Physics 09/01/2024

Key Terms
Amplitude

Amplitude, in physics, is the maximum displacement of a point of a wave from its equilibrium
position. It is associated with the energy of the wave.

It describes the size of cyclical movements, making it critical in areas like waves and
vibrations.
In sound waves, amplitude determines loudness; in light waves, it affects intensity.
The amplitude of a pendulum is the maximum angle it swings away from vertical.
Amplitude differs from frequency, which measures the rate of repetition.

Antinode

An antinode is a point of maximum amplitude, or displacement, in a standing wave. It occurs at

the positions where constructive interference causes the wave to have maximum displacement.

Antinodes have the highest energy in a standing wave.

In a one-dimensional standing wave, there are always one more antinodes than nodes.
The distance between adjacent antinodes is equal to half the wavelength of the wave.
Antinodes are points of maximum energy transfer in standing waves.

Beat Frequency

Beat frequency refers to the difference in frequency between two sound waves, resulting in
periodic fluctuations in amplitude when they interfere.

Beat frequency is calculated by subtracting the frequency of one wave from the frequency of
the other wave.
It is a useful concept in music theory to explain how intervals between notes produce a
pleasant or dissonant sound.
The beat frequency is heard as a 'pulsing' or 'wah-wah' effect, commonly observed in music
with close harmonies or in tuning instruments.
Understanding beat frequency helps musicians tune their instruments accurately to achieve
consonant intervals.

Constructive interference

Constructive interference occurs when two waves meet and their amplitudes add up, resulting in
a wave with greater amplitude.

It happens when the crest of one wave aligns with the crest of another wave.
The constructive interference increases the energy and intensity of the resultant wave.
This phenomenon is observed in various real-world situations, such as sound waves in
concert halls.
Constructive interference is a fundamental concept in wave mechanics and has practical
applications in fields like telecommunications.

Crest

In physics, a crest refers to the highest point or peak reached in a wave pattern, illustrating
maximum displacement.

Crest is opposite of trough, which is the lowest point in a wave pattern.

The amplitude of a wave is measured from the wave's midline up to the crest.
In a transverse wave, the crests are the points of maximum positive displacement.
The distance between two consecutive crests is known as wavelength.

Destructive interference

Destructive interference occurs when two waves combine to produce a wave with smaller
amplitude.

Destructive interference occurs when two waves are out of phase and their crests and
troughs align.
During destructive interference, the amplitude of the resulting wave is smaller than the
individual waves.
Destructive interference can lead to complete cancellation of the wave if the amplitudes are
equal.
It is observed in various phenomena such as canceling noise using noise-canceling
headphones.

Diffraction

Diffraction is the bending and spreading of waves around obstacles or through small openings.

Diffraction occurs when waves encounter obstacles or pass through small openings.
It can occur with various types of waves, such as sound waves, light waves, and water waves.
The amount of diffraction depends on the wavelength of the wave and the size of the
obstacle or opening.
Diffraction is responsible for phenomena such as the ability to hear sound around corners or
the appearance of bright and dark fringes in interference patterns.

Doppler effect
The Doppler effect is the change in frequency or wavelength of a wave as it moves relative to an
observer, resulting in an apparent shift in the frequency.

The Doppler effect is observed in various phenomena such as sound waves, light waves, and
electromagnetic waves.
It explains why we perceive a change in pitch as a moving sound source passes us.
The Doppler effect can be used to estimate the speed or direction of a moving object.
It is commonly used in medical diagnostics, such as ultrasound imaging to measure blood
flow and detect abnormalities.

Frequency

Frequency, measured in Hertz (Hz), defines the number of cycles an event, such as a wave,
completes in one second.

It's the reciprocal of the period of a wave or oscillation.

High frequency indicates many wave cycles per second.
It is critical when studying sound, light, or electromagnetic waves.
Frequency affects properties like pitch in sound or color in light.

Harmonic

In physics, 'Harmonic' refers to a type of motion or oscillation where an object moves back and
forth around a stable equilibrium position.

Harmonic motion is periodic and can be described by sinusoidal functions.

