The French Revolution:In 1789, in the wake of early morning, the city of Paris was in a state of alarm.

Rumours spread that the King would open fire upon the citizens. People started gathering, and they started breaking down a number of
government buildings in search of arms. The commander of the Bastille was killed in the armed fight, and the prisoners were released. People hated the Bastille as it stood for the despotic power of the king. People protested against the
high price of bread. A new chain of events began, which led to the execution of the King in France.

French Society During the Late Eighteenth Century: Louis XVI, in 1774, ascended the throne of France. Financial France was drained because of the war. France, under Louis XVI, helped the thirteen American colonies to gain their
independence from Britain. Taxes were increased to meet regular expenses, such as the cost of maintaining an army, the court, and running government offices or universities. The country of France was divided into three estates in the
eighteenth century. The feudal system was part of the society’s estates dating back to the middle ages. 90 percent of the population was dominated by peasants, but only a small number of them owned the land they cultivated. 60
percent was owned by nobles, the Church and other richer members of the third estate. The clergy and the nobility, members of the first two estates, enjoyed certain privileges by birth. These groups of members were exempted from
paying taxes and enjoyed feudal privileges. All members of the third estate had to pay taxes to the state, which included a direct tax, called taille, and a number of indirect taxes, which were levied on articles of everyday consumption like
salt or tobacco.

The Struggle to Survive The increase in population led to a rapid increase in the requirement for food grains. Production of grains could not keep pace with the demand, due to which the price of bread rose rapidly. Due to the low wages
paid to the labourers, the gap between the poor and the rich widened. Things became worse whenever drought or hail reduced the harvest.

A Growing Middle Class Envisages an End to Privileges Peasants used to participate in revolts against taxes and food scarcity. The group of the third estate had become prosperous and had access to education and new ideas. In the
eighteenth century, new social groups emerged, termed the middle class, who earned their wealth through expanding overseas trade and by manufacturing woollen and silk textiles that were either exported or bought by the richer
members of society. The third estate included professions such as lawyers or administrative officials. A person’s social position was dependent on their merit. All these groups were educated and believed that no group in society should
be privileged by birth. Rather, a person’s social position must depend on his merit. A new form of government was proposed by Rousseau based on a social contract between people and their representatives. Similarly, Montesquieu
proposed a division of power within the government between the legislative, the executive and the judiciary. In the USA, this model of government was put into force. Louis Louis XVI planned to impose further taxes to meet the expenses.

The Outbreak of the Revolution In France, the monarch didn’t have the power to impose taxes. They had to call a meeting of the Estates-General, a political body to which the three estates sent their representatives, to pass proposals for
new taxes. Louis XVI, on 5 May 1789, called an assembly to pass proposals for new taxes. Representatives from the first and second estates were present, and the third estate was represented by its prosperous and educated members.
According to the principle, each estate had one vote. But, representatives from the third estate demanded each member would have one vote. The demand was rejected, so members of the third estate walked out to protest. They swore
not to disperse till a constitution was drafted for France that would limit the powers of the monarch.

Due to the severe winter, bread prices rose, and people had to spend hours in long queues. Rumours spread that the lords of the manor hired bands of brigands to destroy the ripe crops. In fear, peasants started looting hoarded grain and
burnt down documents containing records of manorial dues. Nobles fled from their homes. Louis XVI accorded recognition to the National Assembly and accepted the principle that his powers would, from now on, be checked by a
constitution. The Assembly passed a decree abolishing the feudal system of obligations and taxes on 4 August 1789. Tithes were abolished, and lands owned by the Church were confiscated.

France Becomes a Constitutional Monarchy In 1791, The National Assembly completed the draft of the constitution, and its main object was to limit the powers of the monarch. These powers were now separated and assigned to different
institutions – the legislature, executive and judiciary. France became a constitutional monarchy. Citizens voted for a group of electors, who in turn chose the Assembly, but unfortunately, not every citizen had the right to vote. Men above
25 years of age who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourer’s wage were entitled to vote. The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of
opinion, and equality before the law were established as ‘natural and inalienable’ rights; that is, they belonged to each human being by birth and could not be taken away.

