Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 102221

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Journal of King Saud University – Science

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Original article

Depicting of groundwater potential in hard rocks of southwestern Saudi

Arabia using the vertical electrical sounding approach
Saad S. Alarifi ⇑, Kamal Abdelrahman, Bashar Y. Hazaea
Department of Geology and Geophysics, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the hard rock terrains of southwestern Saudi Arabia, vertical electrical soundings (VES) were used to
Received 19 January 2022 demarcate groundwater potential zones. To map the groundwater potential zones, 16 VES were done
Revised 26 February 2022 using a Schlumberger electrode array arrangement. Zond-IP computer software was used to analyze
Accepted 4 July 2022
and interpret field measurements. The pseudo and resistivity cross-sections have been processed. The
Available online 8 July 2022
evaluation of the 1D geoelectrical curves revealed that the area is characterized by three geoelectrical
resistivity layers. The topmost layer of unconsolidated alluvium deposits, which has a wide range of resis-
Keywords:
tivities (42.28 to 297.97 O
m) and a thickness of up to 6 m, is the first of these layers. This range of resis-
Vertical electrical sounding (VES)
Groundwater
tivity is linked to changes in the layer’s lithology and humidity. The second layer’s resistivity values range
Resistivity from 372 to 3625 O
m, while the third layer’s resistivity values range from 1015.37 to 21113 O
m. The
Fractured hard rocks second layer’s resistivity implies fractured and weathered/jointed basement rocks, and the third layer’s
Saudi Arabia resistivity indicates broken to huge basement rocks. According to the findings, the worn and fractured
horizons of basement rocks found in the vicinity are acceptable groundwater potential aquifers. The
degree of weathering and fracture of the foundation rocks, and thus their water saturation, can be linked
to vertical and horizontal variations in resistivity.
Ó 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University. This is an open access
article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction If the fractures are saturated with groundwater, the resistivity

of broken rocks and fresh firm rock will be noticeably different,
Saudi Arabia is one of the driest places, with erratic and unpre- as fractured rocks have a lower resistivity than hard rock (Karous
dictable rainfall. There are numerous ephemeral streams that and Mares, 1988; Rai et al., 2013). One of the geophysical
recharge the aquifers on a regular basis. These groundwater reser- approaches for studying the nature of the flow of electricity
voirs are the country’s most important water sources. Due to rapid beneath the earth’s surface and how to detect it on the surface is
development in the industrial, agricultural, and household sectors, the geoelectrical method (Octova et al., 2018, 2019). It can be
modern civilization is the most populated and prosperous, and known and expected layers of rocks or layers of groundwater
groundwater exploitation is rigorous due to its eternal needs. (aquifer), thickness, and depth by displaying the subsurface resis-
Weathered and cracked basalt confined between weathered over- tivity section of the geoelectrical measurements data.
burden and the hard rock appears to be a source of groundwater. The geoelectrical approach is used to determine the order of
Exploration and use of groundwater resources, then, necessitate a underlying geological layers so that it may be determined whether
thorough understanding of the area’s geology, hydrogeology, and or not an aquifer layer exists (Gisland et al., 2017). One of the old-
geomorphology. est methods of electrical exploration is the vertical electrical
sounding method (VES). It was first used in the twentieth century,
in the twenties. VES’s relative simplicity and clarity led to its
⇑ Corresponding author.
extensive adoption and development all over the world (Sonar
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S.S. Alarifi), [email protected] (K.
Abdelrahman).
et al., 2018). Electrical soundings are still the most common type
Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University.
of exploration today.
Geophysical methods, particularly the VES method, have proven
to be effective in determining the depth of occurrence of fractured
zones and locating groundwater potential well sites in hard rock
Production and hosting by Elsevier terrain, and the electrical resistivity method can be used to

