Shri Yashwantrao Bhonsale Education Society’s

YASHWANTRAO BHONSALE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

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MODULE-V: QUANTUM PHYSICS

PRE-REQUISITES :
The concept of quantum physics was first used by Max Planck to explain the result obtained black
body radiation experiment. A black body is designed to absorb 99.9% of radiation incident on it.
This can be done with a hollow sphere with a narrow hole. Inner surface of this hollow sphere s
coated with carbon black. When radiation enters through a narrow hole, it hits the wall of the
sphere and get almost fully absorbed. Remaining radiation is reflected back. And collide again
with the wall. After number of reflections, almost all the radiation is absorbed.

Due to absorption of radiation, temperature of the body increases and it starts emitting radiation
from narrow hole. This radiation contains all wavelengths. It is called as black body radiation.

APPLIED PHYSICS NOTES BY MR. S.G. KERKAR

 Shri Yashwantrao Bhonsale Education Society’s
YASHWANTRAO BHONSALE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
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When intensity vs wavelength curve is plotted, it is found that radiation for longer wavelengths is
very low. For shorter wavelengths, intensity is more. For a particular wavelength λmax, maximum
energy is radiated. This is called peak wavelength.
Even though all wavelengths are emitted, there is a maximum intensity only for a peak wavelength.
Black body appears of the colour corresponding to that wavelength.
Max Planck suggested that radiated energy must be depending on the frequency of radiation. He
represented this energy, E=hv
Einstein’s theory of photoelectric effect: When a photon of energy hυ is incident on the surface of
the metal, a part of energy Φ is used in liberating the electron from the metal. This energy is known
as the work function of the metal. The rest of energy is given to the electron so that is acquires
kinetic energy ½ mv2. Thus a photon of energy hυ is completely absorbed by the emitter.
Energy of photon = Energy needed to liberate the electron + Maximum K.E of the liberated
electron
hυ = Φ + KEmax
hυ = Φ + ½ mv2max
The above equation is called Einstein’s photoelectric equation. This equation can explain all the
features of the photoelectric effect.
Einstein used idea of Planck to explain his photoelectric effect. He confirmed that light consists of
discrete units of energy known as photons carrying energy E=hv. Thus photoelectric effect
confirmed the particle nature of light. Wave nature of light is already known due to phenomena
like interference, diffraction, polarization etc. This dual nature of light is known as wave-particle
duality.
Also, Motion of macroscopic particles can be explained by classical theory of Mechanics. But it
fails to explain the motion of microscopic particles like electron, proton etc. Quantum mechanics
was developed from Quantum theory to explain the properties associated with such particles. de
Broglie wave-particle duality hypothesis, Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle and Schrodinger’s
equation provide base on which quantum mechanics is built.
De Broglie Hypothesis
It states that – if the radiation behaves as a particle under certain circumstances and waves under
other circumstances, then one can even expect that entities which ordinarily behave as particles
also exhibit properties attributable to waves under appropriate circumstance and those types of
waves are termed as matter waves.
i.e. there is a wave associated with every moving particle moving with velocity v, and the
wavelength of this wave is given by

APPLIED PHYSICS NOTES BY MR. S.G. KERKAR

 Shri Yashwantrao Bhonsale Education Society’s
YASHWANTRAO BHONSALE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(DTE CODE : 3470) (MSBTE CODE : 1742)
Approved by AICTE, DTE & Affiliated to Mumbai University & MSBTE Mumbai
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Proof of de Broglie relation

Let us consider the case of the photon. Energy of the photon, according to Planck’s theory of
radiation is given by –
E=hv -------------------------------------------------------(1)
where h is Plank’s constant and v is frequency of radiation.
If we consider a photon as a particle of mass m, its energy is given by Einstein Mass Energy
relation as –
E=mc2 ----------------------------------------------------(2)
From equation (1) and (2), we get,
hv = mc2---------------------------------------------------(3)
As photon travels with velocity of light ‘c’ in free space, its momentum ‘p’ is given by –
p = mass × velocity= mc ------------------------------------(4)