France Abolishes Monarchy and Becomes a Republic In April 1792, the National Assembly voted for a war against Prussia and Austria. Marseillaise became the national anthem of France. While men were away fighting in the war, women
took care of their families. Large sections of the population demanded that the revolution had to be carried further, as the Constitution of 1791 gave political rights only to the richer sections of society. Political clubs were formed, and
among them, Jacobins became the most successful club. Members of the Jacobin club included small shopkeepers, artisans such as shoemakers, pastry cooks, watch-makers, printers, as well as servants and daily-wage workers.
Jacobin members started wearing long striped trousers similar to those worn by dockworkers. These Jacobins were called the sans-culottes, literally meaning ‘those without knee breeches’. On August 10 1792, Jacobins stormed the Palace
of the Tuileries and held the king hostage for several hours. Elections were held, and all men of 21 years and above got the right to vote. The monarchy was abolished on 21 September 1792, and France was declared a republic. Louis XVI
was sentenced to death by a court on the charge of treason.

The Reign of Terror The period from 1793 to 1794 is referred to as the Reign of Terror. People whom Robespierre saw as enemies of the republic were arrested, imprisoned and then tried by a revolutionary tribunal. If they were declared
guilty by the court, then they were guillotined. The guillotine is a device consisting of two poles and a blade with which a person is beheaded, named after Dr Guillotin. Laws were issued to place a maximum ceiling on wages and prices.
Meat and bread were rationed. Expensive white flour was forbidden to use. Equality was practised through forms of speech and address. All French men and women were addressed as Citoyen and Citoyenne (Citizen). In July 1794, he was
convicted by a court, arrested and the next day sent to the guillotine.

A Directory Rules France:The fall of the Jacobin government allowed the wealthier middle classes to seize power. According to the new constitution, non-propertied sections of society were denied voting. It provided for two elected
legislative councils. The government appointed a Directory consisting of executives made up of five members. Political instability paved the way for a military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte.
Did Women have a Revolution? :Women were active participants from the beginning, which brought important changes in the country of France. Women from the third estate had to work for a living, and they didn’t have access to
education or job training. Daughters of nobles of the third estate were allowed to study at a convent. Working women also had to care for their families. Compared to men, their wages were lower. Women also started their political clubs
and newspapers. The Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women was one of the most famous women’s clubs. They demanded equal political rights as men, the right to vote and to hold political office. The revolutionary government
introduced laws to improve the lives of women. Schooling became compulsory, divorce was made legal, and they could run small businesses. During the Reign of Terror, the government closed women’s clubs banning their political
activities. After much struggle, women in France in 1946 won the right to vote

The Abolition of Slavery:Jacobin’s regime’s most revolutionary social reform was the abolition of slavery in the French colonies. In the seventeenth century, the slavery trade began. Slaves were brought from local chieftains, branded and
shackled and packed tightly into ships for the three-month-long voyage across the Atlantic to the Caribbean. Slave labour met the growing demand in European markets for sugar, coffee, and indigo. Throughout the eighteenth century,
there was little criticism of slavery in France. In 1794, the Convention legislated to free all slaves in the French overseas possessions. Napoleon introduced slavery after ten years. In 1848, slavery was abolished in French colonies.

The Revolution and Everyday Life: France during 1789 saw changes in the lives of men, women and children. The abolition of censorship happened in the summer of 1789. Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed freedom
of speech and expression to be a natural right. Freedom of the press meant opposing views of events could be expressed. Plays, songs and festive processions attracted large numbers of people.

Conclusion:Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor of France in 1804 and introduced many laws, such as the protection of private property and a uniform system of weights and measures provided by the decimal system.
Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo in 1815. The ideas of liberty and democratic rights were the most important legacy of the French Revolution. Colonised peoples reworked the idea of freedom to create a sovereign nation-state.