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2022.102221
1018-3647/Ó 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
S.S. Alarifi, K. Abdelrahman and B.Y. Hazaea Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 102221

determine the depth of occurrence of fractured zones and locate der of the Abha District, between latitudes 18°110 0000 N and 18°110
groundwater potential well sites (Singhal, 1997; Yadav and 4100 N and longitudes 42°510 4900 E and 42°520 2800 E. This land is des-
Singh, 2007; Rai et al., 2011; Srivastava et al., 2012; Maiti et al., ignated as an urban extension area for two communities that rely
2013; Ratna Kumari et al., 2012; Kumar et al., 2014; Yousuf on groundwater for agriculture and drinking water. Almadni et al.
et al., 2015; Gupta et al., 2015; Tarawneh and Janardhana, 2017). (2015a,b,c) studied the site response and geotechnical properties
The VES approach has been effectively utilized to assess the forma- of the surface soil and bedrock in the study area. Water scarcity
tion’s thickness and groundwater potential (Raju and Reddy, 1998), for home, agricultural, and industrial reasons exists in the study
and the groundwater potential of fractured hard rock terrains has area, which is a hard rock landscape with undulating topography.
been researched in various regions of the world over the last few
decades.
Gopalan (2011), for example, undertook a systematic electrical 2. Geological setting of the study area
resistivity survey in Kasaragod District, Kerala State, India, to delin-
eate the water-bearing zones in the lateritic plateaus. Al-Amri The Arabian Shield’s deepest erosional level is represented by
(1996) identified an aquifer system linked with fractured diorite the basement rocks uncovered in the research region (Fig. 2). Kha-
and granodiorite basement rocks, which are recharged by wadi mis Mushayt Gneiss represents these basement rocks, and Khamis
alluvium. In addition, in Ikunri Estate, Southwestern Nigeria, Mushayt Gneiss underpins the majority of the examined site.
Ologe and Bankole (2014) used the resistivity method to delineate Banded orthogneiss, migmatite with little amphibolite, and parag-
the fractured basement aquifer, and Chandra et al. (2012) investi- neiss make up these rocks. Numerous pegmatite dikes have
gated a deep potential aquifer in weathered/fractured granite, encroached on this unit. The basement rocks are covered by a
gneiss, and schist crystalline rocks in Dichpally, Nizamabad, India. dry bed of slop-wash alluvial deposits made up of pebbles, gravels,
As illustrated in Fig. 1, the researched region extends from Wadi sands, and clays of varied thickness. Wadi Ar Rabbah, like many
AlRabbah to the southeast of Ahud Rufeidah, on the southern bor- other desert drainage channels, has no external outlet and gener-

Fig. 1. Location map of the study area including VES stations.

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S.S. Alarifi, K. Abdelrahman and B.Y. Hazaea Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 102221

Fig. 2. Geological setting map of Wadi Ar Rabbah (Denis et al., 1991).

ates a gently sloping plain downstream. Running water from the Where they aid the storage and flow of water, these structures
upstream and adjacent worn gneiss basement uphills delivered and lithologic variations are significant. On the other hand,
the alluvium material to the examined site through an incised net- where the groundwater flow in fractured rocks is controlled by
work of narrow and active channels. joints, fractures, shear zones, and faults, dykes can operate as
The underlying weathered readily eroded gneiss basement barriers to water flow (Banks, 1998; Barton, 1996; Clauser,
rocks could be referred to as the presence of such small and narrow 1992).
channels, resulting in an increase in channel depth and groundwa- The basin is a fourth-order basin hydrogeologically, as evi-
ter productivity. The area is structurally defined by left-lateral denced by the stream distribution in the study area map. The
strike-slip faults, right-lateral strike-slip faults, joints, asymmetric basin’s greatest and minimum elevations range from 2036 to
anticline folds, comparable folds, dikes, veins, and veinlets. The 2404 m, with an average elevation of 2220 m above sea level.
most recent structural event is tertiary normal faulting connected The flow of the stream is from southeast to northwest (Fig. 3).
to volcanism and the creation of the Red Sea depression (Coleman The geography influences the flow of the streams, which flow den-
and Brown, 1971). dritically. The third-order stream, seen on the map in light blue,
The study region is clearly defined by the geometry of a wide travels south to north and is structurally regulated and influenced
range of structures and a wide range of lithological variances. by a north–south trending lineament. The lineament zone is the

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S.S. Alarifi, K. Abdelrahman and B.Y. Hazaea Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 102221

