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Algebra

Elementary algebra studies which values solve

equations formed using arithmetical operations.

Abstract algebra studies algebraic structures, such as

the ring of integers given by the set of integers
together with operations of addition ( ) and
multiplication ( ).

Algebra is the branch of mathematics that studies certain abstract systems, known as algebraic
structures, and the manipulation of expressions within those systems. It is a generalization of
arithmetic that introduces variables and algebraic operations other than the standard arithmetic
operations such as addition and multiplication.

Elementary algebra is the main form of algebra taught in schools. It examines mathematical
statements using variables for unspecified values and seeks to determine for which values the
statements are true. To do so, it uses different methods of transforming equations to isolate variables.
Linear algebra is a closely related field that investigates linear equations and combinations of them
called systems of linear equations. It provides methods to find the values that solve all equations in
the system at the same time, and to study the set of these solutions.

Abstract algebra studies algebraic structures, which consist of a set of mathematical objects together
with one or several operations defined on that set. It is a generalization of elementary and linear
algebra, since it allows mathematical objects other than numbers and non-arithmetic operations. It
distinguishes between different types of algebraic structures, such as groups, rings, and fields, based
on the number of operations they use and the laws they follow, called axioms. Universal algebra and
category theory provide general frameworks to investigate abstract patterns that characterize
different classes of algebraic structures.

Algebraic methods were first studied in the ancient period to solve specific problems in fields like
geometry. Subsequent mathematicians examined general techniques to solve equations independent
of their specific applications. They described equations and their solutions using words and
abbreviations until the 16th and 17th centuries, when a rigorous symbolic formalism was developed.
In the mid-19th century, the scope of algebra broadened beyond a theory of equations to cover diverse

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types of algebraic operations and structures. Algebra is relevant to many branches of mathematics,
such as geometry, topology, number theory, and calculus, and other fields of inquiry, like logic and the
empirical sciences.

Definition and etymology

Algebra is the branch of mathematics that studies algebraic structures and the operations they use.[1]
An algebraic structure is a non-empty set of mathematical objects, such as the integers, together with
algebraic operations defined on that set, like addition and multiplication.[2][a] Algebra explores the
laws, general characteristics, and types of algebraic structures. Within certain algebraic structures, it
examines the use of variables in equations and how to manipulate these equations.[4][b]

Algebra is often understood as a generalization of arithmetic.[8] Arithmetic studies operations like

addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, in a particular domain of numbers, such as the real
numbers.[9] Elementary algebra constitutes the first level of abstraction. Like arithmetic, it restricts
itself to specific types of numbers and operations. It generalizes these operations by allowing
indefinite quantities in the form of variables in addition to numbers.[10] A higher level of abstraction
is found in abstract algebra, which is not limited to a particular domain and examines algebraic
structures such as groups and rings. It extends beyond typical arithmetic operations by also covering
other types of operations.[11] Universal algebra is still more abstract in that it is not interested in
specific algebraic structures but investigates the characteristics of algebraic structures in general.[12]

The word algebra comes

from the title of al-
Khwarizmi's book Al-Jabr.[13]

The term "algebra" is sometimes used in a more narrow sense to refer only to elementary algebra or
only to abstract algebra.[14] When used as a countable noun, an algebra is a specific type of algebraic
structure that involves a vector space equipped with a certain type of binary operation.[15] Depending
on the context, "algebra" can also refer to other algebraic structures, like a Lie algebra or an
associative algebra.[16]

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The word algebra comes from the Arabic term ‫( الجبر‬al-jabr), which originally referred to the surgical
treatment of bonesetting. In the 9th century, the term received a mathematical meaning when the
Persian mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi employed it to describe a method of
solving equations and used it in the title of a treatise on algebra, al-Kitāb al-Mukhtaṣar fī Ḥisāb al-
Jabr wal-Muqābalah [The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing] which
was translated into Latin as Liber Algebrae et Almucabola.[c] The word entered the English language
in the 16th century from Italian, Spanish, and medieval Latin.[18] Initially, its meaning was restricted
to the theory of equations, that is, to the art of manipulating polynomial equations in view of solving
them. This changed in the 19th century[d] when the scope of algebra broadened to cover the study of
diverse types of algebraic operations and structures together with their underlying axioms, the laws
they follow.[21]

Major branches

Elementary algebra

Algebraic expression notation:

1 – power (exponent)
2 – coefficient
3 – term
4 – operator
5 – constant term
– constant
– variables

Elementary algebra, also called school algebra, college algebra, and classical algebra,[22] is the oldest
and most basic form of algebra. It is a generalization of arithmetic that relies on variables and
examines how mathematical statements may be transformed.[23]

Arithmetic is the study of numerical operations and investigates how numbers are combined and
transformed using the arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
exponentiation, extraction of roots, and logarithm. For example, the operation of addition combines
two numbers, called the addends, into a third number, called the sum, as in .[9]