The Age of Social Change After the revolution, individual rights and social power began to be discussed in many parts of the world, including Europe and Asia. Colonial development reshaped ideas of societal change, but everyone was not
in favour of the complete transformation of society. Through the revolution in Russia, socialism became one of the most significant and powerful ideas to shape society in the twentieth century.Liberals, Radicals and Conservatives
Liberals wanted a nation which tolerated all religions. They opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rules and argued for a representative, elected parliamentary government subject to laws interpreted by a well-trained judiciary that
was independent of rulers and officials. They wanted a government based on the majority of a country’s population. Conservatives, after the nineteenth century, accepted changes but also believed the past needed to be respected and
change should begin slowly.Industrial Society and Social Change Industrial Revolution led to changes in social and economic life, new cities came up, and new industrialised regions developed. Men, women and children came to factories in
search of work. But, unfortunately, working hours were long, and wages were poor. There was unemployment during the time of low demand for industrial goods. Liberals and radicals made wealth through trade or industrial ventures.
According to them, society can be developed if the freedom of individuals is ensured, if the poor can labour, and if those with capital can operate without restraint. In France, Italy, Germany and Russia, revolutionaries overthrow
existing monarchs. Nationalists talked of revolutions to create ‘nations’ with equal rights The Coming of Socialism to Europe Socialism was a well-known body of ideas by the mid-nineteenth century in Europe. Socialists were against
private property and saw it as the root of all social ills of the time. They wanted to change it and campaigned for it. Robert Owen (1771-1858) sought to build a cooperative community called New Harmony in Indiana (USA). Louis Blanc
(1813-1882) wanted the government to encourage cooperatives and replace capitalist enterprises. Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) added other ideas to this body of arguments. According to Marx, industrial society
was ‘capitalist’ who owned the capital invested in factories, and the profit of capitalists was produced by workers. Capitalism and the rule of private property were overthrown. Marx believed that a communist society was the natural
society of the future.Support for Socialism By the 1870s, socialist ideas spread through Europe, and they formed an international body – namely, the Second International. Associations were formed by workers in Germany and England to
fight for better living and working conditions. The Labour Party and Socialist Party were formed by socialists and trade unionists by 1905.The Russian Revoluti on In the October Revolution of 1917, socialists took over the government
in Russia. The fall of the monarchy in February 1917 and the events of October were termed the Russian Revolution.The Russian Empire in 1914 In 1914, Russia was ruled by Tsar Nicholas II and its empire. The Russian Empire
included current-day Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, parts of Poland, Ukraine and Belarus, stretching to the Pacific and comprised today’s Central Asian states, as well as Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. The majority of the
population was Russian Orthodox Christianity. Economy and Society At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Russian population was dominated by agriculturalists, who used to cultivate for the market as well as for their own needs.
St Petersburg and Moscow were prominent industrial areas. Craftsmen undertook much of the production, but large factories existed alongside craft workshops. In the 1890s, more factories were set up, and foreign investment in industry
increased. Large factories were supervised by the government to ensure minimum wages and limited hours of work. Workers were a divided social group. They were also divided by their skill. Despite divisions, workers united to stop work
when they disagreed with employers about dismissals or work conditions.Peasants cultivated most of the land, but the nobility, the crown and the Orthodox Church owned large properties. Nobles got power and position through their
services to the Tsar. In Russia, peasants wanted the land of the nobles.Socialism in Russia Political parties in Russia were legal before 1914. In 1898, socialists founded the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party, which respected