Fig. 3. Stream order of Wadi Ar Rabbah basin.

northward extension of the third-order stream that governs its of the current electrode spacing. During the survey, the current
flow. electrodes are separated farther, while the potential electrodes
remain in the same place until the recorded voltage is too low to
3. Data acquisition, processing, and interpretation measure.
The 1-D inversion technique software (Zond-IP) was used to
The well-known hypothesis that electrical resistivity contrasts process the sounding field data in terms of layer parameters. The
exist across lithologic unit interfaces in the subsurface is used for resistivity model is built using this program, which fits the
the interpretation of geoelectrical resistivity data, but that these acquired field data with the least root mean square (RMS) error
contrasts are often sufficient to demarcate discrete geoelectrical between the synthetic data generated from the model and the
layers and identify aquiferous or non-aquiferous layers (Schwarz, actual data. Table 1 shows the real resistivity values for the subsur-
1988). Furthermore, water saturation and water quality have a sig- face layers, as well as their thickness and depth from the ground
nificant impact on the resistivity of earth materials (Lucius et al., surface, as output from the Zond-IP computer software. Fig. 4
2001). depicts representative examples of VES data and interpretation
The field procedure in this investigation was Vertical Electrical outcomes.
Sounding (VES) with a Schlumberger array, which was done at Geoelectrical field curves frequently indicate the character of
16 VES sites. With the current electrode spacing of AB/2 = 150 m, the consecutive lithologic succession in a given place and can thus
the profiles were maintained in regular north–south orientation. be used to assess the groundwater prospect of an area in a qualita-
Four collinear electrodes make up the Schlumberger array. The tive sense (Worthington, 1977). The analysis of the sounding
two electrodes on the outside are current source electrodes, curves can thus be used to calculate the geoelectrical characteris-
whereas the two electrodes on the inside are potential electrodes. tics of the aquifer units. The interpreted resistivity data from the
The potential electrodes are placed in the center of the electrode area shows three geoelectrical resistivity layers based on this
array with a tiny space between them, usually less than one-fifth approach. The topmost layer has a wide range of resistivity values

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S.S. Alarifi, K. Abdelrahman and B.Y. Hazaea Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 102221

Table 1
Results of VES model resistivity values and their corresponding thicknesses.

VES No: Layer 1 Layer 2 Layer 3

Resistivity Thickness Resistivity Thickness Resistivity Thickness
(O.m) (m) (O.m) (m) (O.m) (m)
VES1 55.66 1.2 2132.35 61.6 9743 –
VES2 137.2 1.87 1240 64.85 2391.1 –
VES3 118.28 2.81 1061.34 66 21113.95 –
VES4 97.38 5.7 404.71 55.34 4664.78 –
VES5 42.28 1.98 3625.12 55.62 4889.51 –
VES6 106.16 3.97 1959.87 63.5 3783.75 –
VES7 297.97 2.96 1050.38 63 4899.38 –
VES8 64.72 1.65 887.26 64.3 4878.79 –
VES9 132.85 0.89 2080.57 58 3485 –
VES10 148.9 3.43 1859.1 52.4 2269.51 –
VES11 184.04 3.02 1295.93 59 2111.07 –
VES12 166.81 2.11 1184.26 64 1958.4 –
VES13 172.7 1.59 1486.57 67 2243.85 –
VES14 94.08 1.08 1420.83 68 2211.22 –
VES15 110.97 1.07 697.74 67 1015.37 –
VES16 130.6 5.95 372.76 64 3957 –

