CHAPTER 12

Unit IV
STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Learning Objectives

After studying this lesson, students will be able to:

• The processing skills of SQL.
• The components of SQL.
• To create a table by specifying the fields and records.
• To apply various manipulations like inserting, updating and deleting records in a table.
• To learn about various constraints and to apply it on tables.
• To generate queries in the table by applying various clauses.
• To modify the structure of an existing table.
• The commands to delete records, table and revoke the commands.

12.1 Introduction to SQL

The Structured Query Language (SQL) is a standard programming language to access

and manipulate databases. SQL allows the user to create, retrieve, alter, and transfer information
among databases. It is a language designed for managing and accessing data in a Relational
Data Base Management System (RDBMS).
There are many versions of SQL. The original version was developed at IBM’s Research
centre and originally called as Sequel in early 1970’s. Later the language was changed to SQL.
In 1986, ANSI (American National Standard Institute) published an SQL standard that was
updated again in 1992, the latest SQL was released in 2008 and named as SQL 2008.

Note
Latest SQL standard as of now is SQL 2008, released in 2008.

12.2 Role of SQL in RDBMS

RDBMS stands for Relational DataBase Management System. Oracle, MySQL, MS SQL
Server, IBM DB2 and Microsoft Access are RDBMS packages. SQL is a language used to access
data in such databases.

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 In general, Database is a collection of tables that store sets of data that can be queried
for use in other applications. A database management system supports the development,
administration and use of database platforms. RDBMS is a type of DBMS with a row-based
table structure that connects related data elements and includes functions related to Create,
Read, Update and Delete operations, collectively known as CRUD.
The data in RDBMS, is stored in database objects, called Tables. A table is a collection
of related data entries and it consist of rows and columns.
A field is a column in a table that is designed to maintain specific related information
about every record in the table. It is a vertical entity that contains all information associated
with a specific field in a table. The fields in a student table may be of the type AdmnNo,
StudName, StudAge, StudClass, Place etc.
A Record is a row, which is a collection of related fields or columns that exist in a table.
A record is a horizontal entity in a table which represents the details of a particular student in
a student table.

12.3 Processing Skills of SQL

The various processing skills of SQL are :
1. Data Definition Language (DDL) : The SQL DDL provides commands for defining
relation schemas (structure), deleting relations, creating indexes and modifying relation
schemas.
2. Data Manipulation Language (DML) : The SQL DML includes commands to insert,
delete, and modify tuples in the database.
3. Embedded Data Manipulation Language : The embedded form of SQL is used in high
level programming languages.
4. View Definition : The SQL also includes commands for defining views of tables.
5. Authorization : The SQL includes commands for access rights to relations and views of
tables.
6. Integrity : The SQL provides forms for integrity checking using condition.
7. Transaction control : The SQL includes commands for file transactions and control over
transaction processing.

SQL-Structured Query Language is a language used for accessing databases while

MySQL is a database management system, like SQL Server, Oracle, Informix,
Postgres, etc. MySQL is a RDBMS.

Refer installing MYSQL in Annexure -1

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 12.4 Creating Database

1. To create a database, type the following command in the prompt:

CREATE DATABASE database_name;
Example:
CREATE DATABASE stud;
2. To work with the database, type the following command.
USE DATABASE;
For example to use the stud database created, give the command
USE stud;

12.5 Components of SQL

SQL commands are divided into five categories:

DML - Data Manipulation Language

DDL - Data Definition Language

DCL - Data Control Language

TCL - Transaction Control Language

DQL - Data Query Language

12.5.1 DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE

The Data Definition Language (DDL) consist of SQL statements used to define the
database structure or schema. It simply deals with descriptions of the database schema and is
used to create and modify the structure of database objects in databases.

The DDL provides a set of definitions to specify the storage structure and access
methods used by the database system.

A DDL performs the following functions :

1. It should identify the type of data division such as data item, segment, record and database
file.
2. It gives a unique name to each data item type, record type, file type and data base.

