
ne = number of essential nodes
Note: The reference node is set at zero potential (the ground point of the circuit,
usually) thus there is no need to solved for its value.
 Fig. 4.3 Circuit use to illustrate node – Fig. 4.4 The circuit of Fig. 4.3 with the defined
voltage method node – voltages v1 and v2

For the given circuit shown in Fig. 4.5, the branch current i will be calculated as,
𝑣1 − 10
𝑖=
1

The two node – voltage equations required for Fig. 4.4 are the following:
At node 1,
𝑣1 −10 𝑣1 𝑣1 −𝑣2
+ + =0 Eqn. 1
1 5 2

At node 2,
𝑣2 −𝑣1 𝑣2
+ −2=0 Eqn. 2
2 10

Simplifying the two previous equations, we have

1 1 1 1
𝑣1 (1 + + 2) − 𝑣2 (2) = 10 Eqn. 1’
5

and
1 1 1
−𝑣1 (2) + 𝑣2 (2 + )=2 Eqn. 2’
10

The two simultaneous equations can be solved using several other solutions.
Development of these equations are the final stage of using node – voltage method.
In matrix notation we can re-write Eqns. 1’ and 2’ as,
1 1 1
1+ + −
[ 5 2 2 ] [𝑣1 ] = [10]
1 1 1 𝑣2 2
− +
2 2 10
Or,
𝐺11 −𝐺12 𝑣1 𝑖
[ ] [ ] = [ 1]
−𝐺21 𝐺22 𝑣2 𝑖2
where,
G11 = sum of all the conductance connected to node 1
G22 = sum of all the conductance connected to node 2
 G12 = G21 = the conductance that is connected between node 1 and node 2
v1 and v2 = the two node – voltages
i1 and i2 = the current source value or computed current base in Ohm’s law
Using mathematical solution for the above simultaneous equations, we can see that,
v1 = 9.09 V and v2 = 10.91 V
Note that once the node – voltages are known, currents and eventually power
associated with each branch circuit elements can be computed.

Special Cases in Node – Voltage method:

1. When a voltage source is directly connected in between a non-reference
node and the reference node, the value of the source voltage is exactly
equal to the unknown node – voltage.
2. The use of the concept of supernode. Supernode exist when two essential
none reference nodes are joined together by a voltage source.

Fig. 4.6 Special case no. 1

Fig. 4.7 Supernode cases

Examples:
Problem 1. Find the three node – voltage equations for the circuit shown below.

Solution:
At node 1:
𝑣1 −𝑣3 𝑣1 −𝑣2
+ − 𝑖𝑎 = 0 Eqn. (a) ans.
𝑅1 𝑅2

At node 2:
𝑣2 −𝑣1 𝑣 𝑣2 −𝑣3
+ 𝑅2 + =0 Eqn. (b) ans.
𝑅2 3 𝑅4

At node 3:
𝑣3 −𝑣1 𝑣3 −𝑣2
+ + 𝑖𝑏 = 0 Eqn. (c) ans.
𝑅1 𝑅4

Problem 2. For the circuit shown below, find the node voltages.

Solution:
The supernode contains the 2 V voltage source, nodes 1 and 2, and the 10 Ω resistor.

Applying KCL at supernode as shown in Fig. (a),

-2 A + i1 + i2 + 7 A = 0
Expressing the currents in terms of the node – voltages,
𝑣1 𝑣2
+ = −5 Eqn. (a)
2 4

or
𝑣2 = −20 − 2𝑣1 Eqn. (a)’
Using Fig. (b) the other relationship between v1 and v2 applying KVL is,
−𝑣1 − 2 + 𝑣2 = 0 Eqn. (b)
or
𝑣2 = 𝑣1 + 2 Eqn. (b)’
From Eqns. (a)’ and (b)’ we find,
𝑣2 = −20 − 𝑣1 = 𝑣1 + 2
𝑣1 = −7.333 𝑉 ans.
𝑣2 = −5.333 𝑉 ans.