Elementary algebra relies on the same operations while allowing variables in addition to regular
numbers. Variables are symbols for unspecified or unknown quantities. They make it possible to state
relationships for which one does not know the exact values and to express general laws that are true,
independent of which numbers are used. For example, the equation belongs to

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arithmetic and expresses an equality only for these specific numbers. By replacing the numbers with
variables, it is possible to express a general law that applies to any possible combination of numbers,
like the commutative property of multiplication, which is expressed in the equation .[23]

Algebraic expressions are formed by using arithmetic operations to combine variables and numbers.
By convention, the lowercase letters , , and represent variables. In some cases, subscripts are
added to distinguish variables, as in , , and . The lowercase letters , , and are usually used
for constants and coefficients.[e] The expression is an algebraic expression created by
multiplying the number 5 with the variable and adding the number 3 to the result. Other examples
of algebraic expressions are and .[25]

Some algebraic expressions take the form of statements that relate two expressions to one another. An
equation is a statement formed by comparing two expressions, saying that they are equal. This can be
expressed using the equals sign ( ), as in . Inequations involve a different type of
comparison, saying that the two sides are different. This can be expressed using symbols such as the
less-than sign ( ), the greater-than sign ( ), and the inequality sign ( ). Unlike other expressions,
statements can be true or false, and their truth value usually depends on the values of the variables.
For example, the statement is true if is either 2 or −2 and false otherwise.[26] Equations with
variables can be divided into identity equations and conditional equations. Identity equations are true
for all values that can be assigned to the variables, such as the equation . Conditional
equations are only true for some values. For example, the equation is only true if is 5.[27]

The main goal of elementary algebra is to determine the values for which a statement is true. This can
be achieved by transforming and manipulating statements according to certain rules. A key principle
guiding this process is that whatever operation is applied to one side of an equation also needs to be
done to the other side. For example, if one subtracts 5 from the left side of an equation one also needs
to subtract 5 from the right side to balance both sides. The goal of these steps is usually to isolate the
variable one is interested in on one side, a process known as solving the equation for that variable. For
example, the equation can be solved for by adding 7 to both sides, which isolates on the
left side and results in the equation .[28]

There are many other techniques used to solve equations. Simplification is employed to replace a
complicated expression with an equivalent simpler one. For example, the expression can be
replaced with the expression since by the distributive property. [29] For
statements with several variables, substitution is a common technique to replace one variable with an
equivalent expression that does not use this variable. For example, if one knows that then one
can simplify the expression to arrive at . In a similar way, if one knows the value of one
variable one may be able to use it to determine the value of other variables.[30]

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Algebraic equations can be used to

describe geometric figures. All
values for and that solve the
equation are interpreted as points.
They are drawn as a red, upward-
sloping line in the graph above.

Algebraic equations can be interpreted geometrically to describe spatial figures in the form of a graph.
To do so, the different variables in the equation are understood as coordinates and the values that
solve the equation are interpreted as points of a graph. For example, if is set to zero in the equation
, then must be −1 for the equation to be true. This means that the -pair is
part of the graph of the equation. The -pair , by contrast, does not solve the equation and is
therefore not part of the graph. The graph encompasses the totality of -pairs that solve the
equation. [31]

Polynomials
A polynomial is an expression consisting of one or more terms that are added or subtracted from each
other, like . Each term is either a constant, a variable, or a product of a constant
and variables. Each variable can be raised to a positive-integer power. A monomial is a polynomial
with one term while two- and three-term polynomials are called binomials and trinomials. The degree
of a polynomial is the maximal value (among its terms) of the sum of the exponents of the variables (4
in the above example).[32] Polynomials of degree one are called linear polynomials. Linear algebra
studies systems of linear polynomials.[33] A polynomial is said to be univariate or multivariate,
depending on whether it uses one or more variables.[34]

Factorization is a method used to simplify polynomials, making it easier to analyze them and
determine the values for which they evaluate to zero. Factorization consists in rewriting a polynomial
as a product of several factors. For example, the polynomial can be factorized as
. The polynomial as a whole is zero if and only if one of its factors is zero, i.e., if is
either −2 or 5.[35] Before the 19th century, much of algebra was devoted to polynomial equations, that
is equations obtained by equating a polynomial to zero. The first attempts for solving polynomial
equations were to express the solutions in terms of nth roots. The solution of a second-degree
polynomial equation of the form is given by the quadratic formula[36]

Solutions for the degrees 3 and 4 are given by the cubic and quartic formulas. There are no general

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solutions for higher degrees, as proven in the 19th century by the Abel–Ruffini theorem.[37] Even
when general solutions do not exist, approximate solutions can be found by numerical tools like the
Newton–Raphson method.[38]

