MTS 231 Actuating System

Dr. Basharat Ullah

Week 04

Department of Mechatronics
College of Electrical and Mechanical
Engineering
Theory of Operation of Real Single-Phase Transformers
❑ Transformer consisting of two windings
❑ Primary is connected to an ac power source
❑ Secondary winding is open-circuited
❑ The basis of transformer operation can be
derived from Faraday's law

❑ If the total flux linkage in all the turns of the coils is λ and if there are N turns, then the
average flux per turn is given by
The Voltage Ratio across a Transformer
❑ Voltage source 𝑣𝑝 (𝑡) is applied to the primary winding.
❑ Flux present in primary winding of the transformer, if the winding resistance is
ignored;

❑ The average flux in the winding is proportional to the integral of the voltage
applied to the winding.
❑ The portion of the flux that goes through one of the transformer coils but not the
other one is called leakage flux.
❑ The flux in the primary coil of the transformer can thus be divided into two
components:
❑ A mutual flux, which remains in the core and links both windings
The Voltage Ratio across a Transformer
❑ Similar division of flux in the secondary
winding,

❑ Faraday’s law for the primary circuit can

be reexpressed as;

❑ Similarly for secondary side,

The Voltage Ratio across a Transformer
❑ Notice from these two relationships that,

❑ This equation means that the ratio of the primary voltage caused by the mutual
flux to the secondary voltage caused by the mutual flux is equal to the turns ratio
of the transformer.
❑ In a well-designed transformer, and
❑ The smaller the leakage fluxes of the transformer are, the closer the total
transformer voltage ratio approximates that of the ideal transformer.
The Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer
❑ When an ac power source is connected to a transformer, a current flows in its
primary circuit, even when the secondary circuit is open-circuited.
❑ This current is the current required to produce flux in a real ferromagnetic core. It
consists of two components;
o The magnetization current 𝑖𝑀 , which is the current required to produce the
flux in the transformer core, and
o The core-loss current 𝑖ℎ+𝑒 , which is the current required to make up for
hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core.
❑ If the primary voltage is given by 𝑣𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑀 cos 𝑤𝑡, and ignoring for the
moment the effects of leakage flux,
 The Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer
❑ Notice the following points about the
magnetization current:
❑ The magnetization current in the
transformer is not sinusoidal.
❑ Once the peak flux reaches the saturation
point in the core, a small increase in peak
flux requires a very large increase in the
peak magnetization current.
❑ The fundamental component of the magnetization current lags the
voltage applied to the core by 90°.
❑ The higher-frequency components in the magnetization current can be
quite large compared to the fundamental component.
The Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer
❑ Core Loss Current
❑ Assume that the flux in the core is sinusoidal.
❑ Since the eddy currents in the core are
proportional to 𝑑ɸൗ𝑑𝑡 , the eddy currents are
largest when the flux in the core is passing
through 0 Wb.
❑ Notice the following points about the core-loss current:
o The core-loss current is nonlinear because of the nonlinear effects of hysteresis.
o The fundamental component of the core-loss current is in phase with the voltage applied to the
core.
❑ The total no-load current in the core is called the excitation current of the
transformer.
The Current Ratio on a Transformer and the Dot Convention

❑ Suppose that a load is connected to the

secondary of the transformer:
❑ A current flowing into the dotted end of a
winding produces a positive mmf.
❑ A current flowing into the undotted end of a
winding produces a negative mmf.

❑ This net mmf must produce the net flux in the core,
❑ The reluctance of a well-designed transformer core is very small (nearly zero)
until the core is saturated.
Questions?
Lecture 08
The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
❑ The losses that occur in real transformers have to be accounted for in any
accurate model of transformer behavior.
❑ Copper (𝐼 2 𝑅) losses: Copper losses are the resistive heating losses in the primary
and secondary windings of the transformer. They are proportional to the square
of the current in the windings.
❑ Eddy current losses: Eddy current losses are resistive heating losses in the core of
the transformer. They are proportional to the square of the voltage applied to the
transformer.
❑ Hysteresis Losses: Hysteresis losses are associated with the rearrangement of the
magnetic domains in the core during each half-cycle. They are a complex,
nonlinear function of the voltage applied to the transformer.
❑ Leakage flux: The fluxes ϕ𝐿𝑃 and ϕ𝐿𝑆 which escape the core and pass through
only one of the transformer windings are leakage fluxes.
The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer
❑ The easiest effect to model is the copper losses. Copper losses are resistive losses
in the primary and secondary windings of the transformer core.
❑ They are modeled by placing a resistor 𝑅𝑝 in the primary circuit of the
transformer and a resistor 𝑅𝑠 in the secondary circuit.
❑ The magnetization current im is a current proportional (in the unsaturated region)
to the voltage applied to the core and lagging the applied voltage by 90°.
 The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer

The transformer model referred to its primary voltage level. The transformer model referred to its secondary voltage level
 Major Differences between an Ideal and Real Transformer

❑ An ideal transformer’s core does not have any hysteresis and eddy current losses.
❑ The magnetization curve of an ideal transformer is similar to a step function.
❑ Flux in an ideal transformer stays in the core and hence leakage flux is zero.
❑ The resistance of windings in an ideal transformer is zero.

Approximate transformer models. Referred to the primary side; with no excitation branch, referred to the primary side
Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model

❑ It is possible to experimentally determine the values of the inductances and

resistances in the transformer model;
❑ Two Tests: Open Circuit Test and Short Circuit Test
❑ In the open-circuit test, one transformer winding is open-circuited, and the other
winding is connected to full rated line voltage.
❑ Under the conditions described, all the input current must be flowing through
the excitation branch of the transformer.
❑ The series elements, 𝑅𝑝 and 𝑋𝑠 are too small in comparison to 𝑅𝑐 and 𝑋𝑀 to
cause a significant voltage drop, so essentially all the input voltage is dropped
across the excitation branch.
❑ This measurement is normally done on the low voltage side of the transformer,
since lower voltages are easier to work with.
Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model

❑ Conductance: Reciprocal of resistance

❑ Susceptance: Reciprocal of reactance

❑ Admittance: Reciprocal of impedance

❑ The magnitude of the excitation admittance

Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model

❑ The angle of the admittance can be found from a knowledge of the circuit power
factor. The open-circuit power factor (PF) is given by;

❑ The power-factor angle θ is given by

❑ The power factor is always lagging for a real transformer, so the angle of the
current always lags the angle of the voltage by θ degrees,
Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model

❑ Short-circuit test: The low-voltage terminals of the transformer are short

circuited, and the high-voltage terminals are connected to a variable voltage
source.

❑ The power factor of the current is given by

Example 2-2
❑ The equivalent circuit impedances of a 20-kVA, 8000/240 V, 60-Hz transformer
are to be determined. The open-circuit test was performed on the secondary side
of the transformer (to reduce the maximum voltage to be measured) and the
short circuit test was performed on the primary side of the transformer (to
reduce the maximum current to be measured). The following data were taken:

❑ Find the impedances of the approximate equivalent circuit referred to the

primary side and sketch that circuit.
Example 2-2
❑ The power factor during the open-circuit test is;

❑ The excitation admittance is given by

❑ Therefore, the values of the excitation branch referred to the low-voltage

(secondary) side are;
Example 2-2
❑ The power factor during the short-circuit test is;

❑ The series impedance is given by;

❑ The turns ratio of this transformer

The per-unit (pu) system of measurements
❑ In the per-unit system, the voltages, currents, powers, impedances, and other electrical
quantities are not measured in their usual SI units (volts, amperes, watts, ohms, etc.).
❑ Instead, each electrical quantity is measured as a decimal fraction of some base level.

❑ It is customary to select two base quantities to define a given per-unit system.

❑ The ones usually selected are voltage and power (or apparent power).
Example 2.3
A simple power system is shown in Figure. This system contains a 480-V generator
connected to an ideal 1:10 step-up transformer, a transmission line, an ideal 20:1 step-down
transformer, and a load. The impedance of the transmission line is 20+j60 Ω, and the
impedance of the load is 10<30°Ω. The base values for this system are chosen to be 480 V
and 10 kVA at the generator.
(a) Find the base voltage, current, impedance, and apparent power at every point in
the power system. (b) Convert this system to its per-unit equivalent circuit. (c) Find
the power supplied to the load in this system. (d) Find the power lost in the
transmission line.
Example 2.3
❑ (a) In the generator region, 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 480𝑉 and 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 10 𝑘𝑉𝐴, so

❑ The turns ratio of transformer 𝑇1 is 𝑎 = 1/10 = 0.1, so the base voltage in the
transmission line region is,

❑ The other base quantities are

❑ The turns ratio of transformer 𝑇2 is 𝑎 = 20/1 = 20, so the base voltage in the
load region is
Example 2.3
❑ The other base quantities are

❑ (b) Convert this system to its per-unit equivalent circuit

❑ The generator’s per-unit voltage is its actual value divided by its base value:

❑ The transmission line’s per-unit impedance is its actual value divided by its base
value
❑ The load’s per-unit impedance is also given by actual value divided by base value:
Example 2.3

❑ (c) Find the power supplied to the load in this system.