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 3. It should specify the proper data type.
4. It should define the size of the data item.
5. It may define the range of values that a data item may use.
6. It may specify privacy locks for preventing unauthorized data entry.
SQL commands which comes under Data Definition Language are:
Create To create tables in the database.

Alter Alters the structure of the database.

Drop Delete tables from database.

Truncate Remove all records from a table, also release the space occupied by those records.

12.5.2 DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE

A Data Manipulation Language (DML) is a query language used for adding
(inserting), removing (deleting), and modifying (updating) data in a database. In SQL, the
data manipulation language comprises the SQL-data change statements, which modify stored
data but not the schema of the database table.
After the database schema has been specified and the database has been created, the
data can be manipulated using a set of procedures which are expressed by DML.

By Data Manipulation we mean,

• Insertion of new information into the database
• Retrieval of information stored in a database.
• Deletion of information from the database.
• Modification of data stored in the database.

The DML is basically of two types:

Procedural DML – Requires a user to specify what data is needed and how to get it.

Non-Procedural DML - Requires a user to specify what data is needed without

specifying how to get it.
SQL commands which comes under Data Manipulation Language are :

Insert Inserts data into a table

Update Updates the existing data within a table.

Delete Deletes all records from a table, but not the space occupied by them.

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 12.5.3 DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE
A Data Control Language (DCL) is a programming language used to control
the access of data stored in a database. It is used for controlling privileges in the database
(Authorization). The privileges are required for performing all the database operations such as
creating sequences, views of tables etc.

SQL commands which come under Data Control Language are:

Grant Grants permission to one or more users to perform specific tasks.

Revoke Withdraws the access permission given by the GRANT statement.

12.5.4 TRANSACTIONAL CONTROL LANGUAGE

Transactional control language (TCL) commands are used to manage transactions
in the database. These are used to manage the changes made to the data in a table by DML
statements.

SQL command which come under Transfer Control Language are:

Commit Saves any transaction into the database permanently.

Roll back Restores the database to last commit state.

Save point Temporarily save a transaction so that you can rollback.

12.5.5 DATA QUERY LANGUAGE

The Data Query Language consist of commands used to query or retrieve data from a
database. One such SQL command in Data Query Language is

Select : It displays the records from the table.

12.6 Data Types

The data in a database is stored based on the kind of value stored in it. This is identified
as the data type of the data or by assigning each field a data type. All the values in a given field
must be of same type.
The ANSI SQL standard recognizes only Text and Number data type, while some
commercial programs use other datatypes like Date and Time etc. The ANSI data types are
listed in the following Table 12.1

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 Data Type Description
char Fixed width string value. Values of this type is enclosed in single quotes.
(Character) For ex. Anu’s will be written as ‘Anu’ ‘s’.

Variable width character string. This is similar to char except the size of the
varchar
data entry vary considerably.

It represents a fractional number such as 15.12, 0.123 etc. Here the size
argument consist of two parts : precision and scale. The precision indicates
dec (Decimal) how many digits the number may have and the scale indicates the maximum
number of digits to the right of the decimal point. The size (5, 2) indicates
precision as 5 and scale as 2. The scale cannot exceed the precision.

It is same as decimal except that the maximum number of digits may not
numeric
exceed the precision argument.
int It represents a number without a decimal point. Here the size argument is
(Integer) not used.

smallint It is same as integer but the default size may be smaller than Integer.

It represents a floating point number in base 10 exponential notation and

float
may define a precision up to a maximum of 64.

It is same as float, except the size argument is not used and may define a
real
precision up to a maximum of 64.

double Same as real except the precision may exceed 64.

Table 12.1

12.7 SQL Commands and their Functions

Tables are the only way to store data, therefore all the information has to be arranged in
the form of tables. The SQL provides a predetermined set of commands to work on databases.

Keywords They have a special meaning in SQL. They are understood as instructions.

They are instructions given by the user to the database also known as
Commands
statements.

Clauses They begin with a keyword and consist of keyword and argument.

Arguments They are the values given to make the clause complete.