Marx’s ideas. Some Russian socialists felt that the Russian peasant custom of dividing land periodically made them natural socialists. Throughout the nineteenth century, socialists were active in the countryside and formed the
Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1900. The party struggled for peasants’ rights and demanded land belonging to nobles be transferred to peasants. The party was divided over the strategy of the organisation. According to Vladimir Lenin,
in a repressive society like Tsarist Russia, the party should be disciplined and should control the number and quality of its members. Mensheviks thought that the party should be open to all.A Turbulent Time: The 1905 Revolution Russia
was an autocracy, and even at the beginning of the twentieth century, the Tsar was not subject to Parliament. During the Revolution of 1905, Russia, along with the Social Democrats and Socialist Revolutionaries, worked with peasants and
workers to demand a constitution. For Russian workers, bad times started from the year 1904 as prices of essential goods rose and their real wages declined by 20 per cent. Workers went on strike demanding a reduction in the working day
to eight hours, an increase in wages and an improvement in working conditions. The procession was attacked by the police and the Cossacks when it reached the Winter Palace. The incident, known as Bloody Sunday, started a series of
events which resulted in the 1905 Revolution. During the 1905 Revolution, the Tsar allowed the creation of an elected consultative Parliament or Duma. After 1905, most committees and unions worked unofficially since they were declared
illegal.The First World War and the Russian Empire n 1914, war broke out between two European alliances – Germany, Austria and Turkey (the Central powers) and France, Britain and Russia (later Italy and Romania). This was the First
World War. The war became popular, and as it continued, the Tsar refused to consult the main parties in the Duma. Support wore thin. The First World War was different on the easter front and on the western front. Between 1914 and 1916
Russian army lost badly in Germany and Austria. Russian army destroyed crops and buildings to prevent the enemy from being able to live off the land. The country was cut off from other suppliers of industrial goods by German control of
the Baltic Sea. Railway lines began to break down by 1916. For the people in the cities, bread and flour became scarce. By the winter of 1916, riots at bread shops were common.
The February Revolution in Petrograd Petrograd City is divided among its people. On the right bank of the River Neva, workers’ quarters and factories were located and on the left bank located fashionable areas such as the Winter
Palace and official buildings. Food shortages deeply affected the workers’ quarters. On the right bank, a factory was shut down on February 22. Women also led the way to strikes, and it is called International Women’s Day. The
government imposed a curfew as the fashionable quarters and official buildings were surrounded by workers. Duma was suspended on 25th February. The streets thronged with demonstrators raising slogans about bread, wages, better hours and
democracy. The government called out the cavalry, but they refused to fire on the demonstrators. Soldiers and striking workers gathered to form a ‘soviet’ or ‘council’ in the same building where the Duma met, and it is termed the
Petrograd Soviet. Soviet leaders and Duma leaders formed a Provisional Government to run the country. Russia’s future would be decided by a constituent assembly elected on the basis of universal adult suffrage. Petrograd led the
February Revolution which brought down the monarchy in February 1917.fter February Under the Provisional Government, army officials, landowners and industrialists were influential. Liberals and socialists worked towards an elected
government. Restrictions on public meetings and associations were removed. In April 1917, the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin returned to Russia from his exile. Lenin demanded three things termed as ‘April Theses’. He wanted war to
end, land to be transferred to the peasants, and banks to be nationalised. He also emphasised renaming the Bolshevik Party to the Communist Party. Workers’ movement spread throughout the summer. Factory committees formed, and trade
unions grew in numbers. When the Provisional Government saw its power reduced and Bolshevik influence grew, they decided to take stern measures against the spreading discontent. In the countryside, peasants and their Socialist
Revolutionary leaders pressed for a redistribution of land. Encouraged by the Socialist Revolutionaries, peasants seized land between July and September 1917. The Revolution of October 1917 The conflict between the Provisional