-----------------------
de Broglie assumed that above relation holds good for all material particles like electrons,
neutrons etc. For such particles,

where ‘m’ is the mass of the particle and ‘v’ is the velocity of the particle. Expression for de

Broglie wavelength of an accelerated electron:

De Broglie wavelength for a matter wave is given by
λ = h/p ; where λ = De Broglie wavelength -------------(1)

APPLIED PHYSICS NOTES BY MR. S.G. KERKAR

 Shri Yashwantrao Bhonsale Education Society’s
YASHWANTRAO BHONSALE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
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Approved by AICTE, DTE & Affiliated to Mumbai University & MSBTE Mumbai
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From eqn. (1) we find that, if the particles like electrons are accelerated to various velocities, we
can produce waves of various wavelengths. Thus higher the electron velocity, smaller will be the
de-Broglie wavelength. If velocity v is given to an electron by accelerating it through a potential
difference V, then the work done on the electron is eV. This work done is converted to kinetic
energy of electron. Hence, we can write
½ mv2 = eV
mv = (2meV)1/2 -------------(2)
But eqn.(1) can be written as
λ = h/mv -------------------(3)
Substituting eqn.(2) in eqn.(3) we get
λ = h/(2meV)1/2

De Broglie wavelength in terms of Kinetic Energy

Consider a particle moving with velocity v. Its momentum p = mv and the de Broglie wavelength
of matter wave associated with it is given by –

The Kinetic energy of the particle is

Substituting (2) in (1), we get,

APPLIED PHYSICS NOTES BY MR. S.G. KERKAR

 Shri Yashwantrao Bhonsale Education Society’s
YASHWANTRAO BHONSALE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(DTE CODE : 3470) (MSBTE CODE : 1742)
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PROPERTIES OF MATTER WAVES:
1.Wavelength of matter wave is inversely proportional to mass and velocity.
2. Matter wave can be reflected, refracted, diffracted and undergo interference.
3. The position and momentum of the material particles cannot be determined accurately and
simultaneously.
4. The amplitude of the matter waves at a particular region and time depends on the probability
of finding the particle at the same region and time.
5. Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves and can be associated with any particle whether
charged or uncharged.
6. Matter waves can propagate in a vacuum, hence they are not mechanical wave.
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (HUP)
According to the classical mechanics, the position and momentum of the moving particle can be
determined with great accuracy. However, when the particle is considered as a wave, it is not
possible to know the exact location of the particle on the wave as the wave extends throughout
the region in the space.
The de Broglie wavelength associated with a moving particle traveling with a uniform velocity
‘v’ is given by –

This is a monochromatic wave of infinite extent. The phase velocity ‘vp’ of such monochromatic
wave is given by –

c2
v𝑝 =
v
This phase velocity is always greater than the velocity of light in vacuum. Hence it is theoretically
impossible for a monochromatic de Broglie wave-train to transport a particle or energy. Further
the stability of the material particle demands that it should be concentrated over a small region of
space at any instant of time. Thus, mass of a particle is a localized entity whereas the de Broglie
wave with which we represent the moving particle of infinite extent. From Einstein’s theory of
velocity, it follows that the speed of light is maximum velocity that can be attained by a particle in
nature.

APPLIED PHYSICS NOTES BY MR. S.G. KERKAR

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It means that the velocity of the particle ‘v’ is always less than the speed of light ‘c’. From equation
(1) it follows that the de Broglie wave velocity must be greater than ‘c’, which is not acceptable.
Further, it follows from this result, that the wave associated with the particle would travel faster
than the particle itself, thereby leaving the particle far behind. Hence it was concluded that a
material particle would not be equivalent to a single wave-train.