(from 42.28 to 297.97 O
m, Table 1) and a thickness of 0.89 to a moderately fractured to a firm and compact basement in the less
5.95 m. fruitful groundwater exploration zone.
This layer is thought to be made up of alluvial sediments rang- The sounding data was also used to create a thorough represen-
ing from sand to silty sand (Fig. 5a). The second geoelectrical resis- tation of the watershed on a horizontal scale across four separate
tivity layer, which can be separated into three geoelectrical parts (Fig. 7).
resistivity zones, lies beneath this layer (Fig. 5b). Low resistivity
readings in the western zone (less than 1200 O
m), indicate the (i) A-B is generated by covering VES S13, S1, S14, and S11;
presence of a worn and heavily fractured basement layer wet with (ii) C-D is generated by covering VES S13, S1, S14, and S11.
fresh water. Meanwhile, the eastern zone has a relatively high (iii) E-F across S11, S15, and S7 of the VES.
resistivity, ranging from 1200 to 2200 O
m, and a thickness of 52 (iv) G-H traversing VES S15, S8, S6, and S4.
to 68 m. This indicates the partially fractured basement rocks.
While the massive basement rocks outcrop in the western side of The resistivity anomaly rises to 60–4899 O
m below station S8,
the study area could explain the zone’s high resistivity (greater indicating a very weathered/fractured basement layer followed by
than 2500 O
m). a firm and large basement layer. Furthermore, the resistivity rises
The low resistivity zone in the second geoelectrical resistivity to 60–887 O
m. This zone has the potential to act as an aquifer.
layer could be interpreted as highly fractured basement rocks sat- However, in the presence of a massive basement, resistivity
urated with fresh water, and thus represent a shallow groundwater increases from 900 to 4899 O
m in the deeper sections. However,
aquifer in the study area, with a maximum depth up to 6 m a falling trend of resistivity from 404 to 697.74 O
m was found at
(Fig. 6a) and a thickness of 52 to 68 m (Fig. 6b). stations S4 and S15, indicating the presence of a heavily worn or
cracked basement and groundwater potential zone. The resistivity
trend increases below the soil layer up to 1015–4664 O
m, indicat-
4. Resistivity cross-sections ing the presence of a hard and vast basement layer.
The presence of a heavily worn or cracked basement that serves
For the VES stations that traverse the investigation region, as a groundwater potential zone is then indicated by a falling resis-
pseudo-cross-sections have been created. There are four cross- tivity anomaly of 404 to 697.74 O
m. At deeper levels, the resistiv-
sections in all. The stations A-B, C-D, E-F, and G-H were used to ity anomaly rises to 4664 O
m, and the resistivity rises from 404 to
generate resistivity cross-sections, with almost horizontal and lin- 697.97 O
m, indicating the presence of a severely weathered/frac-
ear stations being used to produce these cross-sections (Fig. 7). The tured and jointed basement, as well as a groundwater potential
change of resistivity across the spots taken in VES stations was zone. The top layer resistivity (55.66 – 297.97 O
m) is reduced at
demonstrated by the estimated VES pseudo and resistivity cross- all sites, indicating the presence of either soil or water. At S7, the
sections. resistivity trend rises to 4899 O
m, indicating a fresh huge base-
Fig. 7 shows resistivity cross-sections in the research area along ment. Below S4 and S15, the resistivity anomaly drops dramati-
with profiles A-B, C-D, E-F, and G-H. The top green colored layer cally to 404–697 O
m, which could be a groundwater potential
varies between 1.2 and 6 m in all sections, with the surface soil zone. Resistivity rises to 4899 m below ground level, suggesting
layer having a very low resistivity (>55.66 O
m). The low resistivity the existence of hard rocks. The resistivity in the first 3.2 m is
zone (404.71–2132 O
m) can be found up to 60 m below the soil low (42 – 297.97 O
m) at all locations, indicating soft soil. There
layer. This suggests the presence of a worn and cracked basement is a progressive increase in resistivity (1015–9743 O
m) at all loca-
layer as well as a productive groundwater zone. The viable zone at tions, indicating a hard or massive basement.
station S14 stretches up to 68 m, indicating a very worn or cracked
basement. The falling high resistivity zone, on the other hand, is 5. Discussion and conclusion
sandwiched between layers of low resistivity. The resistivity
anomaly at stations S4, S15, S8, and S6 is constantly decreasing, In order to delineate a shallow groundwater aquifer in the
indicating a possible zone for groundwater occurrence. research area, a resistivity survey was done in the wadi Ar rabbah
The trend is increasing (1859 to 2132.35 O
m) as you fall 68 m area in the southwest section of the Arabian Shield. These rocks are
down at stations S10, S6, S9, and S1. This suggests a transition from considerably worn and fractured in numerous areas, which may
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S.S. Alarifi, K. Abdelrahman and B.Y. Hazaea Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 102221