Government and the Bolsheviks grew. On 16 October 1917, Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party to agree to a socialist seizure of power. To organise the seizure, a Military Revolutionary Committee was appointed by
the Soviet under Leon Trotskii. The Military Revolutionary Committee ordered its supporters to seize government offices and arrest ministers. By nightfall, the city was under the committee’s control and the ministers had surrendered.
At a meeting of the All Russian Congress of Soviets in Petrograd, the majority approved the Bolshevik action. What Changed after October? Industry and banks were nationalised in November 1917, which meant that the government took over
ownership and management. Land was declared as social property, and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility. The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik). Elections were conducted in November
1917 to the Constituent Assembly, but they failed in the majority. In January 1918, the Assembly rejected Bolshevik measures and Lenin dismissed the Assembly. Despite opposition, in March 1918, the Bolsheviks made peace with Germany at
Brest Litovsk. The Bolsheviks participated in the elections to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, which became the Parliament of the country. Russia became a one-party state. After October 1917, this led to experiments in the arts and
architecture. But many became disillusioned because of the censorship the Party encouraged. The Civil War The Russian Army broke up and their leaders moved to south Russia and organised troops to fight the Bolsheviks (the ‘Reds’).
During 1918 and 1919, the Russian Empire was controlled by the ‘Greens’ (Socialist Revolutionaries) and ‘Whites’ (pro-Tsarists), backed by French, American, British and Japanese troops. These troops and the Bolsheviks fought a civil
war. By January 1920, the Bolsheviks controlled most of the former Russian empire. In the name of defending socialism, Bolshevik colonists brutally massacred local nationalists. Most non-Russian nationalities were given political
autonomy in the Soviet Union (USSR) – the state the Bolsheviks created from the Russian empire in December 1922.Making a Socialist Society During the civil war, industries and banks kept nationalised. Peasants were permitted to
cultivate the land. A centralised planning process was introduced. Officials worked on how the economy will work and set targets for a five-year period. During the first two ‘Plans’, the government fixed all prices to promote
industrial growth (1927-1932 and 1933-1938). Centralised planning led to economic growth. But, rapid construction led to poor working conditions. A schooling system was developed, and arrangements were made for factory workers and
peasants to enter universities. For women workers, crèches were established in factories for the children. Cheap public health care was provided. Model living quarters were set up for workers.Stalinism and Collectivisation The period
of the early Planned Economy led to the disaster of the collectivisation of agriculture. By 1927- 1928, the towns in Soviet Russia faced an acute problem of grain supplies. Stalin introduced firm emergency measures. In 1928, party
members toured the grain-producing areas, supervising enforced grain collections and raiding ‘kulaks’ – the name for well-to-do peasants. After 1917, the land was given over to peasants. From 1929, the Party forced all peasants to
cultivate in collective farms (kolkhoz). Peasants worked on the land, and the kolkhoz profit was shared. Between 1929 and 1931, the number of cattle fell by one-third. The government of Stalin allowed some independent cultivation but
treated such cultivators unsympathetically. In spite of collectivisation, production did not increase immediately and due to bad harvests of 1930-1933, over 4 million people died. Throughout the country, accusations were made, and by
1939, over 2 million were in prisons or labour camps.The Global Influence of the Russian Revolution and the USSRIn many countries, communist parties were formed, like the Communist Party of Great Britain. Non-Russians from outside the
USSR participated in the Conference of the Peoples of the East (1920). The Bolshevik-founded Comintern (an international union of pro-Bolshevik socialist parties). Before the outbreak of the Second World War, the USSR had given
socialism a global face and world stature. The USSR became a great power, and its industries and agriculture developed, and the poor were being fed. By the end of the twentieth century, the international reputation of the USSR as a
socialist country had declined.

