Journal of Industrial Information Integration 35 (2023) 100511

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Journal of Industrial Information Integration

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Review article

Quantum computing and industrial information integration: A review

Yang Lu a, *, Alexander Sigov b, Leonid Ratkin c, Leonid A. Ivanov d, Min Zuo a
a
National Engineering Research Centre for Agri-Product Quality Traceability, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing, China
b
MIREA - Russian Technological University, Moscow, Russia
c
Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
d
Russian Academy of Engineering, Moscow, Russia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Originally a part of the study of physics, quantum mechanics is fast becoming an interdisciplinary field. Quantum
Quantum mechanics computing offers the potential to reach the higher levels of accuracy and security associated with a much faster
Quantum computing speedup. Many different approaches have been proposed to building a quantum computer. Seeking the best
Quantum information system
solution for quantum computers is the mission of both practitioners and researchers. Quantum mechanics is a
Industrial information integration
creative technique that has the potential to redefine information-related disciplines. Unique properties of
quantum superposition and entanglement will enable powerful computational scale at a faster and more efficient
speed than classical computers, and quantum computing is attracting attention for implementation across
broader industries. This study attempts to depict the roadmaps of quantum computing and industrial information
integration as they move into the future, based on reviewing the extant popular literature.

1. Introduction keys to encrypt messages from one location to another. It might be

difficult for someone with ulterior motives to replicate a quantum
QUANTUM computers are advanced machines inspired by quantum indeterminate key. This unique and unbreakable encryption has been
physics, which studies the behavior of atoms and particles. Quantum experimented upon and has been proven. Quantum computing can be
computers operate by studying and controlling the behavior of these used in the medical industry, as well, since quantum computers can
particles. This is done in a completely different way than classical more easily study every property of atoms and molecules, e.g., genetic
computers or even supercomputers [1,2]. inheritance and new drug discovering [5,6].
Since they have the advantage of being connected to more than Quantum computers have certain advantages over classical com­
billions of devices worldwide, quantum computers are the future, puters, for certain problems, since classical computers can only be in one
although this is still being researched and tested. Quantum computing is state at a time. The building blocks of a classical computer are called
predicted to take over the technology and business world. Companies bits, and the building blocks of a quantum computer are called quantum
such as Google and Microsoft are racing to develop quantum computing bits, or qubits. A classical bit can either be a 0 or a 1, which is binary. A
tools. This advance could allow some of the benefits and insights of qubit is more complicated, and it can be 0, 1, or a combination of 0 and 1
quantum computing to be realized ahead of the search for large-scale [7,8]. When qubits are entangled and the direction of one qubit changes,
error-correcting quantum computers [3]. the probability distribution for the whole system will change. In general,
The superposition and the entanglement of quantum physics support a quantum computer of n qubits can be in a combination of 2n . This is the
quantum computers to process operations faster than classical com­ core difference between classical computers and quantum computers
puters, using only a fraction of the energy. And what’s more, quantum [9].
computers are designed to revolutionize more future quantum tech­ Industrial information integration refers to the process of integrating
nologies. Like other transformations across the world, quantum com­ data from various industrial systems and processes (such as production
puters have the potential to impact our lives in many ways, with uses in lines, supply chains, and resource management systems) to optimize
such fields as security and healthcare [4]. efficiency, productivity, and decision-making in industrial settings
For example, quantum computing could be used to create private [10–12]. It involves collecting, storing, analyzing, and visualizing data

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. Lu).