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 12.7.1 DDL Commands
CREATE TABLE Command
You can create a table by using the CREATE TABLE command. When a table is created,
its columns are named, data types and sizes are to be specified. Each table must have at least
one column. The syntax of CREATE TABLE command is :

CREATE TABLE <table-name>

(<column name><data type>[<size>]
(<column name><data type>[<size>]……
);

Now let us use the above syntax to store some information about the students of a class
in a database, for this you first need to create table. To create a student table, let us take some
information related to students like admission number which we can use it in short form as
(admno), name of student (name), gender, age etc. of the student. Let us create a table having
the field names Admno, Name, Gender, Age and Place.
The SQL command will be as follows:

CREATE TABLE Student

(Admno integer,
Name char(20),
Gender char(1),
Age integer,
Place char(10),
);

The above one is a simple table structure without any restrictions. You can also set
constraints to limit the type of data that can go into the fields of the table. Constraints are used
to limit the type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the accuracy and reliability of the
data in the database. Constraints could be either on a column level or a table level.

Note
Constraint is a condition applicable on a field or set of fields.

Column constraint: Column constraint apply only to individual column.

Table constraint : Table constraint apply to a group of one or more columns.

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 The syntax for a table created with constraint is given as below:

CREATE TABLE <table-name>

(<column name><data type>[<size>]<column constraint>,
<column name><data type>[<size>]<column constraint>……
<table constraint>(<column name>,[<column name>….]…..
);

Following is an example for student table with “NOT NULL” column constraint. This
constraint enforces a field to always contain a value.
CREATE TABLE Student
(
Admno integer NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY, → Primary Key constraint
Name char(20) NOT NULL,
Gender char(1),
Age integer,
Place char(10),
);

The above command creates a table “student” in which the field Admno of integer type
is defined NOT NULL, Name of char type is defined as NOT NULL which means these two
fields must have values. The fields Gender, Age and Place do not have any constraints.
12.7.2 Type of Constraints
Constraints ensure database integrity, therefore known as database integrity constraints.
The different types of constraints are :
Unique Constraint
Primary Key Constraint
Constraint
Default Constraint
Check Constraint

12.7.2.1 Unique Constraint

This constraint ensures that no two rows have the same value in the specified columns.
For example UNIQUE constraint applied on Admno of student table ensures that no two
students have the same admission number and the constraint can be used as:

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 CREATE TABLE Student
(
Admno integer NOT NULL UNIQUE, → Unique constraint
Name char (20) NOT NULL,
Gender char (1),
Age integer,
Place char (10),
);

The UNIQUE constraint can be applied only to fields that have also been declared as
NOT NULL.
When two constraints are applied on a single field, it is known as multiple constraints. In
the above Multiple constraints NOT NULL and UNIQUE are applied on a single field Admno,
the constraints are separated by a space and at the end of the field definition a comma(,) is
added. By adding these two constraints the field Admno must take some value ie. will not be
NULL and should not be duplicated.

12.7.2.2 Primary Key Constraint

This constraint declares a field as a Primary key which helps to uniquely identify a
record. It is similar to unique constraint except that only one field of a table can be set as
primary key. The primary key does not allow NULL values.
Example showing Primary Key Constraint in the student table:

CREATE TABLE Student

(
Admno integer PRIMARY KEY, → Primary Key constraint
Name char(20) NOT NULL,
Gender char(1),
Age integer,
Place char(10),
);

In the above example the Admno field has been set as primary key and therefore will
help us to uniquely identify a record, it is also set NOT NULL, therefore this field value cannot
be empty.
12.7.2.3 DEFAULT Constraint
The DEFAULT constraint is used to assign a default value for the field. When no value
is given for the specified field having DEFAULT constraint, automatically the default value will
be assigned to the field.