Exercise Problems:
4.1 Use the node – voltage method to solve for the currents labeled in the circuits
shown in Fig. P4.1.
Answer: a.) ia = 1.33 A; b.) ib = -0.259 A
4.2 Use the node – voltage method to solve for the values of ix and iy in Fig. P4.2.
Answer: ix = 0.5 A; iy = 2.31 A

Fig. P4.1

Fig. P4.2
4.2 The Mesh – Current Method
The Mesh – Current method is the application of KVL around a loop where the voltages
are expressed in terms of the defined mesh - currents and given resistances.
Mesh – Current is defined as the only current in the perimeter of a mesh. (See Fig. 4.8
below)
The number of equations required in analyzing the circuit using mesh – current method
is, n
n = be – (ne – 1)
where,
ne = number of essential nodes
be = number of essential branches

Fig. 4.8 Circuit that shows the definition of mesh – current.

The two circuits shown below gives us an important view in analyzing circuits using
mesh – current method.

(a) Showing the three branch (b) Showing the two mesh - currents
currents

Applying KVL around loop 1 of fig.(b),

−𝑣1 + 𝑖𝑎 (𝑅1 + 𝑅3 ) − 𝑖𝑏 (𝑅3 ) = 0
or
𝑖𝑎 (𝑅1 + 𝑅3 ) − 𝑖𝑏 (𝑅3 ) = 𝑣1 Eqn. (1)
Applying KVL around loop 2 of fig.(b),
𝑖𝑏 (𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ) − 𝑖𝑎 (𝑅3 ) + 𝑣2 = 0
or
−𝑖𝑎 (𝑅3 ) + 𝑖𝑏 (𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ) = −𝑣2 Eqn. (2)
Using matrix notation,
(𝑅1 + 𝑅3 ) −𝑅3 𝑖 𝑣1
[ ] [ 𝑎 ] = [−𝑣 ]
−𝑅3 (𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ) 𝑏 𝑖 2

or
𝑅11 𝑅12 𝑖𝑎 𝑣1
[ ] [ ] = [−𝑣 ]
𝑅21 𝑅22 𝑖𝑏 2

where:
R11 = the sum of all the resistances along mesh 1
R22 = the sum of all the resistances along mesh 2
R12 = R21 = the negative of the resistance between mesh 1 and mesh 2
ia and ib = the two mesh – currents
v1 and v2 = the two voltage sources
Further analysis gives the branch currents i1, i2, and i3 (see Fig (a) and (b)),
𝑖1 = 𝑖𝑎 ; 𝑖2 = 𝑖𝑏 ; and 𝑖3 = 𝑖𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏

Special Cases in Mesh – Current Method:

1. When a current source is along the perimeter of a mesh, the value of the mesh –
current is exactly equal to the value of the current source.
2. When a current source is in between two meshes, then the two meshes can be
combined to form a supermesh.
The circuit shown in Fig. 4.9 (a) and (b) illustrates the concept of a supermesh.

Fig. 4.9 (a) Fig. 4.9 (b)

Fig. 4.9 (a) shows the three mesh currents ia, ib, ic and arbitrary unknown voltage v
across the 5 A current source.
The KVL equation around mesh ‘a’:
−100 + 3(𝑖𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏 ) + 𝑣 + 6𝑖𝑎 = 0
or
9𝑖𝑎 − 3𝑖𝑏 + 𝑣 = 100 Eqn. (a)
The KVL equation around mesh ‘c’:
−𝑣 + 2(𝑖𝑐 − 𝑖𝑏 ) + 4𝑖𝑐 + 50 = 0
or
−2𝑖𝑏 + 6𝑖𝑐 − 𝑣 = −50 Eqn. (b)
Combining the two Eqn. (a) and (b), we find
9𝑖𝑎 − 5𝑖𝑏 + 6𝑖𝑐 = 50 Eqn. (1)
Using Fig. 4.9(b) and the concept of supermesh, we find Eqn. 1 simply by applying
KVL around the supermesh,
−100 + 3(𝑖𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏 ) + 2(𝑖𝑐 − 𝑖𝑏 ) + 50 + 4𝑖𝑐 + 6𝑖𝑎 = 0
Combining similar terms gives,
9𝑖𝑎 − 5𝑖𝑏 + 6𝑖𝑐 = 50 Eqn. (1)
Note that there is no need to add arbitrary unknown voltage v and consider separately
mesh ‘a’ and mesh ‘c’ in order to come up with the first equation needed to fin the
solution to the given circuit.
We find the other equation by considering the lower node of the 5 A current source
and applying KCL,
𝑖𝑎 − 𝑖𝑐 + 5 = 0 Eqn. (2)
The next equation comes from applying KVL around mesh ‘b’,
𝑖𝑏 (10 + 2 + 3) − 3𝑖𝑎 − 2𝑖𝑐 = 0
or
−3𝑖𝑎 + 15𝑖𝑏 − 2𝑖𝑐 = 0 Eqn. (3)
The three mesh – current equations are:
9𝑖𝑎 − 5𝑖𝑏 + 6𝑖𝑐 = 50 Eqn. (1)
𝑖𝑎 − 𝑖𝑐 = −5 Eqn. (2)
−3𝑖𝑎 + 15𝑖𝑏 − 2𝑖𝑐 = 0 Eqn. (3)
Simultaneous solution to these equation gives the values of the three mesh currents
and eventually the values of branch currents and further unknowns of the circuits.
Answer: ia = 1.75 A; ib = 1.25 A; and ic = 6.75 A

