ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING

COMPUTER
FUNDAMENTALS

Comprehensive Theory
with Solved Examples and Practice Questions

www.madeeasypublications.org
 MADE EASY Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Corporate Office: 44-A/4, Kalu Sarai (Near Hauz Khas Metro
Station), New Delhi-110016 | Ph. : 9021300500
Email : [email protected] | Web : www.madeeasypublications.org

First Edition : 2015

Computer Fundamentals Second Edition : 2016

EDITIONS
Third Edition : 2017
Copyright © by MADE EASY Publications Pvt. Ltd. Fourth Edition : 2018
All rights are reserved. No part of this publication may be Fifth Edition : 2019
reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or Sixth Edition : 2020
transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, Seventh Edition : 2021
photo-copying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written Eighth Edition : 2022
permission of the above mentioned publisher of this book. Ninth Edition : 2023

Tenth Edition : 2024

MADE EASY Publications Pvt. Ltd. has taken due care

in collecting the data and providing the solutions, before
publishing this book. Inspite of this, if any inaccuracy or
printing error occurs then MADE EASY Publications Pvt.
Ltd. owes no responsibility. We will be grateful if you could
point out any such error. Your suggestions will be appreciated.
 Computer Fundamentals
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 3

Basic Architecture.......................................... 2-10 Memory Organization...................................48-81

1.1 Computer System.................................................................... 2 3.1 Introduction.............................................................................48
1.2 Layers of Abstraction.............................................................. 3 3.2 Memory or Primary Memory
1.3 Computer Organization and (Core Memory/Store/Storage)...........................................49

Computer Architecture.......................................................... 3 3.3 Associative Memory..............................................................52

1.4 Evolution of Digital Computers.......................................... 5 3.4 Address Space.........................................................................52

1.5 Structure and Function of a Computer System............ 5 3.5 Cache Memory........................................................................56

1.6 Components of Computer Structure................................ 6 3.6 Direct Mapped Cache

1.7 Bus Structure............................................................................. 7 (1-way Set Associative Cache)...........................................57

Student’s Assignment............................................................... 9 3.7 Fully Associative Cache........................................................60

3.8 Set Associative Cache

CHAPTER 2 (k-way Set Associative Cache)...........................................62

3.9 Virtual Memory.......................................................................66

CPU Organization.......................................... 11-47
3.10 Page Fault.................................................................................67
2.1 Introduction.............................................................................11
3.11 Page Replacement.................................................................69
2.2 Machine Instructions............................................................12
3.12 Page Replacement Algorithms.........................................69
2.3 Instruction Formats...............................................................13
3.13 Advantages & Disadvantages of Virtual Memory......74
2.4 Addressing Modes.................................................................16
Student’s Assignment.............................................................78
2.5 Types of Machine Instructions..........................................21

2.6 Instruction Stream Vs Data Stream..................................25

CHAPTER 4
2.7 ALU Design...............................................................................25

2.8 Bus Organizations of Datapath.........................................27 Input/Output Organization........................82-105

2.9 Implementations of Datapath...........................................28 4.1 Introduction.............................................................................82
2.10 Basics of Control Unit...........................................................28 4.2 I/O Access Structure..............................................................82
2.11 Multi Cycle Datapath and Control...................................31 4.3 I/O Modules.............................................................................83
2.12 Control Unit.............................................................................33 4.4 I/O Techniques........................................................................84
2.13 Microoperations and Control Signals.............................34 4.5 Direct Memory Access.........................................................88
2.14 Control Unit Implementation............................................36 4.6 Secondary Storage................................................................92
Student’s Assignment.............................................................44 4.7 Magnetic Memory.................................................................94

iii
 Computer Fundamentals

4.8 Optical Memory......................................................................96 7.2 Directories............................................................................. 139

4.9 Structure of a Disk (Disk Structure).................................99 7.3 File Management System................................................ 141
Student’s Assignment......................................................... 103 7.4 File System Organization................................................. 142

7.5 File Allocation Methods.................................................... 143

CHAPTER 5
Student’s Assignment.......................................................... 150
Data Representation................................ 106-118
5.1 Fixed-Point Representation............................................. 106 CHAPTER 8
5.2 IEEE Floating-Point Number Representation............ 110
Networking Fundamentals...................... 152-160
5.3 Computer Arithmetic........................................................ 111
8.1 Introduction.......................................................................... 152
5.4 Adding 2’s Complement Number................................. 112
8.2 Delays in Computer Networks....................................... 153
5.5 Multiplying Floating-Point Numbers........................... 113
8.3 Protocol Layering................................................................ 153
Student’s Assignment......................................................... 116
8.4 Circuit-Switched.................................................................. 157

8.5 Packet Switching................................................................. 157

CHAPTER 6
Student’s Assignment.......................................................... 158

Basic Concepts of
CHAPTER 9
Operating Systems....................................119-137
6.1 Operating System (OS)...................................................... 119 Programming Methodology.................... 161-203
6.2 Structure of Computer System...................................... 119 9.1 Data Segments in Memory.............................................. 161
6.3 Layered View of Operating System Services............. 120 9.2 Scope of Variable................................................................ 162
6.4 History of Operating System.......................................... 120 9.3 C-Variable............................................................................... 163
6.5 Types of Operating System............................................. 120 9.4 Address Arithmetic in C.................................................... 166
6.6 Functions of Operating System..................................... 123 9.5 Value of Variable in C Language.................................... 167
6.7 Operating System Components.................................... 124 9.6 Flow Control in C................................................................. 168
6.8 Process.................................................................................... 124 9.7 Function................................................................................. 174
6.9 Process State Models......................................................... 125 9.8 Recursion............................................................................... 181
6.10 Thread..................................................................................... 130 9.9 Backtracking......................................................................... 183
6.11 Multi Threading................................................................... 132 9.10 C Scope Rules....................................................................... 184
Student’s Assignment......................................................... 134 9.11 Storage Class........................................................................ 186

9.12 Pointers................................................................................... 192

CHAPTER 7 Student’s Assignment.......................................................... 201

File System................................................ 138-151

7.1 Introduction.......................................................................... 138

iv