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 Example showing DEFAULT Constraint in the student table:

CREATE TABLE Student

(
Admno integer PRIMARY KEY,
Name char(20)NOT NULL,
Gender char(1),
Age integer DEFAULT 17, → Default Constraint
Place char(10)
);

In the above example the “Age” field is assigned a default value of 17, therefore when no
value is entered in age by the user, it automatically assigns 17 to Age.
12.7.2.4 Check Constraint
This constraint helps to set a limit value placed for a field. When we define a check
constraint on a single column, it allows only the restricted values on that field. Example
showing check constraint in the student table:
CREATE TABLE Student
(
Admno integer PRIMARY KEY
Name char(20)NOT NULL,
Gender char(1),
Age integer CHECK (Age <=19), → Check Constraint
Place char(10),
);

In the above example the check constraint is set to Age field where the value of Age
must be less than or equal to 19.

Note
The check constraint may use relational and logical operators for condition.

12.7.2.5 TABLE CONSTRAINT

When the constraint is applied to a group of fields of the table, it is known as Table
constraint. The table constraint is normally given at the end of the table definition. Let us take
a new table namely Student1 with the following fields Admno, Firstname, Lastname, Gender,
Age, Place:

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 CREATE TABLE Student 1
(
Admno integer NOT NULL,
Firstname char(20),
Lastname char(20),
Gender char(1),
Age integer,
Place char(10),
PRIMARY KEY (Firstname, Lastname) → Table constraint
);
In the above example, the two fields, Firstname and Lastname are defined as Primary
key which is a Table constraint.
12.7.3 DML COMMANDS
Once the schema or structure of the table is created, values can be added to the table.
The DML commands consist of inserting, deleting and updating rows into the table.

12.7.3.1 INSERT command

The INSERT command helps to add new data to the database or add new records to the
table. The command is used as follows:
INSERT INTO <table-name> [column-list] VALUES (values);

INSERT INTO Student (Admno, Name, Gender, Age, Place)

VALUES (100, ‘Ashish’, ‘M’, 17, ‘Chennai’);
INSERT INTO Student (Admno, Name, Gender, Age, Place)
VALUES (101, ‘Adarsh’, ‘M’, 18, ‘Delhi’);
Two new records are added to the table as shown below:
Admno Name Gender Age Placee
100 Ashish M 17 Chennai
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi

The order of values must match the order of columns in the CREATE TABLE command.
Specifying the column names is optional if data is to be added for all columns. The command
to add values into the student table can also be used in the following way:
INSERT INTO Student VALUES ( 102, ‘Akshith’, ‘M’, 17, ‘Bangalore’);
102 Akshith M 17 Bangalore
The above command inserts the record into the student table.
To add data to only some columns in a record by specifying the column name and their data,
it can be done by:

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 INSERT INTO Student(Admno, Name, Place) VALUES (103, ‘Ayush’, ‘Delhi’);
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
The above command adds the following record with default values of ‘M’ for Gender and Age
as 18.
INSERT INTO Student (Admno, Name, Place) VALUES (104, ‘Abinandh’, ‘Chennai’);
104 Abinandh M 18 Chennai
The student table will have the following data:
Admno Name Gender Age Place
100 Ashish M 17 Chennai
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
102 Akshith M 17 Bangalore
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
104 Abinandh M 18 Chennai
The fields that are not given in the INSERT command will take default values, if it is defined
for them, otherwise NULL value will be stored.

In the INSERT command the fields that are omitted will have either default value
defined or NULL value.

12.7.3.2 DELETE COMMAND

The DELETE command permanently removes one or more records from the table. It
removes the entire row, not individual fields of the row, so no field argument is needed. The
DELETE command is used as follows :

DELETE FROM table-name WHERE condition;

For example to delete the record whose admission number is 104 the command is given
as follows:
DELETE FROM Student WHERE Admno=104;
104 Abinandh M 18 Chennai

The following record is deleted from the Student table.

To delete all the rows of the table, the command is used as :
DELETE FROM Student;
The table will be empty now and could be destroyed using the DROP command
(Discussed in section 12.7.4.3).