The fundamental theorem of algebra asserts that every univariate polynomial equation of positive
degree with real or complex coefficients has at least one complex solution. Consequently, every
polynomial of a positive degree can be factorized into linear polynomials. This theorem was proved at
the beginning of the 19th century, but this does not close the problem since the theorem does not
provide any way for computing the solutions.[39]

Linear algebra
Linear algebra starts with the study systems of linear equations.[40] An equation is linear if it can be
expressed in the form where , , ..., and are constants.
Examples are and . A system of linear equations is a set of linear
equations for which one is interested in common solutions.[41]

Matrices are rectangular arrays of values that have been originally introduced for having a compact
and synthetic notation for systems of linear equations.[42] For example, the system of equations

can be written as

where and are the matrices

Under some conditions on the number of rows and columns, matrices can be added, multiplied, and
sometimes inverted. All methods for solving linear systems may be expressed as matrix manipulations
using these operations. For example, solving the above system consists of computing an inverted
matrix such that where is the identity matrix. Then, multiplying on the left both
members of the above matrix equation by one gets the solution of the system of linear equations
as[43]

Methods of solving systems of linear equations range from the introductory, like substitution[44] and
elimination,[45] to more advanced techniques using matrices, such as Cramer's rule, the Gaussian
elimination, and LU decomposition.[46] Some systems of equations are inconsistent, meaning that no
solutions exist because the equations contradict each other.[47][f] Consistent systems have either one
unique solution or an infinite number of solutions.[48][g]

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The study of vector spaces and linear maps form a large part of linear algebra. A vector space is an
algebraic structure formed by a set with an addition that makes it an abelian group and a scalar
multiplication that is compatible with addition (see vector space for details). A linear map is a
function between vector spaces that is compatible with addition and scalar multiplication. In the case
of finite-dimensional vector spaces, vectors and linear maps can be represented by matrices. It follows
that the theories of matrices and finite-dimensional vector spaces are essentially the same. In
particular, vector spaces provide a third way for expressing and manipulating systems of linear
equations.[49] From this perspective, a matrix is a representation of a linear map: if one chooses a
particular basis to describe the vectors being transformed, then the entries in the matrix give the
results of applying the linear map to the basis vectors.[50]

Linear equations with two variables

can be interpreted geometrically as
lines. The solution of a system of
linear equations is where the lines
intersect.

Systems of equations can be interpreted as geometric figures. For systems with two variables, each
equation represents a line in two-dimensional space. The point where the two lines intersect is the
solution of the full system because this is the only point that solves both the first and the second
equation. For inconsistent systems, the two lines run parallel, meaning that there is no solution since
they never intersect. If two equations are not independent then they describe the same line, meaning
that every solution of one equation is also a solution of the other equation. These relations make it
possible to seek solutions graphically by plotting the equations and determining where they
intersect.[51] The same principles also apply to systems of equations with more variables, with the
difference being that the equations do not describe lines but higher dimensional figures. For instance,
equations with three variables correspond to planes in three-dimensional space, and the points where
all planes intersect solve the system of equations.[52]

Abstract algebra
Abstract algebra, also called modern algebra,[53] is the study of algebraic structures. An algebraic
structure is a framework for understanding operations on mathematical objects, like the addition of
numbers. While elementary algebra and linear algebra work within the confines of particular
algebraic structures, abstract algebra takes a more general approach that compares how algebraic
structures differ from each other and what types of algebraic structures there are, such as groups,

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rings, and fields.[54] The key difference between these types of algebraic structures lies in the number
of operations they use and the laws they obey.[55] In mathematics education, abstract algebra refers to
an advanced undergraduate course that mathematics majors take after completing courses in linear
algebra.[56]

Many algebraic structures rely on

binary operations, which take two
objects as their input and combine
them into a single object as output,
like addition and multiplication do.

On a formal level, an algebraic structure is a set[h] of mathematical objects, called the underlying set,
together with one or several operations.[i] Abstract algebra is primarily interested in binary
operations,[j] which take any two objects from the underlying set as inputs and map them to another
object from this set as output.[60] For example, the algebraic structure has the natural
[58]
numbers ( ) as the underlying set and addition ( ) as its binary operation. The underlying set can
contain mathematical objects other than numbers, and the operations are not restricted to regular
arithmetic operations.[61] For instance, the underlying set of the symmetry group of a geometric
object is made up of geometric transformations, such as rotations, under which the object remains
unchanged. Its binary operation is function composition, which takes two transformations as input
and has the transformation resulting from applying the first transformation followed by the second as
its output.[62]

