RADAR PRINCIPLES

▪ Radar stands for RAdio Detection And Ranging and was

developed prior to World War II. It was used both on the
ground as well as in the air by the military.

▪ Originally it used pulses for its operation but

INTRODUCTION subsequently continuous wave (CW) techniques were

also developed for other functions such as the radio
altimeter.

▪ Today radar is used by ground based radars in the

control, separation and navigation of aircraft as well as in
airborne systems for weather warning and navigation.
TYPES OF PULSED RADARS

A Primary Radar uses pulses of radio energy reflected from a target i.e. it
uses one frequency throughout.

A Secondary Radar transmits pulses on one frequency, but receives on a

different frequency i.e. the object transmits its own energy. It is a system
utilizing an interrogator and transponder; the transponder can be
located in the aircraft or on the ground.
 Air Traffic Control uses radar to:

▪ monitor aircraft in relation to each other whilst they

RADAR are flying.

▪ (Surveillance Radar Approach (SRA) or a military

APPLICATIONS Precision Approach Radar (PAR)).

▪ control and monitor aircraft on ILS let-downs, or
during airfield instrument approaches.
▪ provide information regarding weather e.g. storm
clouds.
 Air/Ground navigational systems use radar:
▪ Secondary Surveillance Radar provides ATC with
information regarding an aircraft’s call sign, altitude,
speed, track history, destination and type of emergency
when appropriate.
▪ Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) provides a pilot

RADAR
with very accurate slant ranges from a ground based
receiver/transmitter known as a transponder.

APPLICATIONS Airborne Weather Radar (AWR) is used to:

▪ depict the range and bearing of clouds.

▪ indicate areas of the heaviest precipitation and associated

turbulence.
▪ calculate the height of cloud.

▪ ground map.
 Radar systems are in the VHF and above frequency
bands because:
▪ these frequencies are free from external
noise/static and ionospheric scatter.

RADAR ▪ the shorter wavelengths produce narrow, efficient

beams for target discrimination and bearing
FREQUENCIES measurement.
▪ the shorter wavelengths can produce shorter
pulses.
▪ efficient reflection from an object depends upon
its size in relation to the wavelength; shorter
wavelengths are reflected more efficiently.
 Primary and secondary radar systems use the
pulse technique which is the transmission of

PULSE radio energy in very short bursts.

Each burst of energy is in a pulse form of a
TECHNIQUE predetermined shape.
The duration of the pulse is equal to the pulse
length or width.
▪ Pulse Recurrence Interval
(PRI) is the time interval
between two pulses.

▪ Pulse Recurrence Frequency

(PRF) is the number of pulses
transmitted in one second
(pps).
 DISTANCE MEASUREMENT - ECHO
PRINCIPLE

The distance to an object is found by timing the interval between the instant of the pulse’s
transmission and its return as an echo.
PRIMARY RADARS
The transmitter and receiver share
the same antenna.
The receiver is energized to accept
‘echoes’ from objects in the pulses’
path as soon as the transmitter pulse
exits the antenna.
The reflected pulses are very weak
due to the double journey.
▪ The shape and size of the radar antennae
determines the size of the main and side
lobes as well as the width of the radar beam.
The larger the aerial, the narrower will be the
beam.

▪ The pulses are concentrated into the beam

dimensions designed for the particular radar.

▪ The beam uses the ‘echo’ principle to

determine range and the ‘searchlight’
principle to indicate bearing or height.
 ▪ Maximum theoretical range is determined by the PRF
(number of pulses transmitted in one second).

THEORETICAL ▪ Each pulse must be allowed to travel to the most

distant object planned before the next pulse is
MAXIMUM transmitted; to do otherwise makes it impossible to
relate a particular echo to a particular pulse.
RANGE
▪ The maximum range is therefore related to the PRF
such that the greater the range required, the lower the
PRF used.
 The range is affected by several factors:
▪ Transmission power: As the signal has to travel out and
back the power/range relationship is: Power available is
proportional to the fourth power of range which means that
the power has increased by a factor of 16 to double the
range.

THE RANGE OF ▪ Characteristics of reflecting objects: Metals are more

efficient than wood at reflecting the transmitted signal and
PRIMARY RADAR the size and shape of the detected object make a
considerable difference to the effective range. The aspect
of the object also affects the range.

▪ Aircraft height and the height of the radar head: Radar

transmissions travel in straight lines and give line of sight
ranges. Thus, higher flying aircraft are more likely to be
detected because they are above the shadow of the
curvature of the earth.
 Wavelength and attenuation by raindrops: Energy is
absorbed and scattered by raindrops; the total effect
depends upon the size of the water droplets and the
transmitted wavelengths.
At wavelengths longer than 10 cm the attenuation is
THE RANGE OF negligible and wavelengths less than 3 cm should not be
used for long range systems.

PRIMARY RADAR ▪ Airfield Surface Movement Indicator (ASMI) radars

operate at 1.75 to 2 cm wavelengths.
▪ Airborne Weather Radars (AWR) and Precision
Approach Radars (PAR) use 3 cm wavelengths.
▪ Surveillance radars (ground) use 10, 23 or 50 cm
wavelengths.
 ▪ Atmospheric conditions: Certain atmospheric
conditions can actually increase the range of radar
pulses by refracting the waves which would normally
travel in straight lines.
This is called super-refraction and it gives radar ranges

THE RANGE OF beyond normal line of sight. Such conditions occur when
there is a temperature inversion and a decrease in

PRIMARY RADAR humidity with height.

▪ Pulse width: determines the minimum range. A pulse 1

µs wide would extend 300 metres. Any object closer than
150 metres would reflect a pulse that could not be
received as the transmitter would still be transmitting.
 RADAR MEASUREMENTS
▪ Bearing measurement is obtained by using the searchlight principle. Radio pulses
are concentrated into very narrow beams. The beam is rotated at a constant speed. The
display is synchronized with the antenna rotation. The direction of an object is the
direction of the beam, measured from a fixed datum, at the time when the echo is
received.
▪ Range Calculated from the time interval between the transmission and reception of the
radar pulse.
▪ Harmonization to determine bearing and range information from the radar system it is
necessary to harmonize the rotary speed of the antenna, the pulse duration or width, the
pulse repetition frequency, focusing and transmission power.
RADAR RESOLUTION
The image painted on a display from a point target will not be a single point but will
appear as a rectangle, known as the radar resolution rectangle i.e. the target
appears to be stretched both radially and in azimuth.
▪ The radial resolution: is dependent upon half the pulse length. For example, a
pulse length of 1 µs would stretch the target by 150 metres (Half of the length).
▪ The azimuth resolution: is dependent upon the full beamwidth. Therefore a 3°
beamwidth at a range of 120 km would stretch the target in azimuth by 6 km (using
the 1 in 60 rule).

It follows therefore that in order to resolve adjacent targets the radar should have
short pulse lengths and narrow beamwidths.
 MOVING
▪ Surveillance radar equipment incorporates
circuitry designed to eliminate returns from
stationary objects such as hills or buildings
TARGET which would give returns that would mask the
smaller returns from aircraft.

INDICATION ▪ By erasing the permanent echoes the radar is

able to display only the moving targets such as
(MTI) aircraft.
 slotted planar array
(or flat plate antenna)

RADAR ANTENNAE