Birth of the Weimar Republic In the early years of the twentieth century, Germany fought the First World War (1914-1918) alongside the Austrian Empire and against the Allies (England, France and Russia.). All resources of Europe were
drained out because of the war. Germany occupied France and Belgium. But, unfortunately, the Allies, strengthened by the US entry in 1917, won, defeating Germany and the Central Powers in November 1918. At Weimar, the National Assembly
met and established a democratic constitution with a federal structure. In the German Parliament, deputies were elected on the basis of equal and universal votes cast by all adults, including women. Germany lost its overseas colonies.
The War Guilt Clause held Germany responsible for the war and the damages the Allied countries suffered. The Allied armies occupied Rhineland in the 1920s. The Effects of the War The entire continent was devastated by the war, both
psychologically and financially. The war of guilt and national humiliation was carried by the Republic, which was financially crippled by being forced to pay compensation. Socialists, Catholics and Democrats supported the Weimar
Republic, and they were mockingly called the ‘November criminals’. The First World War left a deep imprint on European society and polity. Soldiers are placed above civilians, but unfortunately, soldiers live a miserable life.
Democracy was a young and fragile idea which could not survive the instabilities of interwar Europe. Political Radicalism and Economic Crises The Weimar Republic’s birth coincided with the revolutionary uprising of the Spartacist
League on the pattern of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. They crushed the uprising with the help of a war veterans organisation called Free Corps. Communists and Socialists became enemies. Political radicalisation was heightened by
the economic crisis of 1923. Germany refused to pay, and the French occupied its leading industrial area, Ruhr, to claim their coal. The image of Germans carrying cartloads of currency notes to buy a loaf of bread was widely publicised,
evoking worldwide sympathy. This crisis came to be known as hyperinflation, a situation when prices rise phenomenally high.The Years of Depression The years between 1924 and 1928 saw some stability. The support of short-term loans was
withdrawn when the Wall Street Exchange crashed in 1929. The Great Economic Depression started, and over the next three years, between 1929 and 1932, the national income of the USA fell by half. The economy of Germany was the worst hit.
Workers became jobless and went on streets with placards saying, ‘Willing to do any work’. Youths indulged themselves in criminal activities. The middle class and small businessmen were filled with the fear of proletarianisation,
anxiety of being reduced to the ranks of the working class or unemployment. Politically also, the Weimar Republic was fragile. The Weimar Constitution, due to some inherent defects, made it unstable and vulnerable to dictatorship. One
inherent defect was proportional representation. Another defect was Article 48, which gave the President the powers to impose emergency, suspend civil rights and rule by decree.Hitler’s Rise to Power Hilter rose to power. He was born
in 1889 in Austria and spent his youth in poverty. In the First World War, he enrolled on the army, acted as a messenger in the front, became a corporal, and earned medals for bravery. Hitler joined a small group called the German
Workers’ Party in 1919. He took over the organisation and renamed it the National Socialist German Workers’ Party, which later came to be known as the Nazi Party. In 1923, he planned to seize control of Bavaria, march to Berlin and
capture power. During the Great Depression, Nazism became a mass movement. After 1929, banks collapsed, businesses shut down, workers lost their jobs, and the middle classes were threatened with destitution. In such a situation, Nazi
propaganda stirred hopes of a better future.Hitler was a powerful speaker, and his words moved people. In his speech, he promised to build a strong nation, undo the injustice of the Versailles Treaty and restore the dignity of the
German people. He also promised employment for those looking for work and a secure future for the youth. He promised to remove all foreign influences and resist all foreign ‘conspiracies’ against Germany. Hitler started following a
new style of politics, and his followers held big rallies and public meetings to demonstrate support. According to the Nazi propaganda, Hitler was called a messiah, a saviour, and someone who had arrived to deliver people from their
distress.
The Destruction of Democracy President Hindenburg offered the Chancellorship, on 30 January 1933, the highest position in the cabinet of ministers, to Hitler. The Fire Decree of 28 February 1933 suspended civic rights like freedom of
speech, press and assembly that had been guaranteed by the Weimar Constitution. On 3 March 1933, the famous Enabling Act was passed, which established a dictatorship in Germany. The state took control over the economy, media, army and
judiciary. Apart from the already existing regular police in a green uniform and the SA or the Storm Troopers, these included the Gestapo (secret state police), the SS (the protection squads), criminal police and the Security Service
(SD).Reconstruction Economic recovery was assigned to the economist Hjalmar Schacht by Hitler, who aimed at full production and full employment through a state-funded work-creation programme. This project produced the famous German
superhighways and the people’s car, the Volkswagen. Hitler ruled out the League of Nations in 1933, reoccupied the Rhineland in 1936, and integrated Austria and Germany in 1938 under the slogan, One people, One empire and One leader.
Schacht advised Hitler against investing hugely in rearmament as the state still ran on deficit financing.The Nazi Worldview Nazis are linked to a system of belief and a set of practices. According to their ideology, there was no
equality between people but only a racial hierarchy. The racism of Hitler was borrowed from thinkers like Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer. The argument of the Nazis was simple: the strongest race would survive, and the weak ones