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 12.7.3.3 UPDATE COMMAND
The UPDATE command updates some or all data values in a database. It can update
one or more records in a table. The UPDATE command specifies the rows to be changed using
the WHERE clause and the new data using the SET keyword. The command is used as follows:

UPDATE <table-name> SET column-name = value, column-name = value,…

WHERE condition;
For example to update the following fields:
UPDATE Student SET Age = 20 WHERE Place = ῾Bangalore᾿;
The above command will change the age to 20 for those students whose place is “Bangalore”.
The table will be as updated as below:
Admno Name Gender Age Place
100 Ashish M 17 Chennai
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
102 Akshith M 20 Bangalore
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
To update multiple fields, multiple field assignment can be specified with the SET clause
separated by comma. For example to update multiple fields in the Student table, the command
is given as:
UPDATE Student SET Age=18, Place = ‘Chennai’ WHERE Admno = 102;
102 Akshith M 18 Chennai
The above command modifies the record in the following way.

Admno Name Gender Age Place

100 Ashish M 17 Chennai
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
102 Akshith M 18 Chennai
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi

12.7.4 Some Additional DDL Commands:

12.7.4.1 ALTER COMMAND

The ALTER command is used to alter the table structure like adding a column, renaming
the existing column, change the data type of any column or size of the column or delete the
column from the table. It is used in the following way :

ALTER TABLE <table-name> ADD <column-name><data type><size>;

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 To add a new column “Address” of type ‘char’ to the Student table, the command is used as
ALTER TABLE Student ADD Address char;
To modify existing column of table, the ALTER TABLE command can be used with MODIFY
clause like wise:
ALTER TABLE <table-name> MODIFY<column-name><data type><size>;

ALTER TABLE Student MODIFY Address char (25);

The above command will modify the address column of the Student table to now hold 25
characters.
The ALTER command can be used to rename an existing column in the following way :
ALTER TABLE <table-name> CHANGE old-column-name new-column-name new column definition;

For example to rename the column Address to City, the command is used as :
ALTER TABLE Student CHANGE Address City char(20);
The ALTER command can also be used to remove a column or all columns, for example
to remove a particular column, the DROP COLUMN is used with the ALTER TABLE to
remove a particular field. The command can be used as:
ALTER TABLE <table-name> DROP COLUMN <column-name>;

To remove the column City from the Student table, the command is used as :

ALTER TABLE Student DROP COLUMN City;

12.7.4.2 TRUNCATE command

The TRUNCATE command is used to delete all the rows from the table, the structure
remains and the space is freed from the table. The syntax for TRUNCATE command is:
TRUNCATE TABLE table-name;

For example to delete all the records of the student table and delete the table the SQL statement
is given as follows:
TRUNCATE TABLE Student;
The table Student is removed and the space is freed.

12.7.4.3 DROP TABLE command

The DROP TABLE command is used to remove a table from the database. If you
drop a table, all the rows in the table is deleted and the table structure is removed from the
database. Once a table is dropped we cannot get it back, so be careful while using DROP
TABLE command.

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 The table can be deleted by DROP TABLE command in the following way:

DROP TABLE table-name;

For example to delete the Student table:

DROP TABLE Student;

DELETE, TRUNCATE AND DROP statement:

The DELETE command deletes only the rows from the table based on
the condition given in the where clause or deletes all the rows from the
DELETE
table if no condition is specified. But it does not free the space containing
the table.

The TRUNCATE command is used to delete all the rows, the structure
TRUNCATE
remains in the table and free the space containing the table.

The DROP command is used to remove an object from the database. If you
DROP drop a table, all the rows in the table is deleted and the table structure is
removed from the database. Once a table is dropped we cannot get it back.

12.7.5 DQL COMMAND– SELECT command

One of the most important tasks when working with SQL is to generate Queries and
retrieve data. A Query is a command given to get a desired result from the database table. The
SELECT command is used to query or retrieve data from a table in the database. It is used to
retrieve a subset of records from one or more tables. The SELECT command can be used in
various forms:
Syntax of SELECT command :

SELECT <column-list>FROM<table-name>;

• Table-name is the name of the table from which the information is retrieved.

• Column-list includes one or more columns from which data is retrieved.