Group theory
Abstract algebra classifies algebraic structures based on the laws or axioms that its operations obey
and the number of operations it uses. One of the most basic types is a group, which has one operation
and requires that this operation is associative and has an identity element and inverse elements. An
operation is associative if the order of several applications does not matter, i.e., if [k] is the

same as for all elements. An operation has an identity element or a neutral element if one
element e exists that does not change the value of any other element, i.e., if . An
operation has inverse elements if for any element there exists a reciprocal element that undoes
. If an element operates on its inverse then the result is the neutral element e, expressed formally as
. Every algebraic structure that fulfills these requirements is a group.[64] For
example, is a group formed by the set of integers together with the operation of addition. The

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neutral element is 0 and the inverse element of any number is .[65] The natural numbers with
addition, by contrast, do not form a group since they contain only positive integers and therefore lack
inverse elements.[66]

Group theory examines the nature of groups, with basic theorems such as the fundamental theorem of
finite abelian groups and the Feit–Thompson theorem.[67] The latter was a key early step in one of the
most important mathematical achievements of the 20th century: the collaborative effort, taking up
more than 10,000 journal pages and mostly published between 1960 and 2004, that culminated in a
complete classification of finite simple groups.[68]

Ring theory and field theory

A ring is an algebraic structure with two operations that work similarly to addition and multiplication
of numbers and are named and generally denoted similarly. A ring is a commutative group under
addition: the addition of the ring is associative, commutative, and has an identity element and inverse
elements. The multiplication is associative and distributive with respect to addition; that is,
and Moreover, multiplication is associative and has an
identity element generally denoted as 1. [69][l] Multiplication needs not to be commutative; if it is
commutative, one has a commutative ring. [71] The ring of integers ( ) is one of the simplest
commutative rings. [72]

A field is a commutative ring such that ⁠ ⁠ and each nonzero element has a multiplicative
[73]
inverse. The ring of integers does not form a field because it lacks multiplicative inverses. For
example, the multiplicative inverse of is , which is not an integer. The rational numbers, the real
numbers, and the complex numbers each form a field with the operations of addition and
multiplication.[74]

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Ring theory is the study of rings, exploring concepts such as subrings, quotient rings, polynomial
rings, and ideals as well as theorems such as Hilbert's basis theorem.[75] Field theory is concerned
with fields, examining field extensions, algebraic closures, and finite fields.[76] Galois theory explores
the relation between field theory and group theory, relying on the fundamental theorem of Galois
theory.[77]

Theories of interrelations among structures

Diagram of relations between some

algebraic structures. For instance,
its top right section shows that a
magma becomes a semigroup if its
operation is associative.

Besides groups, rings, and fields, there are many other algebraic structures studied by algebra. They
include magmas, semigroups, monoids, abelian groups, commutative rings, modules, lattices, vector
spaces, algebras over a field, and associative and non-associative algebras. They differ from each other
in regard to the types of objects they describe and the requirements that their operations fulfill. Many
are related to each other in that a basic structure can be turned into a more advanced structure by
adding additional requirements.[55] For example, a magma becomes a semigroup if its operation is
associative.[78]

Homomorphisms are tools to examine structural features by comparing two algebraic structures.[79]
A homomorphism is a function from the underlying set of one algebraic structure to the underlying
set of another algebraic structure that preserves certain structural characteristics. If the two algebraic
structures use binary operations and have the form and then the function is
a homomorphism if it fulfills the following requirement: . The existence of a
homomorphism reveals that the operation in the second algebraic structure plays the same role as
the operation does in the first algebraic structure.[80] Isomorphisms are a special type of
homomorphism that indicates a high degree of similarity between two algebraic structures. An
isomorphism is a bijective homomorphism, meaning that it establishes a one-to-one relationship
between the elements of the two algebraic structures. This implies that every element of the first
algebraic structure is mapped to one unique element in the second structure without any unmapped
elements in the second structure.[81]

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Subalgebras restrict their operations

to a subset of the underlying set of
the original algebraic structure.

Another tool of comparison is the relation between an algebraic structure and its subalgebra.[82] The
algebraic structure and its subalgebra use the same operations,[m] which follow the same axioms. The
only difference is that the underlying set of the subalgebra is a subset of the underlying set of the
algebraic structure.[n] All operations in the subalgebra are required to be closed in its underlying set,
meaning that they only produce elements that belong to this set.[82] For example, the set of even
integers together with addition is a subalgebra of the full set of integers together with addition. This is
the case because the sum of two even numbers is again an even number. But the set of odd integers
together with addition is not a subalgebra because it is not closed: adding two odd numbers produces
an even number, which is not part of the chosen subset.[83]

Universal algebra is the study of algebraic structures in general. As part of its general perspective, it is
not concerned with the specific elements that make up the underlying sets and considers operations
with more than two inputs, such as ternary operations. It provides a framework for investigating what
structural features different algebraic structures have in common.[85][o] One of those structural
features concerns the identities that are true in different algebraic structures. In this context, an
identity is a universal equation or an equation that is true for all elements of the underlying set. For
example, commutativity is a universal equation that states that is identical to for all
elements. [87] A variety is a class of all algebraic structures that satisfy certain identities. For example,
if two algebraic structures satisfy commutativity then they are both part of the corresponding
variety.[88][p][q]