Schrodinger solved this difficulty by postulating that a material particle in motion is equivalent to
a wave packet rather than a single wave. A wave packet consists of a group of waves (each having
slightly different velocity and wavelength). The phases and amplitudes of these waves are chosen
in such a way that they undergo interference constructively over only a small region of space where
the particle can be located. Outside this region, they undergo destructive interference so that that
the amplitude reduces to zero rapidly. Such wave packet is shown in the following figure

This wave packet moves with its own velocity ‘vg’, called as group velocity. The individual waves
forming the packet have an average velocity ‘vp’ called as a phase velocity. It can be proved that
the velocity of the material particle is same as the group velocity of wave packet.

The association of group of waves (wave packet) with a moving particle means that, the position
of the particle at any instant of time cannot be specified with desired degree of accuracy. All that
we can say is, the particle is somewhere within the wave packet. The probability of finding the
particle at a point in a wave packet is directly proportional to the amplitude of the wave at that
point.

If the width of the wave packet is small as shown in fig. (a) then the particle can be
locatedsomewhat accurately, but the determination of wavelength (And hence the momentum)

APPLIED PHYSICS NOTES BY MR. S.G. KERKAR

 Shri Yashwantrao Bhonsale Education Society’s
YASHWANTRAO BHONSALE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(DTE CODE : 3470) (MSBTE CODE : 1742)
Approved by AICTE, DTE & Affiliated to Mumbai University & MSBTE Mumbai
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becomes a problem. If width of the wave packet is more (fig. (b)), then wavelength measurement
(and hence determination of momentum) is accurate. However, position of the particle cannot be
determined accurately. With this discussion, Heisenberg, put forward his uncertainty principle
which states that –
It is impossible to determine simultaneously, the position and momentum of the moving particle
accurately. In any simultaneous determination of position and momentum of the particle, the
product of uncertainties is equal to or greater than

where x is the fundamental error or uncertainty in measurement of position and

px is fundamental error or uncertainty in measurement of momentum along X-axis.

THE WAVE FUNCTION  & PROBABILITY DENSITY:

Schrödinger assumed that a quantity  represents a De Broglie wave. It is called as a wave
function. This wave function mathematically describes the motion of particle. It is not possible to
locate the particle precisely at point (x,y,z). This wave function gives a probability of finding the
particle at (x,y,z) at time t. It is a function of space and time coordinates. The wave function
 introduced in Schrödinger’s wave mechanics is an abstract mathematical quantity. It is this wave
function, which takes care of the wave nature or wavelike behaviour of particles.
Ψ is related to the probability of finding the particle. Max Born put these ideas forward for the first
time. Page 9 of 93

The wave function ψ indicates the state of the particle. However it has no direct physical
significance. The probability that something be in a certain place at a given time must lie between 0
& 1. However, the amplitude of a wave can be positive as well as negative and a negative
probability is meaningless. Hence ψ by itself cannot be an observable quantity.
Because of this the square of the absolute value of the wave function ψ is considered and is known
as probability density denoted by | ψ |2.
The probability of experimentally finding the body described by the wave function ψ at the point
x, y, z at the time t is proportional to the value of | ψ |2.
According to Schrodinger the wave function ψ(x,t) for a free particle moving in the positive x
direction is given by
ψ(x,t) = ψo ei(kx – ωt), here ψo = amplitude and ψ(x,t) = complex

P (x) = ψψ* = [ψo ei(kx – ωt)] [ψo e-i(kx – ωt)] = |ψo|2

SCHRODINGER’S EQUATION
It is an equation which describes the behaviour of the wave function associated with microscopic

APPLIED PHYSICS NOTES BY MR. S.G. KERKAR

 Shri Yashwantrao Bhonsale Education Society’s
YASHWANTRAO BHONSALE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(DTE CODE : 3470) (MSBTE CODE : 1742)
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particles.
In 1926, Schrodinger developed a rigorous mathematical theory using De Broglie’s idea of
matter waves. This theory is known as ‘Wave Mechanics’. The essential feature of this theory is
that it incorporates the expression for De Broglie wavelength into the general classical equation
derived for a moving particle is known as Schrodinger’s wave equation.

APPLIED PHYSICS NOTES BY MR. S.G. KERKAR