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Available online 23 August 2023

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Y. Lu et al. Journal of Industrial Information Integration 35 (2023) 100511

from different sources to provide valuable insights and enable 2. The extant review of quantum computing
data-driven decision-making [13,14]. The connection between quantum
computing and industrial information integration lies in the potential It will be a while before quantum computers are available for per­
impact between them. Quantum computing has the potential to signif­ sonal use, but many studies are currently exploring fascinating and
icantly accelerate data processing and analysis, which can be beneficial interesting philosophies. We focus on the ESI highly cited papers; spe­
for industrial information integration. Capable of processing large data cifically, we consider 51 papers related to quantum computing that are
sets and complex algorithms faster, quantum computers can perform highly cited papers, and 17 papers that are review papers. These 17
advanced analysis, optimization and simulation tasks required in in­ papers cover four major topics: quantum computing (3 papers), quan­
dustrial settings [15–17]. tum computer categorization (7 papers), quantum computing algorithm
Quantum computing holds great promise for industrial information (2 papers), and quantum computing application (5 papers).
integration. With the exponential growth of data in various industries,
there is a need to efficiently process and analyze large data sets. 2.1. Quantum computing
Quantum computing can provide high-speed data processing and
improved data analysis, enabling industries to gain valuable insights and This cluster of three papers, describes quantum computing from
make faster, more accurate decisions. In addition, quantum computing various angles. One study considers that the chemical principle is a
may also have an impact on data security in industrial information mechanism for converting magnetic molecules into quantum logic [22].
integration. Since quantum computers are capable of breaking some of Another study links the unitary coupling cluster (UCC) ansatz to the
the encryption algorithms commonly used today, there is a need to electronic structure of quantum computing [9]. Yet another notes that
develop quantum-resistant encryption methods to protect sensitive in­ hardware is an unavoidable aspect that is critical to the maturation of
dustrial data [16,18,19]. quantum computing [4].
Overall, quantum computing has the potential to enhance the ca­
pabilities of industrial information integration by providing faster and 2.2. Categorization
more efficient data processing, advanced analytics, optimization, and
improved data security [20,21]. It is worth noting, however, that As soon as the quantum computer is applied to the real world, the
quantum computing is still in the early stages of development, and its power and magic of quantum mechanics will be explored. This cluster
widespread adoption and application in industrial settings will take has four different approaches to implementing quantum computers.
time. Many different approaches have been proposed to build a quantum The authors illustrate several important factors in superconducting
computer. Companies and startups are planning their current quantum quantum computers: the routine and logical memory, the noisy
computers for the future. This paper aims to provide a good overview of intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ), and the error-corrected mecha­
quantum computing and to map quantum information system. nism, among others. If we can handle these factors, the superconducting
The structure of this study is described in Fig. 1. Section 2 offers a quantum computer will remain at the forefront protocol of quantum
discussion of reviews of quantum computing. Sections 3 illustrates the computers [23].
basic principles of quantum computing. Section 4 classifies quantum For quantum dot quantum computers, Kloeffel and Loss [24] present
computers. Quantum computing algorithms and models are addressed in a review of a spin-related quantum dot quantum computer, as well as
Sections 5 and 6, respectively. Section 7 presents quantum computing potential directions for its use. Another study focuses more on nonvol­
applications. Section 8 describes challenges and trends in quantum atile memories, neuromorphic computing systems, and the future design
computing. The conclusion is found in Section 9. of relevant electronic devices [25].
For trapped ion quantum computers, Bruzewicz et al. [26] explore
the basic requirements, strengths, and limitations of further improve­
Introduction Brief Introduction Contribution ment of the quantum computer.
The neutral atom is a relatively new style of quantum computer.
Specifically, Rydberg atoms have attracted a lot of attention. Rydberg
Reviewing The New Content of This
Paper Reviews atoms can act as intermediaries between gate agreement and fidelity.
Related Papers Study
Rydberg atoms could form the building blocks of quantum computers, as
Superposition, Entanglement well [27,28].
Principles Interference, Non-Cloning Other Features
2.3. Algorithm
Superconducting, Quantum Dot,
Categorization
Linear Optical, Trapped Ion,
Other Types A complete review of Photonic quantum computers is offered by
Nitrogen Vacancy, Neutral Flamini, Spagnolo, & Sciarrino [29]. Quantum walk is another impor­
Atoms in Optical Lattices tant quantum algorithm; Venegas-Andraca [30] explains and discusses
both discrete- and continuous-time quantum walks in quantum
Algorithm Shor’s Algorithm, Grover’s Algorithm, Quantum Cryptography computer.