Category theory examines how mathematical objects are related to each other using the concept of
categories. A category is a collection of objects together with a collection of morphisms or "arrows"
between those objects. These two collections must satisfy certain conditions. For example, morphisms
can be joined, or composed: if there exists a morphism from object to object , and another
morphism from object to object , then there must also exist one from object to object .
Composition of morphisms is required to be associative, and there must be an "identity morphism"
for every object.[92] Categories are widely used in contemporary mathematics since they provide a

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unifying framework to describe and analyze many fundamental mathematical concepts. For example,
sets can be described with the category of sets, and any group can be regarded as the morphisms of a
category with just one object.[93]

History

The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus

from ancient Egypt, dated
c. 1650 BCE, is one of the earliest
documents discussing algebraic
problems.

The origin of algebra lies in attempts to solve mathematical problems involving arithmetic
calculations and unknown quantities. These developments happened in the ancient period in
Babylonia, Egypt, Greece, China, and India. One of the earliest documents on algebraic problems is
the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus from ancient Egypt, which was written around 1650 BCE.[r] It
discusses solutions to linear equations, as expressed in problems like "A quantity; its fourth is added
to it. It becomes fifteen. What is the quantity?" Babylonian clay tablets from around the same time
explain methods to solve linear and quadratic polynomial equations, such as the method of
completing the square.[95]

Many of these insights found their way to the ancient Greeks. Starting in the 6th century BCE, their
main interest was geometry rather than algebra, but they employed algebraic methods to solve
geometric problems. For example, they studied geometric figures while taking their lengths and areas
as unknown quantities to be determined, as exemplified in Pythagoras' formulation of the difference
of two squares method and later in Euclid's Elements.[96] In the 3rd century CE, Diophantus provided
a detailed treatment of how to solve algebraic equations in a series of books called Arithmetica. He
was the first to experiment with symbolic notation to express polynomials.[97] Diophantus's work
influenced Arab development of algebra with many of his methods reflected in the concepts and
techniques used in medieval Arabic algebra.[98] In ancient China, The Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art, a book composed over the period spanning from the 10th century BCE to the 2nd
century CE,[99] explored various techniques for solving algebraic equations, including the use of
matrix-like constructs.[100]

There is no unanimity as to whether these early developments are part of algebra or only precursors.
They offered solutions to algebraic problems but did not conceive them in an abstract and general
manner, focusing instead on specific cases and applications.[101] This changed with the Persian
mathematician al-Khwarizmi,[s] who published his The Compendious Book on Calculation by
Completion and Balancing in 825 CE. It presents the first detailed treatment of general methods that

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can be used to manipulate linear and quadratic equations by "reducing" and "balancing" both
sides.[103] Other influential contributions to algebra came from the Arab mathematician Thābit ibn
Qurra also in the 9th century and the Persian mathematician Omar Khayyam in the 11th and 12th
centuries.[104]

In India, Brahmagupta investigated how to solve quadratic equations and systems of equations with
several variables in the 7th century CE. Among his innovations were the use of zero and negative
numbers in algebraic equations.[105] The Indian mathematicians Mahāvīra in the 9th century and
Bhāskara II in the 12th century further refined Brahmagupta's methods and concepts.[106] In 1247,
the Chinese mathematician Qin Jiushao wrote the Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections, which
includes an algorithm for the numerical evaluation of polynomials, including polynomials of higher
degrees.[107]

François Viète (left) and René Descartes invented a symbolic notation to express equations in an abstract and
concise manner.

The Italian mathematician Fibonacci brought al-Khwarizmi's ideas and techniques to Europe in books
including his Liber Abaci.[108] In 1545, the Italian polymath Gerolamo Cardano published his book
Ars Magna, which covered many topics in algebra, discussed imaginary numbers, and was the first to
present general methods for solving cubic and quartic equations.[109] In the 16th and 17th centuries,
the French mathematicians François Viète and René Descartes introduced letters and symbols to
denote variables and operations, making it possible to express equations in an abstract and concise
manner. Their predecessors had relied on verbal descriptions of problems and solutions.[110] Some
historians see this development as a key turning point in the history of algebra and consider what
came before it as the prehistory of algebra because it lacked the abstract nature based on symbolic
manipulation.[111]

In the 17th and 18th centuries, many attempts were made to find general solutions to polynomials of
degree five and higher. All of them failed.[37] At the end of the 18th century, the German
mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss proved the fundamental theorem of algebra, which describes the
existence of zeros of polynomials of any degree without providing a general solution.[19] At the
beginning of the 19th century, the Italian mathematician Paolo Ruffini and the Norwegian
mathematician Niels Henrik Abel were able to show that no general solution exists for polynomials of
degree five and higher.[37] In response to and shortly after their findings, the French mathematician
Évariste Galois developed what came later to be known as Galois theory, which offered a more in-

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depth analysis of the solutions of polynomials while also laying the foundation of group theory.[20]
Mathematicians soon realized the relevance of group theory to other fields and applied it to
disciplines like geometry and number theory.[112]

Garrett Birkhoff developed

many of the foundational
concepts of universal
algebra.