The motion is characterized by a restoring force that is directly proportional to the
displacement from the equilibrium position.
The period and frequency of harmonic motion can be calculated based on the mass and the
stiffness of the system.
Examples of harmonic motion include the swinging of a pendulum, the vibrations of a guitar
string, and the motion of a mass-spring system.

Interference

Interference refers to the phenomenon where two or more overlapping waves combine to
produce a resultant wave with reduced, increased, or the same amplitude.

Constructive interference occurs when two in-phase waves combine, resulting in an

increased-amplitude wave.
Destructive interference happens when out-of-phase waves combine, leading to a wave of
reduced amplitude.
There are real-world applications of interference such as noise-canceling headphones and
thin-film interference.
 Interference phenomena can be observed with light, sound, and water waves.

Longitudinal wave

A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate back and forth in the
same direction as the wave.

A longitudinal wave consists of compressions and rarefactions that move through the
medium.
The amplitude of a longitudinal wave is the maximum displacement of the particles from
their rest position.
The wavelength of a longitudinal wave is the distance between two consecutive
compressions or rarefactions.
Sound waves are examples of longitudinal waves.

Medium

In the context of science, 'medium' refers to a substance or environment through which waves,
signals, or forces can travel.

Examples of mediums include air, water, and solids.

Different mediums have different properties that affect the transmission of waves.
The speed of waves can vary depending on the characteristics of the medium.
Changes in the density or composition of the medium can lead to changes in how waves
propagate.

Node

In physics, a node refers to a point or region where two or more waves cancel each other out,
resulting in zero amplitude.

A node can occur in various types of waves, such as mechanical waves, electromagnetic
waves, or quantum waves.
A node can be identified by observing points of maximum destructive interference.
Nodes are important in studying wave phenomena, as they help determine properties like
wavelength and frequency.
The number of nodes in a wave can be used to determine the mode of vibration or standing
wave pattern.

Period

In physics, 'period' refers to the time it takes for one complete cycle of motion to occur for a
repeating event.
 The period is measured in seconds (s).
It is the reciprocal of frequency, implying that period decreases as frequency increases.
In harmonic motion, the period remains constant, unaffected by amplitude or displacement.
For pendulums and masses on springs, period computations involve gravitational force and
mass.

Phase

Phase refers to the stage or state of a wave or oscillation at any given point in time.

Phase is measured in radians or degrees and determines the position of a wave.

The phase of a wave can be shifted by changing its starting point.
Two waves with the same frequency and phase are said to be in phase and can reinforce
each other.
Phase difference between two waves determines whether they will constructively or
destructively interfere.

Phase shift

Phase shift refers to a shift in the position of a wave or signal along the horizontal axis of a graph
representing its waveform.

It can be measured in degrees or radians, indicating how much the waveform is offset from
an original reference point.
A phase shift of 360° is equivalent to one full cycle of the waveform.
Phase shift is often encountered in waves and signals such as sound waves, electromagnetic
waves, and alternating current.
In some applications, phase shifting is intentionally done to control the timing or
synchronization of signals.

Polarization

Polarization is a phenomenon where the oscillation direction of a wave is restricted to a specific

plane.

Polarization occurs when an unpolarized wave interacts with certain materials, filters, or is
reflected.
Polarization can be linear, circular, or elliptical, depending on the orientation of the wave's
electric field.
Polarized light is used in various applications such as 3D movies, sunglasses, and optical
microscopes.
Polarization plays a crucial role in telecommunications and satellite transmission, improving
signal quality and reducing interference.

propagation
Propagation refers to the process of transmitting or spreading something through a medium,
such as light, sound, or waves.

Propagation can occur in various forms, including electromagnetic waves, acoustic waves,
and mechanical waves.
The speed at which propagation occurs depends on the properties of the medium through
which the wave is passing.
One important property of propagation is the wavelength, which is the distance between two
consecutive wave peaks.
Propagation can be affected by factors such as reflection, refraction, diffraction, and
interference.

Pulse

A pulse is a single disturbance or vibration that travels through a medium, carrying energy and
momentum.