Examples:
Problem 1. Solve for the current in each element of the circuit shown.
Solution:
Consider mesh 1:
20(𝑖1 − 𝑖3 ) + 10(𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) − 70 = 0 Eqn. (1)
Consider mesh 2:
10(𝑖2 − 𝑖1 ) + 12(𝑖2 − 𝑖3 ) + 42 = 0 Eqn. (2)
Consider mesh 3:
20(𝑖3 − 𝑖1 ) + 14𝑖3 + 12(𝑖3 − 𝑖2 ) = 0 Eqn. (3)
Putting the equations into standard form, we have:
30𝑖1 − 10𝑖2 − 20𝑖3 = 70 Eqn. (1)
−10𝑖1 + 22𝑖2 − 12𝑖3 = −42 Eqn. (2)
−20𝑖1 − 12𝑖2 + 46𝑖3 = 0 Eqn. (3)
In matrix form, the equation become:
30 −10 −20 𝑖1 70
[−10 22 −12] [𝑖2 ] = [−42]
−20 −12 46 𝑖3 0
The values of the three mesh currents are:
i1 = 4 A; i2 = 1 A; and i3 = 2 A
The value of the remaining unknown can be found as:
i70 V = 4 A; i42 V = 2 A; i14Ω = 1 A; i20Ω = 2 A; i10Ω = 3 A; i12Ω = 1 A ans.

Problem 2. Mesh – Current method with current sources.

Case 1: When a current source exists in only one mesh.

Solution:
Because of the 5 A current source along mesh 2, we set i2 = - 5 A, the mesh equation
for mesh 1 is,
−10 + 4𝑖1 + 6(𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) = 0
𝑖1 = −2 𝐴 ans.
Case 2: When a current source exists between two meshes.

Solution:
Applying the concept of a supermesh in circuit of fig. (b),
−20 + 6𝑖1 + 𝑖2 (10 + 4) = 0 Eqn. (a)
or
6𝑖1 + 14𝑖2 = 20 Eqn. (a)
Applying KCL to a node in the branch where two meshes intersect gives
𝑖2 = 𝑖1 + 6 Eqn. (b)
Solving Eqns. (a) and (b), we get
i1 = -3.2 A; i2 = 2.8 A ans.

Exercise Problems:
4.3 Write the equations needed to solve for the mesh currents in the circuit shown.

Answer: 𝑖1 = −5𝐴 and 10(𝑖2 − 𝑖1 ) + 5𝑖2 − 100 = 0

4.4 Write the equations needed to solve for the mesh currents in the circuit shown.
Then solve for the currents.

4 1
Answer: 𝑖2 − 𝑖1 = 1 and 5𝑖1 + 10𝑖2 + 10 = 0; 𝑖1 = − 3 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖2 = − 3 𝐴
4.3 Source Transformations
Source transformation as shown as shown in Fig. 4.10 allows a voltage source in
series with a resistor to be replaced by a current source in parallel with the same
resistor or vice versa. The double-headed arrow emphasizes that a source
transformation is bilateral; that is, we can start with either configuration and derive the
other.