Starting in the mid-19th century, interest in algebra shifted from the study of polynomials associated
with elementary algebra towards a more general inquiry into algebraic structures, marking the
emergence of abstract algebra. This approach explored the axiomatic basis of arbitrary algebraic
operations.[113] The invention of new algebraic systems based on different operations and elements
accompanied this development, such as Boolean algebra, vector algebra, and matrix algebra.[114]
Influential early developments in abstract algebra were made by the German mathematicians David
Hilbert, Ernst Steinitz, and Emmy Noether as well as the Austrian mathematician Emil Artin. They
researched different forms of algebraic structures and categorized them based on their underlying
axioms into types, like groups, rings, and fields.[115]

The idea of the even more general approach associated with universal algebra was conceived by the
English mathematician Alfred North Whitehead in his 1898 book A Treatise on Universal Algebra.
Starting in the 1930s, the American mathematician Garrett Birkhoff expanded these ideas and
developed many of the foundational concepts of this field.[116] The invention of universal algebra led
to the emergence of various new areas focused on the algebraization of mathematics—that is, the
application of algebraic methods to other branches of mathematics. Topological algebra arose in the
early 20th century, studying algebraic structures such as topological groups and Lie groups.[117] In the
1940s and 50s, homological algebra emerged, employing algebraic techniques to study homology.[118]
Around the same time, category theory was developed and has since played a key role in the
foundations of mathematics.[119] Other developments were the formulation of model theory and the
study of free algebras.[120]

Applications

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The influence of algebra is wide-reaching, both within mathematics and in its applications to other
fields.[121] The algebraization of mathematics is the process of applying algebraic methods and
principles to other branches of mathematics, such as geometry, topology, number theory, and
calculus. It happens by employing symbols in the form of variables to express mathematical insights
on a more general level, allowing mathematicians to develop formal models describing how objects
interact and relate to each other.[122]

The algebraic equation

describes a
sphere at the origin with a radius of
1.

One application, found in geometry, is the use of algebraic statements to describe geometric figures.
For example, the equation describes a line in two-dimensional space while the equation
corresponds to a sphere in three-dimensional space. Of special interest to algebraic
geometry are algebraic varieties,[t] which are solutions to systems of polynomial equations that can be
used to describe more complex geometric figures.[124] Algebraic reasoning can also solve geometric
problems. For example, one can determine whether and where the line described by
intersects with the circle described by by solving the system of equations made up of
these two equations. [125] Topology studies the properties of geometric figures or topological spaces
that are preserved under operations of continuous deformation. Algebraic topology relies on algebraic
theories such as group theory to classify topological spaces. For example, homotopy groups classify
topological spaces based on the existence of loops or holes in them.[126]

Number theory is concerned with the properties of and relations between integers. Algebraic number
theory applies algebraic methods and principles to this field of inquiry. Examples are the use of
algebraic expressions to describe general laws, like Fermat's Last Theorem, and of algebraic structures
to analyze the behavior of numbers, such as the ring of integers.[127] The related field of combinatorics
uses algebraic techniques to solve problems related to counting, arrangement, and combination of
discrete objects. An example in algebraic combinatorics is the application of group theory to analyze
graphs and symmetries.[128] The insights of algebra are also relevant to calculus, which uses
mathematical expressions to examine rates of change and accumulation. It relies on algebra, for
instance, to understand how these expressions can be transformed and what role variables play in
them.[129] Algebraic logic employs the methods of algebra to describe and analyze the structures and
patterns that underlie logical reasoning,[130] exploring both the relevant mathematical structures
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themselves and their application to concrete problems of logic.[131] It includes the study of Boolean
algebra to describe propositional logic[132] as well as the formulation and analysis of algebraic
structures corresponding to more complex systems of logic.[133]

The faces of a Rubik's cube

can be rotated to change the
arrangement of colored
patches. The resulting
permutations form a group
called the Rubik's Cube
group.[134]