Quantum Simulation, Circuit Model, Adiabatic, Quantum 2.4. Application

Model
Annealing, Topological
Quantum circuits can be used as machine learning to study data-
Application
Quantum Computing Quantum Mechanics oriented phenomena and to seek solutions [31]. Chemistry has a close
Applications Applications relationship with quantum computing, i.e., nanomagnetism and quan­
tum algorithms [1,32].
Challenges & Future Coherence, Decoherence and Scalability, Quantum Complexity
Another technology, artificial intelligence (AI), shows great potential
Trends Theory
to solve some of the problems with quantum computing, although it’s
not clear yet how the two technologies can become a more powerful
Conclusion Conclusion Future unity [2,7].
The present study provides a relatively comprehensive review that
Fig. 1. Structure of the paper. consists of many subfields of quantum computing, from the perspectives

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Y. Lu et al. Journal of Industrial Information Integration 35 (2023) 100511

of quantum computing and information systems (Table 1). Quantum things far away [36,37].
computing is a mixed-disciplinary science with great potential for eco­ In a classical computer, the bits are independent from each other.
nomic and social development applications. The state of one bit is not influenced by the state of any other bits. But in
quantum computers, the qubits can be entangled with each other, which
3. Foundations of quantum computing means that they become part of one large quantum state together.
Entanglement includes the probability distributions of all of the possible
Quantum computing has several features that not only appear in the states between qubits [38].
microscopic physical world but have the potential to be discovered in
the macroscopic world with similar connections. Among them are su­ 3.3. Interference
perposition, entanglement, interference, non-cloning, and others.
The state of a qubit is specialized to a more abstract entity known as a
3.1. Superposition quantum wavefunction. The wave function is the fundamental mathe­
matical description of everything in quantum mechanics. The qubits are
Superposition is known as a property in which a particle may be in entangled together to form an overall wave function that describes the
many different states. One example is being in two different places at the state of the quantum computer. This is the phenomenon of interference
same time. It means that its wave function has values in two different [39].
places. If we think of particles, it can be confusing for a particle to appear Changes in the qubits can cause constructive interference (creating
in multiple places at once, but with waves, it’s completely natural [33, larger waves) or destructive interference (destroying waves). The
34]. Superposition boosts quantum computing power that is unmatched overall wave function of a quantum computer sets different probabilities
by classical computers. for different states. Based upon this feature, we can use constructive
If a qubit points up, it is in the 0 state; if it points down, it is in the 1 interference to increase the probability of a correct answer and
state, just like a classical bit. Moreover, a qubit can point in any other destructive interference to decrease the probability of an incorrect
direction of superposition. This superposition state is a combination response [40].
state of 0 and 1. The measurement depends on the probability of the
direction of the arrow. If a qubit is pointing more upwards, it is more 3.4. Non-cloning
likely to get back a 0 than a 1; if it is pointing downwards, it is more
likely to get a 1 than a 0. And if it is exactly on the equator, it is the state The non-cloning theorem in quantum mechanics states that it is not
with a 50% probability [35]. The following two equations Eqs. 1 & (2) possible to copy an arbitrary state onto another state. This means that, if
interpret the superposition of quantum computing. we have an arbitrary state ψ in the system A and a random state X in the
system B, there is no unitary transformation U that will give us the state
|ψ 〉 = α|0〉 + β|1〉 (1)
ψ both in systems A and B. For just the state ψ, this is possible; however,
it is impossible that the transformation U can clone any state [41]. The
2 2
|α| +|β| = 1 (2) following equation expresses (Eq. 3) the meaning.
|ψ 〉 represents the state of the particle. |0〉 and |1〉 are the two funda­ U|ψ 〉A |Σ〉B ∕
= |ψ 〉A |ψ 〉B (3)
mental states of the particle, and |α|2 and |β|2 are the probabilities,
respectively. 3.5. Other features