Fig. 4.10 Source transformations

Since the two circuits are equal then,
𝑣𝑠
from Fig. 4.10b, 𝑖𝑠 = 𝑅

and from Fig. 4.10a, 𝑣𝑠 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑅.

What happens if there is a resistance Rp in parallel with the voltage source or a

resistance Rs in series with the current source as shown in Fig. 4.11?

Fig. 4.11 Equivalent circuit containing a resistance in parallel with a voltage source
or in series with a current source.

Examples:
Problem 1. For the circuit shown, a) find the power associated with the 6 V source; b)
state whether the 6 V source is absorbing or delivering the power calculated in (a).

Solution:
a) Since the element of interest is the 6 V voltage source, we do the following
steps as shown in the following circuits while preserving the identity of the 6 V
voltage source,
thus, from circuit in step (d) the current in the 6 V voltage source in the direction of the
voltage drop is,
19.2 − 6
𝑖= = 0.825 𝐴
12 + 4
Using the passive sign convention, the power associated with the 6 V voltage source
is,
𝑃6𝑉 = 𝑣𝑖 = (6)(0.825) = 4.95 𝑊 ans.
b) Since the power is positive as a result of applying the passive sign convention,
the 6 V voltage source is absorbing power from the circuit.
Problem 2. a) Use source transformations to find the voltage v o in the circuit shown.
b) Find the power developed by the 250 V voltage source. c) Find the power developed
by the 8 A current source.

Solution:
a) We begin by removing the 125 Ω resistor in parallel with the 250 V voltage
source and the 10 Ω resistor in series with the 8 A current source as shown in
the circuit below,

Performing source transformation for the 250 V source in series with 25 Ω

resistor, the equivalent circuit will then be,
 From the circuit shown above the two current sources can be combined to a
single current source and the three resistors in parallel will also replace by a
single resistor, thus the equivalent circuit becomes,

Using ohm’s law,

𝑣𝑜 = (2)(10) = 20 𝑉 ans.
b) The current supplied by the 250 V voltage source equals the current in the 125
Ω resistor plus the current in the 25 Ω resistor. Thus,
250 250 − 20
𝑖𝑠 = + = 11.2 𝐴
125 25
Therefore, the power developed by the voltage source is
𝑝250𝑉 (𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑) = (250)(11.2) = 2800 𝑊 ans.

c) To find the power developed by the 8 A current source, we first find the voltage
across the source. If we let vs represent the voltage across the 8 A current
source, positive at the upper terminal of the source, we obtain,
𝑣𝑠 + 8(10) = 𝑣𝑜 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑠 = −60 𝑉
The power developed by the 8 A current source is,
𝑝8𝐴 (𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑) = 𝑣𝑖 = −60(8) = −480 𝑊 𝑜𝑟 480 𝑊 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 ans.

Note: The 125 Ω and the 10 Ω resistors do not affect the value of v o but do
affect the calculations for the power.

Exercise Problems:
4.5 a) Use a series of source transformations to find the voltage v in the circuit shown.
b) How much power does the 120 V source deliver to the circuit?

Answer: (a) 48 V; (b) 374.4 W

4.4 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuit
Thevenin equivalent circuit is an independent voltage source VTH in series with a
resistor RTH, which replaces an interconnection of sources and resistors. This series
combination of VTH and RTH is equivalent to the original circuit as shown in the diagram
below,

Fig. 4.11 a) A general circuit; b) The Thevenin equivalent circuit

To find the VTH we replace the given circuit by an open circuit in the pair of terminals
of interest and VTH = Vo while the RTH is the equivalent resistance of the original circuit
looking back at terminals a and b with all sources taken out of the picture that is, all
voltage sources will be replaced by a short circuit and the current sources by open
circuit.
Reducing the load resistance to zero gives us a short circuit condition. If we place a
short circuit across the terminals a,b of the Thevenin equivalent circuit, the short circuit
current directed from a to b is
𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝑖𝑠𝑐 =
𝑅𝑇𝐻
From Ohm’s law, we can say that,
𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = or 𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 𝑖𝑠𝑐 𝑅𝑇𝐻
𝑖𝑠𝑐

Thus the Thevenin resistance is the ratio of the open circuit voltage to the short circuit
current.
Examples:
Problem 1. Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown.