Pulses can be produced by a single event, such as a stone thrown into water.
Pulses involve a temporary disturbance during which the medium returns to its original state
after the disturbance passes.
Pulses can vary in shape and size depending on the source and medium through which they
travel.
The speed of a pulse is determined by the properties of the medium through which it is
traveling.

Reflection

Reflection is a phenomenon where a wave, such as light, bounces off a surface and changes its
direction while maintaining its speed and frequency.

Law of Reflection states angle of incidence equals angle of reflection.

Reflected waves can constructively or destructively interfere.
Mirror surfaces exhibit specular reflection, bouncing light at fairly predictable angles.
Diffuse reflection occurs when light strikes an uneven or granular surface, reflecting in many
directions.

Refraction

Refraction is a physics concept where waves, including light, change direction when passing
from one medium to another of different densities.

Refraction occurs due to a change in speed of the wave between mediums.

The angle of incidence influences the degree of refractive bending.
Snell's law quantifies the relationship between angles and medium properties in refraction.
 The refractive index of a medium denotes its light-bending ability.

Resonance

Resonance is a phenomenon that occurs when an object is subjected to an external force that
matches its natural frequency, resulting in amplified vibrations.

Resonance can occur in various systems such as mechanical, electrical, and acoustic.
It is utilized in musical instruments to produce sound.
Resonance can lead to destructive effects, such as structural damage.
Tuning forks are often used as a visual representation of resonance in demonstrations.

Standing Wave

A standing wave is a type of wave that appears to be standing still and is formed when two
waves of equal frequency and amplitude traveling in opposite directions interfere with each
other.

The nodes of a standing wave are the points where the wave appears to be standing still.
The antinodes of a standing wave are the points of maximum displacement in the wave.
A standing wave is characterized by specific wavelengths and frequencies called harmonics.
The fundamental frequency is the lowest frequency at which a standing wave can occur.

Superposition

Superposition is the ability of waves or systems to overlap and combine, resulting in an overall
wave or system that is the sum of the individual parts.

Superposition principle states that the total response of a system is the sum of its individual
responses.
In quantum mechanics, superposition refers to the phenomenon where a particle exists in
multiple states simultaneously.
Superposition plays a crucial role in interference and diffraction phenomena.
The concept of superposition is also applicable in the field of electronic circuits and signal
processing.

Transverse wave

A transverse wave is a type of wave that moves perpendicular to the direction of its propagation.

Examples of transverse waves include light waves and water waves.

The motion of particles in a transverse wave is perpendicular to the direction of energy
transfer.
The amplitude of a transverse wave represents the maximum displacement of particles from
 their equilibrium position.
Transverse waves exhibit properties such as reflection, diffraction, and interference.

Trough

In Physics, a trough refers to the lowest point in a wave cycle, positioned between two peaks.

It's an essential part of identifying wave patterns.

It helps in determining a wave's amplitude.
The distance between two troughs equals a single wavelength.
Changes in trough depth can indicate wave energy variations.

Wavelength

Wavelength denotes the distance between two consecutive peaks or troughs in a wave. It's a
defining characteristic that helps determine a wave's energy and speed.

Wavelength is directly related to a wave's frequency and speed, via the formula Speed =
Wavelength x Frequency.
In the electromagnetic spectrum, longer wavelengths imply lower frequency and energy, while
shorter wavelengths imply higher frequency and energy.
Wavelength is commonly measured in meters, nanometers (nm), or Angstroms (Å),
depending on the wave's type.
Visible light, microwaves, and radio waves all possess unique wavelength ranges.

Wave speed

Wave speed refers to the rate at which a wave travels through a medium or space, and it is
determined by the frequency and wavelength of the wave.

The formula for wave speed is v = λf, where v is the wave speed, λ is the wavelength, and f is
the frequency.
Wave speed is typically measured in meters per second (m/s).
The wave speed of a wave in a particular medium is constant as long as the conditions of the
medium remain unchanged.
Higher frequency waves generally have higher wave speeds compared to lower frequency
waves.