3.2. Entanglement There are several other phenomena that occur in quantum systems,
such as quantum tunnelling, superconductivity and superfluidity, the
Entanglement is the state in which the wave functions of two or more quantum hall effect, the Casimir effect, and quantum phase transitions.
qubits interact and mix, causing them to become a single quantum ob­ Quantum tunnelling is the ability for particles to cross narrow bar­
ject. This means that the properties of different qubits are related even if riers as the wavefunction penetrates through. Superconductivity is the
they are far apart. The wave function that describes the distance be­ ability for electrons to move with zero resistance at low temperatures,
tween qubits is called nonlocality. Nonlocality means that the electron’s and superfluidity allows fluids to flow with zero viscosity [42].
properties are not limited to its physical location; rather, they depend on The quantum hall effect is the quantization of conductance in 2D
materials. The Casimir effect is an attractive force at short distances
Table 1 caused by cutting out large quantum waves between two places [43].
Review papers’ classification & comparison. An important concept of the quantum behavior of large systems is the
phase transitions from one collective behavior to another. These are
Article Quantum Computing Categorization Algorithm Application
analogues to the different phases of matter, i.e., solid, liquid, and gas. In
[22] ● quantum phase transitions, it is not only temperature and pressure that
[4]
play an important role, but they are applied to the magnetic field [44].
●
[9] ●
[24] ●
[25] ● 4. Categorizations of quantum computers
[28] ●
[27] ●
In this section, we introduce six popular types of quantum com­
[52] ●
[23] ● puters: superconducting quantum computers, quantum dot quantum
[26] ● computers, linear optical quantum computers, trapped ion quantum
[29] ● computers, nitrogen vacancy quantum computers, and neutral atoms in
[30] ● optical lattices.
[31] ●
[32] ●
[7] ● 4.1. Superconducting quantum computers
[2] ●
[1] ● Superconducting quantum computers offer the currently most pop­
This Study
ular approach. A superconducting qubit is made from superconducting
● ● ● ●

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Y. Lu et al. Journal of Industrial Information Integration 35 (2023) 100511

wires with a break in the superconductor called a Josephson Junction. magnetic resonance (NMR) quantum computers [27].
The most popular type of superconducting qubit is called a transman,
wherein the two-energy level system is encoded in pairs of the electric 5. Quantum computing algorithms
charge moving across the junction, specifically the frequency at which
charges oscillate back and forth across the junction. But there have been In this section, we discuss three popular and important quantum
other designs that use the magnetic flux in a loop of wire, or the phase algorithms: Shor’s algorithm, Grover’s algorithm, and quantum
across a wire in two-level systems known as flux qubits or phase qubits cryptography.
[45].
5.1. Shor’s algorithm
4.2. Quantum dot quantum computers
In 1994, Peter Shor caused quite a shock when he published a fast
Physicists seek ways of making qubits out of fundamental entities quantum algorithm that could efficiently seek the factors of large in­
like atoms, electrons, or photons. Quantum dot quantum computers are tegers. This is the moment when many people started to take the concept
also known as silicon spin quantum computers. Quantum dot computers of quantum computing, as it was the first application to solve real-world
collect a range of qubit designs built from semiconductors, like silicon. problems with potentially huge real-world security implications. Shor’s
The qubits are made from electrons or even from groups of electrons, algorithm suggests that quantum mechanics allows factorization in
and the two-level system is encoded into the spin or the charge of the polynomial time instead of in exponential time. It could have a dramatic
electrons. On the chip, there is a small area that the electron is restricted impact on the field of data security [1,22,25].
to; this is called a quantum dot. The operations on the qubits are per­ Shor’s algorithm shows that a quantum computer is capable of
formed through voltages on the chip, or microwaves, or magnetic fields. factoring very large numbers in polynomial time. The algorithm is
Like silicon, other semiconducting materials (e. g., gallium arsenide, dependent on modular arithmetic, quantum parallelism, and quantum
silicon carbide, and diamond) used in quantum computers have Fourier transformation. The Shor’s algorithm consists of two parts:
different properties [46]. conversion of the problem of factoring to the problem of finding the
period, and finding the period using the quantum Fourier transform and
4.3. Linear optical quantum computers transforming speedup [25].