Algebraic methods are also commonly employed in other areas, like the natural sciences. For
example, they are used to express scientific laws and solve equations in physics, chemistry, and
biology.[135] Similar applications are found in fields like economics, geography, engineering
(including electronics and robotics), and computer science to express relationships, solve problems,
and model systems.[136] Linear algebra plays a central role in artificial intelligence and machine
learning, for instance, by enabling the efficient processing and analysis of large datasets.[137] Various
fields rely on algebraic structures investigated by abstract algebra. For example, physical sciences like
crystallography and quantum mechanics make extensive use of group theory,[138] which is also
employed to study puzzles such as Sudoku and Rubik's cubes,[139] and origami.[140] Both coding
theory and cryptology rely on abstract algebra to solve problems associated with data transmission,
like avoiding the effects of noise and ensuring data security.[141]

Education

Balance scales are used in algebra education to

help students understand how equations can be
transformed to determine unknown values.[142]

Algebra education mostly focuses on elementary algebra, which is one of the reasons why elementary
algebra is also called school algebra. It is usually not introduced until secondary education since it
requires mastery of the fundamentals of arithmetic while posing new cognitive challenges associated
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with abstract reasoning and generalization.[143] It aims to familiarize students with the formal side of
mathematics by helping them understand mathematical symbolism, for example, how variables can
be used to represent unknown quantities. An additional difficulty for students lies in the fact that,
unlike arithmetic calculations, algebraic expressions are often difficult to solve directly. Instead,
students need to learn how to transform them according to certain laws, often with the goal of
determining an unknown quantity.[144]

Some tools to introduce students to the abstract side of algebra rely on concrete models and
visualizations of equations, including geometric analogies, manipulatives including sticks or cups, and
"function machines" representing equations as flow diagrams. One method uses balance scales as a
pictorial approach to help students grasp basic problems of algebra. The mass of some objects on the
scale is unknown and represents variables. Solving an equation corresponds to adding and removing
objects on both sides in such a way that the sides stay in balance until the only object remaining on
one side is the object of unknown mass.[145] Word problems are another tool to show how algebra is
applied to real-life situations. For example, students may be presented with a situation in which
Naomi's brother has twice as many apples as Naomi. Given that both together have twelve apples,
students are then asked to find an algebraic equation that describes this situation ( ) and
to determine how many apples Naomi has ( [146]
).

At the university level, mathematics students encounter advanced algebra topics from linear and
abstract algebra. Initial undergraduate courses in linear algebra focus on matrices, vector spaces, and
linear maps. Upon completing them, students are usually introduced to abstract algebra, where they
learn about algebraic structures like groups, rings, and fields, as well as the relations between them.
The curriculum typically also covers specific instances of algebraic structures, such as the systems of
the rational numbers, the real numbers, and the polynomials.[147]

See also
Algebra over a set – Algebraic concept in measure theory, also referred to as an algebra of sets
Algebra tile – Type of mathematical manipulative
Algebraic combinatorics – Area of combinatorics
C*-algebra – Topological complex vector space
Clifford algebra – Algebra based on a vector space with a quadratic form
Commutative algebra – Branch of algebra that studies commutative rings
Composition algebra – Type of algebras, possibly non associative
Computer algebra – Scientific area at the interface between computer science and mathematics
Cyclotomic polynomial – Irreducible polynomial whose roots are nth roots of unity
Diophantine equation – Polynomial equation whose integer solutions are sought
Discrete group – Type of topological group
Dual space – In mathematics, vector space of linear forms
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors – Concepts from linear algebra
Equivalence class – Mathematical concept
Equivalence relation – Mathematical concept for comparing objects
Exterior algebra – Algebra associated to any vector space

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F-algebra
Finite field – Algebraic structure
Fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups – Commutative group where every
element is the sum of elements from one finite subset
Geometric algebra – Algebraic structure designed for geometry
Heyting algebra – Algebraic structure used in logic
Hilbert space – Type of topological vector space
Hilbert's Nullstellensatz – Relation between algebraic varieties and polynomial ideals
Hilbert's syzygy theorem – Theorem about linear relations in ideals and modules over polynomial
rings
Hopf algebra – Construction in algebra
Lattice (group) – Periodic set of points
Lie group – Group that is also a differentiable manifold with group operations that are smooth
Linear form – Linear map from a vector space to its field of scalars
Linear subspace – In mathematics, vector subspace
Matrix decomposition – Representation of a matrix as a product
Multilinear map – Vector-valued function of multiple vectors, linear in each argument
Non-associative algebra – Algebra over a field where binary multiplication is not necessarily
associative
Outline of algebra – Overview of and topical guide to algebra
Quaternion – Noncommutative extension of the complex numbers
Rational function – Ratio of polynomial functions
Relational algebra – Theory of relational databases
Representation theory – Branch of mathematics that studies abstract algebraic structures
Root of unity – Number that has an integer power equal to 1
Scheme theory – Generalization of algebraic variety
Sigma-algebra – Algebraic structure of set algebra
Singular value decomposition – Matrix decomposition
Spectral theory – Collection of mathematical theories
Symmetric algebra – "Smallest" commutative algebra that contains a vector space
T-algebra – Operation in algebra and mathematics
Tensor – Algebraic object with geometric applications
Tensor algebra – Universal construction in multilinear algebra
Wiles' proof of Fermat's Last Theorem – 1995 publication in mathematics