For example to view only admission number and name of students from the Student table the
command is given as follows:
If the Student table has the following data:

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 Admno Name Gender Age Place
100 Ashish M 17 Chennai
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
102 Akshith M 17 Bangalore
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
104 Abinandh M 18 Chennai
105 Revathi F 19 Chennai
106 Devika F 19 Bangalore
107 Hema F 17 Chennai
SELECT Admno, Name FROM Student;
The above SELECT command will display the following data:
Admno Name
100 Ashish
101 Adarsh
102 Akshith
103 Ayush
104 Abinandh
105 Revathi
106 Devika
107 Hema
To view all the fields and rows of the table the SELECT command can be given as
SELECT * FROM STUDENT;
12.7.5.1 DISTINCT Keyword
The DISTINCT keyword is used along with the SELECT command to eliminate
duplicate rows in the table. This helps to eliminate redundant data. For Example:
SELECT DISTINCT Place FROM Student;
Will display the following data as follows :

Place
Chennai
Bangalore
Delhi
In the above output you can see, there would be no duplicate rows in the place field.
When the keyword DISTINCT is used, only one NULL value is returned, even if more NULL
values occur.

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 12.7.5.2 ALL Keyword
The ALL keyword retains duplicate rows. It will display every row of the table without
considering duplicate entries.
SELECT ALL Place FROM Student;
The above command will display all values of place field from every row of the table
without eliminating the duplicate entries.
Place
Chennai
Delhi
Bangalore
Delhi
Chennai
Chennai
Bangalore
Chennai
The WHERE clause in the SELECT command specifies the criteria for getting the
desired result. The general form of SELECT command with WHERE Clause is:
SELECT <column-name>[,<column-name>,….] FROM <table-name>WHERE condition>;

For example to display the students admission number and name of only those students who
belong to Chennai, the SELECT command is used in the following way :
SELECT Admno, Name, Place FROM Student WHERE Place = ῾Chennai᾿;

Admno Name Place

100 Ashish Chennai
104 Abinandh Chennai
105 Revathi Chennai
107 Hema Chennai
SELECT Admno, Name, Age FROM Student WHERE Age >= 18;
Admno Name Age
101 Adarsh 18
103 Ayush 18
104 Abinandh 18
105 Revathi 19
106 Devika 19
The relational operators like =, <, <=, >, >=, <> can be used to compare two values in
the SELECT command used with WHERE clause. The logical operaors OR, AND and NOT

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 can also be used to connect search conditions in the WHERE clause. For example :
SELECT Admno, Name, Age, Place FROM Student WHERE (Age>=18 AND Place = ῾Delhi᾿);

Admno Name Age Place

101 Adarsh 18 Delhi
103 Ayush 18 Delhi
The SELECT command can also be used in the following ways:
SELECT Admno, Name, Age, Place FROM Student WHERE (Age>=18 OR Place =῾Delhi᾿);
SELECT Admno, Name, Place FROM Student WHERE (NOT Place =῾Delhi᾿);

12.7.5.3 BETWEEN and NOT BETWEEN Keywords

The BETWEEN keyword defines a range of values the record must fall into to make the
condition true. The range may include an upper value and a lower value between which the
criteria must fall into.
SELECT Admno, Name, Age, Gender FROM Student WHERE Age BETWEEN 18 AND 19;

Admno Name Age Gender

101 Adarsh 18 M
103 Ayush 18 M
104 Abinandh 18 M
105 Revathi 19 F
106 Devika 19 F

The NOT BETWEEN is reverse of the BETWEEN operator where the records not satisfying
the condition are displayed.
SELECT Admno, Name, Age FROM Student WHERE Age NOT BETWEEN 18 AND 19;

Admno Name Age

100 Ashish 17
102 Akshith 17
107 Hema 17

12.7.5.4 IN Keyword
The IN keyword is used to specify a list of values which must be matched with the
record values. In other words it is used to compare a column with more than one value. It is
similar to an OR condition.
For example :
SELECT Admno, Name, Place FROM Student WHERE Place IN (῾Chennai᾿, ῾Delhi᾿);

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 Admno Name Place
100 Ashish Chennai
101 Adarsh Delhi
103 Ayush Delhi
104 Abinandh Chennai
105 Revathi Chennai
107 Hema Chennai
The NOT IN keyword displays only those records that do not match in the list.