Optical quantum computers use photons of light as the qubits to 5.2. Grover’s algorithm
operate on these qubits using optical elements like mirrors, waveplates,
and interferometers. This has been accomplished by printing these ele­ Another notable example is Grover’s algorithm, which can search
ments into integrated photonics chips. The two-level system in an op­ unstructured lists of data faster than the best classical algorithm [23].
tical quantum computer can have different designs: either a Classically, for a single element search with n elements, one needs to
superposition of different paths that a single photon takes through the look up n/2 elements on average before finding the nonzero output, e.g.,
√̅̅̅
chip or a superposition of different numbers of the photons present in a O (nlog2 n). Grover’s algorithm does so by calculating an average of n
path. And these can be manipulated by applying a voltage to a path [27]. times [27].
The basic idea behind Grover’s algorithm is to come up with a
4.4. Trapped ion quantum computers technique that does not investigate the data set one by one, but will do it
in a quantum way that is a faster approach. The oracles (black boxes) can
Trapped ion quantum computers use charged atoms as qubits. These recognize solutions in the search problem. The recognition is signaled by
atoms are ionized, having a missing electron. This makes the atoms making the use of an oracle qubit. The quantum search algorithm con­
electrically charged to be levitated and moved with electromagnetic sists of repeated application of a quantum subroutine known as Grover
fields. The two-level state that encodes the qubit are two specific energy Iteration or Grover Operator [4].
levels of the atom that can be manipulated or measured with micro­
waves or laser beams [45]. 5.3. Quantum cryptography

4.5. Nitrogen vacancy quantum computers The third algorithm from the world of quantum physics is a crypto­
graphic scheme known as quantum cryptography. Instead of mathe­
Nitrogen vacancy quantum computers are similar to trapped ion matical protocols, it relies on the law of physics called the Heisenberg
quantum computers in that qubits are made from atoms, but instead of Uncertainty Principle. For quantum cryptography, the key is a stream of
being trapped in an electromagnetic field, the atoms are embedded in a photons, or particles of light. A photon has a property called spin that
gap of the material, like nitrogen embedded in diamond or silicon car­ changes as it passes through a filter, making vertical, horizontal, and two
bide. Typically, the qubits are the nuclear spins of the embedded atoms diagonals.
and are entangled together with the electrons [3]. Quantum cryptography is unlike any previous encryption system.
The key photon that converts the photon spin into vertical or horizontal
4.6. Neutral atoms in optical lattices can be represented with different options. The only way for an intruder
to measure the spin of a photon is to pass the photon through a filter.
For Neutral Atoms in Optical Lattices, the qubits are atoms. The Filters are run randomly; there is a high probability that the intruder will
design uses cold atoms physics, capturing neutral atoms (Rydberg make incorrect judgments. The laws of quantum physics prevent the
atoms) like cesium into an optical lattice, which is a crisscrossed intruder from knowing the correct key [47].
arrangement of laser beams. These atoms are cooled down with lasers to
a few millions of a kelvin and there are a few ways to encode the two- 6. Quantum computing models
level system that the qubit is built from, either the hyperfine energy
level of the atom or the excited states. The atoms can be controlled and Some physicists are skeptical that it will ever be possible to build
entangled with each other with lasers [28]. quantum computers at a scale that can solve real world problems. But
The above six types of quantum computers are the main classifica­ inside the world of quantum computers, there are a large range of
tions. Other qubit designs include electron-helium qubits, cavity quan­ models with the possibility of turning different quantum systems into
tum electrodynamics, magnetic molecules, molecular spin, and nuclear quantum computers.