Fig. 4. The constructed one-dimensional inverse model with true resistivity, thickness, and depth to the top of each layer.

increase their porosity and permeability, according to the field sur- results show that there are three layers, with the first layer’s resis-
vey. As a result, these worn and fractured basement rocks can serve tivity ranging from 42 to 297 O
m, the second layer’s resistivity
as a stable aquifer and a significant source of groundwater. ranging from 372 to 3625 O
m, and the third layer’s resistivity val-
Vertical electrical soundings were carried out utilizing a Sch- ues ranging from 1015.37 to 21113 O
m.
lumberger setup with half-spaced current electrodes that reached The VES station’s results are closely associated with the geolog-
a depth of 150 m. During the field data collection, and Iris Syscal ical environment of the research area, which includes lateral litho-
R2 field resistivitymeter was employed. In the study area, 16 VES logical differences and varying degrees of weathering and
stations were used to collect data. The data analysis and resistivity fracturing. Geoelectrical investigations confirm this, revealing a

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S.S. Alarifi, K. Abdelrahman and B.Y. Hazaea Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 102221

Fig. 5. Contour maps for the true resistivity (ohm m), a) for the alluvial topmost layer, b) for the second highly fractured/weathered basement.

wide variety of resistivity levels throughout the studied area. The bearing weathered/fractured basement can be found at depths
topmost geoelectrical layer has a wide range of resistivity, indicat- ranging from 1 up to 6 m. The water-bearing rock unit is covered
ing dry gravelly to sandy soil with a 6 m thickness; the second geo- by a thin layer of wadi alluvium deposits. The arid climate of the
electrical layer has moderate resistivities, indicating weathered research area contributes to the thinness of this worn and frag-
and highly fractured basement; and the third geoelectrical layer mented unit (Singhal and Gupta, 1999). The degree of fracturing
has high to very high resistivity values, indicating massive (unfrac- and weathering, and thus the degree of water saturation, are
tured) basement. related to the geoelectrical resistivity of these rocks.
The presence of a shallow groundwater aquifer hosted by worn The extent of groundwater storage and flow in these fractured
and cracked basement rocks was discovered by interpreting the basement rocks is influenced by the degree of fracturing and frac-
vertical electrical soundings (VES) sections. The aquifer’s ground- ture connectivity (Cook, 2003; Almadani et al., 2019). This is
water is mostly constrained to the fracture zones. A water- because the cracks operate as conduits for groundwater flow in a

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S.S. Alarifi, K. Abdelrahman and B.Y. Hazaea Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 102221

Fig. 6. Contour maps for thickness (m), a) for the alluvial topmost layer, b) for the second highly fractured/weathered basement.

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S.S. Alarifi, K. Abdelrahman and B.Y. Hazaea Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 102221

Fig. 7. Geoelectric cross-section representing the VES stations conducted across the area.

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Declaration of Competing Interest M.E.R.C. Ain Shams Univ. Earth Sci. Ser. 10, 41–52.
Almadani, S., Abdelrahman, K., Ibrahim, E., Al-Bassam, A., Al-Shmrani, A., 2015a. Site
response assessment of an urban extension site using microtremor
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan- measurements, Ahud Rufeidah, Abha District, Southwest Saudi Arabia. Arab. J.
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared Geosci. 8 (4), 2347–2357.
to influence the work reported in this paper. Almadani, S., Al-Amri, A., Fnais, M., Abdelrahman, K., Ibrahim, E., Abd El-Motaal, E.,
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Almadani, S., Ibrahim, E., Abdelrahman, K., Al-Bassam, A., Al-Shmrani, A., 2015c.
Magnetic and seismic refraction survey for site investigation of an urban
This article has been supported by Researchers Supporting Project expansion site in Abha District, Southwest Saudi Arabia. Arab. J. Geosci. 8 (4),
number (RSP2022R496), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia 2299–2312.

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S.S. Alarifi, K. Abdelrahman and B.Y. Hazaea Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 102221

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