References

Notes
a. When understood in the widest sense, an algebraic operation is a function from a Cartesian
power of a set into that set, expressed formally as . Addition of real numbers is an
example of an algebraic operation: it takes two numbers as input and produces one number as
output. It has the form .[3]

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b. Algebra is covered by division 512 in the Dewey Decimal Classification[5] and subclass QA 150-
272.5 in the Library of Congress Classification.[6] It encompasses several areas in the
Mathematics Subject Classification.[7]
c. The exact meaning of the term al-jabr in al-Khwarizmi's work is disputed. In some passages, it
expresses that a quantity diminished by subtraction is restored to its original value, similar to how
a bonesetter restores broken bones by bringing them into proper alignment.[17]
d. These changes were in part triggered by discoveries that solved many of the older problems of
algebra. For example, the proof of the fundamental theorem of algebra demonstrated the
existence of complex solutions of polynomials[19] and the introduction of Galois theory
characterized the polynomials that have general solutions.[20]
e. Constants represent fixed numbers that do not change during the study of a specific problem.[24]
f. For example, the equations and contradict each other since no
values of and exist that solve both equations at the same time.[47]
g. Whether a consistent system of equations has a unique solution depends on the number of
variables and independent equations. Several equations are independent of each other if they do
not provide the same information and cannot be derived from each other. A unique solution exists
if the number of variables is the same as the number of independent equations. Underdetermined
systems, by contrast, have more variables than independent equations and have an infinite
number of solutions if they are consistent.[48]
h. A set is an unordered collection of distinct elements, such as numbers, vectors, or other sets. Set
theory describes the laws and properties of sets.[57]
i. According to some definitions, algebraic structures include a distinguished element as an
additional component, such as the identity element in the case of multiplication.[58]
j. Some of the algebraic structures studied by abstract algebra include unary operations in addition
to binary operations. For example, normed vector spaces have a norm, which is a unary operation
often used to associate a vector with its length.[59]
k. The symbols and are used in this article to represent any operation that may or may not
resemble arithmetic operations.[63]
l. Some authors do not require the existence of multiplicative identity elements. A ring without
multiplicative identity is sometimes called a rng.[70]
m. According to some definitions, it is also possible for a subalgebra to have fewer operations.[83]
n. This means that all the elements of the first set are also elements of the second set but the
second set may contain elements not found in the first set.[84]
o. A slightly different approach understands universal algebra as the study of one type of algebraic
structures known as universal algebras. Universal algebras are defined in a general manner to
include most other algebraic structures. For example, groups and rings are special types of
universal algebras.[86]
p. Not every type of algebraic structure forms a variety. For example, both groups and rings form
varieties but fields do not.[89]
q. Besides identities, universal algebra is also interested in structural features associated with quasi-
identities. A quasi-identity is an identity that only needs to be present under certain conditions
(which take the form of a Horn clause[90]). It is a generalization of identity in the sense that every
identity is a quasi-identity but not every quasi-identity is an identity. A quasivariety is a class of all
algebraic structures that satisfy certain quasi-identities.[91]
r. The exact date is disputed and some historians suggest a later date around 1550 BCE.[94]
s. Some historians consider him the "father of algebra" while others reserve this title for
Diophantus.[102]
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t. Algebraic varieties studied in geometry differ from the more general varieties studied in universal
algebra.[123]

Citations
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3. Baranovich 2023, Lead section
4. Pratt 2022, Lead section, § 1. Elementary Algebra, § 2. Abstract Algebra, § 3. Universal
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Merzlyakov & Shirshov 2020, § The Subject Matter of Algebra, Its Principal Branches and
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Maddocks 2008, pp. 131–132
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83. Indurkhya 2013, pp. 217–218 (https://books.google.com/books?id=foTrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA217)
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85. Pratt 2022, § 3. Universal Algebra
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86. Smirnov 2020
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88. Mal’cev 1973, pp. 210–211
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90. Mal’cev 1973, p. 211
91. Mal’cev 1973, pp. 210–211
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Cheng 2023, pp. 128–131

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94. Corry 2024, § Problem Solving in Egypt and Babylon

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96. Tanton 2005, p. 9
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104. Waerden 2013, pp. 3, 15–16, 24–25
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105. Tanton 2005, pp. 9–10
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106. Seshadri 2010, p. 156 (https://books.google.com/books?id=w_JdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156)
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110. Tanton 2005, p. 10
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113. Merzlyakov & Shirshov 2020, § Historical Survey
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115. Merzlyakov & Shirshov 2020, § Historical Survey
Corry 2024, § Hilbert and Steinitz, § Noether and Artin
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