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Y. Lu et al. Journal of Industrial Information Integration 35 (2023) 100511

6.1. Quantum simulation computing because it builds qubits from entities known in physics as
Majorana zero-mode quasi-particles, a type of noncommutative anyon.
The benefits of quantum computing can be seen by conducting Quasi-particles are not fundamental particles like atoms, electrons, or
quantum simulation. Quantum simulation is the use of computers to photons. Quasi-particles are produced by the action of many particles
simulate chemical reactions or the way in which electrons behave in that come together and end up with particle-like properties [50].
different materials [48]. Topological quantum computing is one of major solutions in the field
Classical computers have difficulty simulating quantum systems. of quantum computing. Topological quantum computing is the realiza­
Quantum computers have the potential to simulate large quantum sys­ tion of the storage and processing of quantum information through the
tems. For example, they can help us understand how special materials weaving operation of non-Abelian anyons under the protection of the
behave at low temperatures so that we can discover what makes them overall topological properties of the quantum system. It is expected to
superconductive, or we can stud important chemical reactions to fundamentally solve the problem of quantum state decoherence caused
improve inefficiencies [35]. by environmental noise [16].
Overall, quantum simulation means that we will be able to quickly The key to topological quantum computing is to find anyons that
prototype many different materials and test all their physical parameters obey non-Abelian statistics and construct topological physical systems.
in a quantum computer, rather than having to physically manufacture These schemes include fractional quantum Hall systems, intrinsic to­
and test them in a lab, which would be a much more complex process pological superconductors, composite systems of semiconductors and
[48]. superconductors, quantum spin liquids, etc. [34]

6.2. Circuit model 7. Quantum applications

In quantum computing, there is a similar model called the gate This section briefly introduces two branches of quantum applica­
model, or the circuit model. In the circuit model, qubits are entangled tions: quantum computing applications and quantum-mechanics
with each other, and gates operate on a fraction of those qubits. Quan­ disciplines.
tum algorithms are built from a series of gates applied to qubits in a
specific order, followed by the final measurement. These gates act as 7.1. Quantum computing application
operations on qubits whose spinning arrows point in different directions
[49]. Other technologies take advantage of certain of the properties of
These operations change the probability of each qubit’s final state quantum computing. For instance, lasers use a process called stimulated
when it is finally measured. Closely related to circuit models are mea­ emission to create beams of light with many photons that all have the
surements based on single-vector quantum computing, which involves same frequency and phase. Atomic clocks keep incredibly accurate time
establishing an initial entangled state and then measuring qubits one by by using the frequency of light from a specific hyperfine transition in
one during the computation. Mathematically, this has been shown to be cesium atoms; this is the basis of the global positioning system [27].
equivalent to a circuit model [50]. The band theory of solids describes the energy levels of electrons in
different solid materials. It is the basis of the semiconductor industry,
6.3. Adiabatic quantum computing which has yielded many different technologies. The most sensitive
magnetic sensors in the world are called superconducting quantum
Another popular model is Adiabatic quantum computing. Adiabatic interference devices (SQUIDs); their core components include a loop of
quantum computing works very differently from circuit models. Adia­ superconducting wire that contains an insulating gap called a Josephson
batic quantum computing exploits a fundamental behavior in physics, Junction [52].
the minimum energy state in which every system always moves forward. New technologies are being built and improved in the world of
The smallest energy state of a quantum system is the answer. Each point quantum information. Quantum cryptography takes advantage of
on the landscape is one of the potential outputs [42]. entanglement to confirm that communication is secure; this forms the
In Adiabatic quantum computing, the flat landscape is the starting basis of the quantum internet. And quantum teleportation is the ability
point, leading gradually to the energy landscape of the problem, whose to perfectly copy the quantum state of an object from one location to
answer is the lowest position on the map. If you do this slowly enough, another. The ability to simulate a quantum system would be amazing for
the quantum computer will always be in its lowest energy state. things like discovering new materials with entirely new properties or for
Although Adiabatic quantum computing is quite different from circuit solving computationally expensive tasks like protein folding [24].
models, it has been shown to be mathematically equivalent. Questions One example of quantum simulation aims to produce fertilizer in a
can be mapped from one to another [2]. way that emits less carbon dioxide, since fertilizer production accounts
for about two percent of global carbon emissions. Other potential ap­
6.4. Quantum annealing plications include improving solar panels, improving batteries, devel­
oping new drugs, and exploring aerospace materials. Applications
Quantum annealing is not a universal quantum computing scheme, beyond quantum simulation include optimization problems, financial
but it works on the same principle as Adiabatic quantum computing, modeling, and weather and climate forecasting [48].
with the system finding the minimum energy state of an energy land­
scape. The reason for this is that it does not represent a full degree of the 7.2. Quantum mechanics application
freedom of any quantum state; but even with this restriction, it can be
used to solve certain energy landscape problems, such as optimization In the field of quantum physics research specifically, the topics are
problems and simulated quantum systems. One example is spin glasses, condensed matter physics, quantum biology, cold atom physics, quan­
which are interconnected grids of magnetic fields. Quantum annealing is tum chemistry, nuclear physics, particle physics, and theoretical
a stepping stone to building a universal adiabatic quantum computer physics.
[51]. Condensed matter physics is the study of large systems of many
atoms in solid or liquid form; it seeks to understand the collective
6.5. Topological quantum computing (Quasi-particle model) behavior on a quantum level [31].
Quantum biology studies the role that quantum mechanics has in
Topological quantum computing is a theoretical model of quantum biological systems. There are many processes in biology that are difficult