For example:
SELECT Admno, Name, Place FROM Student WHERE Place NOT IN (῾Chennai᾿, ῾Delhi᾿);
will display students only from places other than “Chennai” and “Delhi”.
Admno Name Place
102 Akshith Bangalore
106 Devika Bangalore
NULL Value :
The NULL value in a field can be searched in a table using the IS NULL in the WHERE
clause. For example to list all the students whose Age contains no value, the command is used
as:
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Age IS NULL;

Note
Non NULL values in a table can be listed using IS NOT NULL.

12.7.5.5 ORDER BY clause

The ORDER BY clause in SQL is used to sort the data in either ascending or descending
based on one or more columns.
1. By default ORDER BY sorts the data in ascending order.
2. We can use the keyword DESC to sort the data in descending order and the keyword ASC
to sort in ascending order.
The ORDER BY clause is used as :

SELECT <column-name>[,<column-name>,….] FROM <table-name>ORDER

BY <column1>,<column2>,…ASC| DESC ;

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 For example :
To display the students in alphabetical order of their names, the command is used as

SELECT * FROM Student ORDER BY Name;

The above student table is arranged as follows :

Admno Name Gender Age Place

104 Abinandh M 18 Chennai
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
102 Akshith M 17 Bangalore
100 Ashish M 17 Chennai
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
106 Devika F 19 Bangalore
107 Hema F 17 Chennai
105 Revathi F 19 Chennai

Note
The ORDER BY clause does not affect the original table.

12.7.5.6 WHERE clause

The WHERE clause is used to filter the records. It helps to extract only those records
which satisfy a given condition. For example in the student table, to display the list of students
of age18 and above in alphabetical order of their names, the command is given as below:
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Age>=18 ORDER BY Name;

Admno Name Gender Age Place

104 Abinandh M 18 Chennai

101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
106 Devika F 19 Bangalore
105 Revathi F 19 Chennai
To display the list of students in the descending order of names of those students of age
18 and above the command is given as :
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Age>=18 ORDER BY Name DESC;

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 Admno Name Gender Age Place
105 Revathi F 19 Chennai
106 Devika F 19 Bangalore
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
104 Abinandh M 18 Chennai

Note
Sorting can be done on multiple fields.

12.7.5.7 GROUP BY clause

The GROUP BY clause is used with the SELECT statement to group the students on
rows or columns having identical values or divide the table in to groups. For example to know
the number of male students or female students of a class, the GROUP BY clause may be
used. It is mostly used in conjunction with aggregate functions to produce summary reports
from the database.

The syntax for the GROUP BY clause is

SELECT <column-names> FROM <table-name> GROUP BY <column-name>HAVING

condition];

To apply the above command on the student table :

SELECT Gender FROM Student GROUP BY Gender;
The following command will give the below given result:
Gender
M
F
The point to be noted is that only two results have been returned. This is because we
only have two gender types ‘Male’ and ‘Female’. The GROUP BY clause grouped all the ‘M’
students together and returned only a single row for it. It did the same with the ‘F’ students.
For example to count the number of male and female students in the student table, the
following command is given :

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 SELECT Gender, count(*) FROM Student GROUP BY Gender;

Gender count(*)
M 5
F 3

Note
The * is used with the COUNT to include the NULL values.

The GROUP BY applies the aggregate functions independently to a series of groups that
are defined by having a field value in common. The output of the above SELECT statement
gives a count of the number of Male and Female students.

12.7.5.8 HAVING clause

The HAVING clause can be used along with GROUP BY clause in the SELECT statement
to place condition on groups and can include aggregate functions on them. For example to
count the number of students belonging to chennai.
SELECT Place , count(*) FROM Student GROUP BY Place HAVING place = ‘Chennai’;

Place count
Chennai 2
The above output shows the no. of students belongs to chennai.