Solution:
We find first the open circuit voltage at terminals a,b using the node – voltage method,
at the upper node of v1 we find,
𝑣1 −25 𝑣
+ 201 − 3 = 0; 𝑣1 = 32 𝑉
5
Since terminals a,b are open circuited, no current is flowing through the 4 Ω resistor,
thus, vab = v1 = v0 = VTH = 32 V.
The next step is to find the short circuit current isc as shown in the circuit,

We use the node – voltage method to find v2,

𝑣2 −25 𝑣 𝑣2
+ 202 − 3 + = 0; 𝑣2 = 16 𝑉
5 4

Solving for isc gives,

𝑣2 16
𝑖𝑠𝑐 = = = 4𝐴
4 4
The Thevenin equivalent resistance RTH is,
𝑉𝑇𝐻 32
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = = =8𝛺
𝑖𝑠𝑐 4
The Thevenin equivalent circuit is,

ans.
Another solution is by using series of source transformations as shown,
 ans.

The Norton Equivalent Circuit

A Norton equivalent circuit consists of an independent current source in parallel with
the Norton equivalent resistance. We can derive it from a Thevenin equivalent circuit
simply by making a source transformation. Thus the Norton current equals the short
circuit current at the terminals of interest, and the Norton resistance is identical to the
Thevenin resistance.

Examples:
Problem 1. Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit shown.

Solution:
We find RN in the same way we find RTH in the Thevenin equivalent circuit. Set the
independent sources to zero. This leads to the equivalent circuit below,
We find RN as,
(8 + 4 + 8)5
𝑅𝑁 = = 4𝛺
(8 + 4 + 8) + 5
To find IN we short circuit the terminals a and b, as shown in the circuit below,

We ignore the 5 Ω resistor because it has been short circuited. Applying mesh –
current method, we obtain
𝑖1 = 2 𝐴, 20𝑖2 − 4𝑖1 − 12 = 0
From these equations, we obtain
𝑖2 = 1 𝐴 = 𝑖𝑠𝑐 = 𝐼𝑁
Alternate solution, we find IN from VTH/RTH. We find VTH as the open circuit voltage
from the circuit shown

Using mesh – current method,

𝑖3 = 2 𝐴;
25𝑖4 − 4𝑖3 − 12 = 0; 𝑖4 = 0.8 𝐴
and
𝑣𝑜𝑐 = 𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 5𝑖4 = 4 𝑉
hence,
𝑉𝑇𝐻 4
𝐼𝑁 = = =1𝐴
𝑅𝑇𝐻 4
Therefore, the Norton equivalent circuit is

ans.
Exercise Problems:
4.6 Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit with respect to terminals a,b in the circuit
shown. Find also I.

Answer: VTH = 6 V, RTH = 3 Ω, I = 1.5 A

4.7 Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit with respect to the terminals a,b for the circuit
shown.

Answer: VTH = 64.8 V, RTH = 6 Ω

4.8 Find the Norton equivalent circuit with respect to the terminals a,b for the circuit
shown.

Answer: IN = 6 A (directed towards a), RN = 7.5 Ω

4.9 A voltmeter with an internal resistance of 100 kΩ is used to measure the voltage
vAB in the circuit shown. What is the voltmeter reading?

Answer: 120 V
4.5 Maximum Power Transfer
The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the maximum power a linear circuit can
deliver to a load. We assume that we can adjust the load resistance R L. If the entire
circuit is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent except for the load, as shown in Fig. 4.12,
the power delivered to the load is
𝑉𝑇𝐻 2
𝑝 = 𝑖 2 𝑅 = (𝑅 ) 𝑅𝐿 (Eqn. 4.1)
𝑇𝐻 +𝑅𝐿

Fig. 4.12 The circuit used for maximum power transfer.

Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the
Thevenin resistance as seen from the load (RL = RTH). This is known as the maximum
power theorem.
Note: In order to prove this theorem, differentiate p from (Eqn. 4.1) with respect to RL
and set the result to zero.
Substituting RL = RTH in Eqn. 4.1, the maximum power transfer is,
𝑉2
𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4𝑅𝑇𝐻 (Eqn. 4.2)
𝑇𝐻

Examples:
Problem 1. Find the value of RL in the circuit shown to ensure maximum power
transfer. Also find the maximum power.

Solution:
To find RTH, solve for the equivalent resistance with respect to terminals a,b as shown
in the circuit,

(6)(12)
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = (3 + 2) + = 9𝛺
6 + 12
To find the VTH, consider the circuit below

Applying mesh - current method

−12 + (6 + 12)𝑖1 − 12𝑖2 = 0; and 𝑖2 = −2 𝐴
Solving for i1,
2
𝑖1 = − 𝐴
3
Applying KVL around the outer loop with current on 2 Ω resistor as zero for open
circuit,
−12 + 6𝑖1 + 3𝑖2 + 2(0) + 𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 0
𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 22 𝑉
For maximum power transfer, RL = RTH = 9 Ω and the maximum power is
2
𝑉𝑇𝐻 222
𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 4(9) = 13.44 𝑊 ans.
4𝑅𝐿

Exercise Problems:
4.10 The analysis of a transistor network resulted in the reduced equivalent as shown.
Find the load resistance that will result in maximum power transfer to the load, and
find the maximum power delivered.

Answer: RL = 40 kΩ; pmax (delivered) = 1 W

4.11 For the circuit shown, find the value of RL for maximum power and also the
maximum power delivered to the load.

Answer: RL = RTH = 15 Ω; pmax (delivered) = 273.07 W

Module Summary:
• For the topics in this module, mastery of some basic terms, and the concepts
they represent, is necessary. Those terms are node, essential node, path,
branch, essential branch, mesh, and planar circuit. Table 4.1 provides
definitions and examples of these terms.
• Two new circuit analysis techniques were introduced in this module:
• The node-voltage method works with both planar and nonplanar circuits. A
reference node is chosen from among the essential nodes. Voltage variables
are assigned at the remaining essential nodes, and Kirchhoff’s current law is
used to write one equation per voltage variable. The number of equations is ne
- 1, where ne is the number of essential nodes.
• The mesh-current method works only with planar circuits. Mesh currents are
assigned to each mesh, and Kirchhoff’s voltage law is used to write one
equation per mesh. The number of equations is b - (n -1), where b is the number
of branches in which the current is unknown, and n is the number of nodes. The
mesh currents are used to find the branch currents.
• Several new circuit simplification techniques were introduced in this module:
• Source transformations allow us to exchange a voltage source (v s) and a
series resistor (R) for a current source (is) and a parallel resistor (R) and vice
versa. The combinations must be equivalent in terms of their terminal voltage
and current. Terminal equivalence holds provided that
𝑣𝑠
𝑖𝑠 =
𝑅
• Thevenin equivalents and Norton equivalents allow us to simplify a circuit
comprised of sources and resistors into an equivalent circuit consisting of a
voltage source and a series resistor (Thevenin) or a current source and a
parallel resistor (Norton). The simplified circuit and the original circuit must be
equivalent in terms of their terminal voltage and current. Thus keep in mind that
(1) the Thevenin voltage (VTH) is the open-circuit voltage across the terminals
of the original circuit, (2) the Thevenin resistance (RTH) is the ratio of the
Thevenin voltage to the short-circuit current across the terminals of the original
circuit; and (3) the Norton equivalent is obtained by performing a source
transformation on a Thevenin equivalent.
• Maximum power transfer is a technique for calculating the maximum value of p
that can be delivered to a load, RL. Maximum power transfer occurs when RL =
RTH, the Thevenin resistance as seen from the resistor RL. The equation for the
maximum power transferred is
2
𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝑝=
4𝑅𝑇𝐻

References:
Alexander, C., & Sadiku, M. (2013). Fundamentals of Electric Circuits (5th ed.)
Nilsson, James and Riedel, Susan (2015). Electric Circuit Analysis (10th ed.)
Bird, J. (2017). Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology (6th ed.)

Johnson, D., Johnson, J., & Hilburn, J. Electric Circuit Analysis (2 nd ed.)