Example 2.3
❑ (d) Find the power lost in the transmission line.
Transformer voltage regulation and Efficiency
❑ Because a real transformer has series impedances within it, the output voltage of
a transformer varies with the load even if the input voltage remains constant.
❑ Full-load voltage regulation (VR) is a quantity that compares the output voltage of
the transformer at no load with the output voltage at full load.

❑ Since at no load, 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑝 Τ𝑎

❑ If the transformer equivalent circuit is in the per-unit system, then

❑ Usually, it is a good practice to have as small a voltage regulation as possible.

Transformer voltage regulation and Efficiency
❑ Efficiency of a device is defined by the equation

❑ Now as we know that transformer has copper and core losses, and

❑ Assignment 01 (learn The Transformer Phasor Diagram, book page 100, 101)
❑ Example 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6
Transformer taps and voltage regulation
❑ Earlier, the turns ratio of a given transformer was treated as though it were
completely fixed.
❑ However, real distribution transformers have a series of taps in windings, which
permit small changes in turns ratio of the transformer after leaving factory.
❑ A typical distribution transformer has four taps in addition to nominal setting,
each has a spacing of 2.5% of full load voltage with the adjacent tap.
❑ This provides possibility for voltage adjustment below or above nominal setting
by 5%.
Example 2.6
Example: A 500 kVA, 13200/480 V distribution transformer has 4, 2.5% taps on
primary winding. What are the voltage ratios?

Solution: Five possible voltage ratings are:

Nominal rating 13200/480 V
+2.5% tap 13530/480 V
-2.5% tap 12870/480 V
+5% tap 13860/480 V
-5% tap 12540/480 V
Transformer taps and voltage regulation
❑ Taps on transformer permit transformer to be adjusted in field to accommodate
variations in local voltages.
❑ However, these taps can not be changed when power is being applied to the
transformer.
❑ Sometimes voltage varies widely with load; while normal loads should be
supplied an essentially constant voltage.
❑ One solution is using special transformer called tap changing under load (TCUL)
transformer or voltage regulator.
❑ A TCUL transformer has the ability to change taps while power is connected to it.
Autotransformer
❑ A voltage regulator (autotransformer) is a TCUL transformer with built-in voltage
sensing circuitry that automatically changes taps to preserve system voltage
constant.
Autotransformer
❑ On some occasions it is desirable to change voltage level only by a small amount.
i.e. may need to increase voltage from 110 to 120 V or from 13.2 to 13.8 kV.
❑ In such cases it is very expensive to hire a two full winding transformer, however
a special transformer called autotransformer can be used.
Advantages
❑ The secondary winding is as part of primary winding. Hence, autotransformer
eliminates the need for a separate secondary winding.
❑ As a result, autotransformers are always smaller, lighter, and cheaper.
Disadvantages
❑ Absence of electrical isolation is a serious drawback in some applications.
Autotransformer

❑ The voltage at the output of the whole transformer is the sum of the voltage on
the first winding and the voltage on the second winding.
❑ The first winding here is called the common winding, because its voltage appears
on both sides of the transformer. The smaller winding is called the series winding,
because it is connected in series with the common winding.
Autotransformer
❑ As the transformer coils are physically connected, a different terminology is used
for the autotransformer than for other types of transformers.
❑ Common Voltage 𝑉𝐶
❑ Common Current 𝐼𝐶
❑ Series Voltage 𝑉𝑆𝐸
❑ Series Current 𝐼𝑆𝐸
❑ Low-voltage side Voltage 𝑉𝐿
❑ Low-voltage side Current 𝐼𝐿
Voltage and Current Relationships in an Autotransformer

❑ Some more relations;

The Apparent Power Rating Advantage of Autotransformers

❑ The apparent power in the transformer windings

Questions?