12.7.6 TCL commands

12.7.6.1 COMMIT command
The COMMIT command is used to permanently save any transaction to the database.
When any DML commands like INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE commands are used, the
changes made by these commands are not permanent. It is marked permanent only after the
COMMIT command is given from the SQL prompt. Once the COMMIT command is given,
the changes made cannot be rolled back. The COMMIT command is used as

COMMIT;

12.7.6.2 ROLLBACK command

The ROLLBACK command restores the database to the last commited state. It is used
with SAVEPOINT command to jump to a particular savepoint location. The syntax for the
ROLLBACK command is :
ROLL BACK TO save point name;

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 12.7.6.3 SAVEPOINT command
The SAVEPOINT command is used to temporarily save a transaction so that you
can rollback to the point whenever required. The different states of our table can be saved at
anytime using different names and the rollback to that state can be done using the ROLLBACK
command.
SAVEPOINT savepoint_name;

Example showing COMMIT, SAVEPOINT and ROLLBACK in the student table

having the following data:

Admno Name Gender Age Place

105 Revathi F 19 Chennai
106 Devika F 19 Bangalore
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
104 Abinandh M 18 Chennai

INSERT INTO Student VALUES (107, 'Beena', 'F', 20 , 'Cochin');

COMMIT;

Admno Name Gender Age Place

105 Revathi F 19 Chennai
106 Devika F 19 Bangalore
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
104 Abinandh M 18 Chennai
107 Beena F 20 Cochin

UPDATE Student SET Name = ‘Mini’ WHERE Admno=105;

SAVEPOINT A;

Admno Name Gender Age Place

105 Mini F 19 Chennai
106 Devika F 19 Bangalore
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
104 Abinandh M 18 Chennai
107 Beena F 20 Cochin

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 INSERT INTO Student VALUES(108, 'Jisha', 'F', 19, 'Delhi');
SAVEPOINT B;

Admno Name Gender Age Place

105 Mini F 19 Chennai
106 Devika F 19 Bangalore
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
104 vAbinandh M 18 Chennai
107 Beena F 20 Cochin
108 Jisha F 19 Delhi

ROLLBACK TO A;

Admno Name Gender Age Place

105 Mini F 19 Chennai
106 Devika F 19 Bangalore
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
104 Abinandh M 18 Chennai
107 Beena F 20 Cochin

Points to remember:
• SQL is a language that helps to create and operate relational databases.
• MySQL is a database management system.
• The various components of SQL are Data Definition Language (DDL), Data
Manipulation Language (DML), Data Query Language (DQL), Transactional
Control Language (TCL), Data Control Language (DCL).
• The DDL provides statements for creation and deletion of tables.
• The DML provides statements to insert, update and delete data of a table.
• The DCL provides authorization commands to access data.
• The TCL commands are used to manage transactions in a database.
• The DQL commands help to generate queries in a database.
• The CREATE TABLE command creates a new table.

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 Hands on Experience
1. Create a query of the student table in the following order of fields name, age, place and
admno.
2. Create a query to display the student table with students of age more than 18 with unique
city.
3. Create a employee table with the following fields employee number, employee name,
designation, date of joining and basic pay.
4. In the above table set the employee number as primary key and check for NULL values in
any field.
5. Prepare a list of all employees who are Managers.

Evaluation

Part - I

Choose the best answer (1 Mark)

1. Which commands provide definitions for creating table structure, deleting relations, and
modifying relation schemas.
a. DDL b. DML c. DCL d. DQL
2. Which command lets to change the structure of the table?
a. SELECT b. ORDER BY c. MODIFY d. ALTER
3. The command to delete a table including the structure is
a. DROP b. DELETE c. DELETE ALL d. ALTER TABLE
4. Queries can be generated using
a. SELECT b. ORDER BY c. MODIFY d. ALTER
5. The clause used to sort data in a database
a. SORT BY b. ORDER BY c. GROUP BY d. SELECT

Part -II

Answer the following questions (2 Marks)

1. Write a query that selects all students whose age is less than 18 in order wise.
2. Differentiate Unique and Primary Key constraint.
3. Write the difference between table constraint and column constraint?
4. Which component of SQL lets insert values in tables and which lets to create a table?
5. What is the difference between SQL and MySQL?

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