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Y. Lu et al. Journal of Industrial Information Integration 35 (2023) 100511

to explain without quantum mechanics, i.e., the efficiency of energy the potential is huge because their combined superposition means that
transport on photosystems, magnetic reception in birds, creatures’ sense they can explore an exponential number of states at the same time. This
of smell and sight, and enzymes’ speedup for chemical reactions [2]. puts them in a different complex class from the classical computers we
Cold atom physics evolved from condensed matter physics studies use every day. Also, coherence is critical to the performance of quantum
gasses, which are controlled in magnetic or optical traps and cooled to computers [2].
ultra-low temperatures using laser cooling and other cooling techniques.
Cold atom physics studies many exotic phases of matter, like Bose- 8.2. Decoherence and scalability
Einstein Condensates and Rydberg matter, and investigates behavior
like quantum phase transitions, quantum spin systems, etc. [28] Building quantum computers is a must-conquer mission. Various
Since quantum mechanics describes the behavior of electrons in quantum systems can be physically realized to build quantum com­
atoms, it reflects the basic rules of chemistry. The Schrodinger equation puters. The requirements for building a qubit are not difficult. What we
is used to describe the electronic structure of atoms and how molecules need is a two-state quantum system, where one state represents 0 and
are bounded and move called molecular dynamics. Solving the quantum the other represents 1. One example is the spin of a particle. The spin can
mechanics of molecules is a very computationally intensive task. A be up or down. But whatever the approach, we always face similar
computational technique, quantum Monte Carlo, is a popular approach hurdles that need to be addressed [53,54].
to quantum chemistry [9]. In general, it is difficult to control quantum systems. Any interaction
Nuclear physics is the study of the nucleus of the atom and the ways with the outside world will cause quantum information to start leaking.
in which nuclei can join in nuclear fusion or split apart in nuclear fusion, This is called decoherence. Qubits are designed to be entangled with
as well as a study of the particles and energy involved in these nuclear each other, not with anything else [55].
reactions. Applications of nuclear physics include nuclear power, nu­ It is necessary to design qubits to protect them from entanglement by
clear weapons, nuclear medicine, and techniques such as MRI (Magnetic any type of noise, such as cosmic rays, phone calls, heat, or any other
resonance imaging), ion implantation, and radiocarbon dating [22]. type of particle. Unfortunately, some decoherence and noise are un­
Particle physics has evolved from nuclear physics; it is focused on avoidable or are eliminated in physical systems. Even worse, more
understanding what the fundamental particles of the universe are and qubits increase the chances of the qubits being entangled with each
how they interact. Experiments in particle physics are performed in other. This is a big issue that still plagues the entire field of quantum
large particle accelerators where high energy particles are smashed computing [56].
together to make new particles out of the collision energy. This field is One way to deal with decoherence and noise is quantum error
also known as high energy physics. The standard model of particle correction. This is an error-correcting scheme that creates fault-tolerant
physics describes all the fundamental particles that we know of [23]. quantum computers by using many qubits entangled together to repre­
The core of quantum physics includes the postulates of quantum sent a single noise-free qubit [57].
mechanics. The path integral formulation of quantum mechanics is an It is estimated that fault-tolerant qubits can be composed of 100 to
elegant way of calculating the motion of particles by integrating over 1000 qubits. This brings us to another major obstacle: scalability. For
every possible path that the particle can take. And Hilbert spaces are a each qubit, we need a bundle of wires to manipulate and measure it. For
useful tool to describe all the possible states of a quantum system in a small numbers of qubits, this is manageable. But as the number of qubits
giant multidimensional space. The symmetries of quantum mechanics increases, the number of external objects required increases. Valuable
are an important part of the theory; they tell us the conservation rules, qubits require the entanglement of all controlled and measured qubits in
which are basically the rules of particle interactions [31]. a scalable manner [58].
There are two main areas of theoretical work. The interpretations of
quantum mechanics are the attempts to resolve the counterintuitive 8.3. Quantum complexity theory
implications of the wavefunction. Quantum gravity aims to reconcile
quantum field theory with general relativity to make a grand theory of Quantum complexity theory is a subfield of computational
everything. The core of the interpretations of quantum mechanics is the complexity theory that classifies algorithms as containers, based on how
measurement problem. When we make a measurement on a quantum they run on computers. The categorization is based on how much harder
object, its wavefunction suddenly changes when we detect the particle. it is to solve the problem as the problem gets larger [59–61].
And the laws of quantum mechanics don’t contain any explanation of If you factorize an 8-digit number and then add another number,
what is happening to the wavefunction at the instant of measurement how hard is the new number to factor, compared to the previous one? Is
[7]. it twice as hard? Exponentially harder? What is the trend as you add
more and more digits? This is called its complexity or scaling and, for
8. Challenges & future trends factorization, it is exponential. Anything with an N in the exponent is
exponentially hard [62–64].
Quantum computing is still at an early stage of research and exper­ One example is Shor’s algorithm, which exploits the special abilities
iment, and challenges are always existing before it becomes widely of quantum computers to create an algorithm that can solve integer
adopted. How to keep quantum computing stable and error-free as factorization problems better than the best classical algorithms. The best
qubits is crucial. Due to the uniqueness of Quantum mechanics, espe­ classical algorithm is the exponential algorithm, and Shor’s algorithm is
cially since the individual quantum computer has not been realized, its a polynomial algorithm, which is of great significance in the fields of
challenges and uncertainties, such as the consistency of coherence, complexity theory and computer science. The exponential problems are
decoherence and scalability, and quantum complexity theory, are still the real problems and, if you find better algorithms to solve these
the main aspects for its development. hardest problems, you can earn respect and a strong reputation in the
field of computer science [65,66].
8.1. Consistency of coherence
9. Conclusion
Quantum bits or qubits are the building blocks of quantum com­
puters which use superposition and entanglement to create states that From the first idea of a quantum computer in 1980 up until today, the
are practically impossible to simulate on a classical computer. The quantum computing industry has grown tremendously, especially dur­
challenge is to engineer large groups of qubits that can stay coherent for ing the past 10 years. Many organizations are spending hundreds of
long enough to perform their computations; this is not an easy task. But millions of dollars in a race to build the world’s best quantum computer.

6
Y. Lu et al. Journal of Industrial Information Integration 35 (2023) 100511

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