would perish. The Aryan race was the finest who retained its purity, became stronger and dominated the world. The other aspect of Hitler’s ideology related to the geopolitical concept of Lebensraum, or living space. Hitler intended to
extend German boundaries by moving eastwards to concentrate all Germans geographically in one place. Establishment of the Racial State Nazis came into power and quickly began to implement their dream of creating an exclusive racial
community of pure Germans. They wanted a society of ‘pure and healthy Nordic Aryans’. Under the Euthanasia Programme, Helmuth’s father had condemned to death many Germans who were considered mentally or physically unfit. Germany
occupied Poland and parts of Russia captured civilians and forced them to work as slave labour. Jews remained the worst sufferers in Nazi Germany. Hitler hated Jews based on pseudoscientific theories of race. From 1933 to 1938, the
Nazis terrorised, pauperised and segregated the Jews, compelling them to leave the country.The Racial Utopia Genocide and war became two sides of the same coin. Poland was divided, and much of north-western Poland was annexed to
Germany. People of Poland were forced to leave their homes and properties. Members of the Polish intelligentsia were murdered in large numbers, and Polish children who looked like Aryans were forcibly snatched from their mothers and
examined by ‘race experts’. Youth in Nazi Germany Hitler was interested in the youth of the country. Schools were cleansed and purified. Germans and Jews were not allowed to sit or play together. In the 1940s, Jews were taken to the
gas chambers. Introduction of racial science to justify Nazi ideas of race. Children were taught to be loyal and submissive, hate Jews and worship Hitler. Youth organisations were responsible for educating German youth in ‘the spirit
of National Socialism’. At the age of 14, boys had to join the Nazi youth organisation where they were taught to worship war, glorify aggression and violence, condemn democracy, and hate Jews, communists, Gypsies and all those
categorised as ‘undesirable’. Later, they joined the Labour Service at the age of 18 and served in the armed forces and entered one of the Nazi organisations. In 1922, the Youth League of the Nazis was founded. The Nazi Cult of
Motherhood In Nazi Germany, children were told women were different from men. Boys were taught to be aggressive, masculine and steel-hearted and girls were told to become good mothers and rear pure-blooded Aryan children. Girls had to
maintain the purity of the race, distance themselves from Jews, look after their homes and teach their children Nazi values. But all mothers were not treated equally. Honours Crosses were awarded to those who encouraged women to produce
more children. Bronze cross for four children, silver for six and gold for eight or more. Women who maintained contact with Jews, Poles and Russians were paraded through the town with shaved heads, blackened faces and placards hanging
around their necks announcing, ‘I have sullied the honour of the nation’. The Art of Propaganda Nazis termed mass killings as special treatment, the final solution (for the Jews), euthanasia (for the disabled), selection and
disinfection. ‘Evacuation’ meant deporting people to gas chambers. Gas chambers were labelled as ‘‘disinfection areas’, and looked like bathrooms equipped with fake showerheads. Nazi ideas were spread through visual images, films,
radio, posters, catchy slogans and leaflets. Orthodox Jews were stereotyped and marked and were referred to as vermin, rats and pests. The Nazis made equal efforts to appeal to all the different sections of the population. They sought
to win their support by suggesting that Nazis alone could solve all their problems.Ordinary People and the Crimes Against Humanity People started seeing the world through Nazi eyes and spoke their Nazi language. They felt hatred and
anger against Jews and genuinely believed Nazism would bring prosperity and improve general well-being. Pastor Niemoeller protested an uncanny silence amongst ordinary Germans against brutal and organised crimes committed in the Nazi
empire. Charlotte Beradt’s book called ‘The Third Reich of Dreams’ describes how Jews themselves began believing in the Nazi stereotypes about them.Knowledge about the Holocaust The war ended and Germany was defeated. While Germans
were preoccupied with their own plight, the Jews wanted the world to remember the atrocities and sufferings they had endured during the Nazi killing operations – also called the Holocaust. When they lost the war, the Nazi leadership
distributed petrol to its functionaries to destroy all incriminating evidence available in offices.

Location India is lying entirely in the Northern Hemisphere, as shown in the figure below.

•The land extends between latitudes 8°4’N and 37°6’N and longitudes 68°7’E and 97°25’E.
•The Tropic of Cancer (23° 30’N) divides India into almost two equal parts. Size India’s total area accounts for about 2.4% of the total geographical area of the world. Thus, it is the 7th largest country in the world by its size.
•India has a land boundary of about 15,200 km.
•The total length of the coastline of the mainland is 7,516.6 km including Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep.
•India is bounded by the mountains in the northwest, north and northeast. South of about 22° north latitude, it begins to taper and extends towards the Indian Ocean, dividing it into two seas, the Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of
Bengal on its east.
•Time along the Standard Meridian of India (82°30’E) passing through Mirzapur (in Uttar Pradesh) is taken as the standard time for India.
The map below shows the Extent of India and the Standard Meridian. India and the World The Indian landmass has a central location between the East and West Asia. India is a southward extension of the Asian continent. The trans-Indian
Ocean routes connect the countries of Europe in the West and the countries of East Asia. No other country has as long a coastline on the Indian Ocean as India has. India’s contacts with the World have continued through the ages. The
spices, muslin and other merchandise were taken from India to different countries. On the other hand, the influence of Greek sculpture and the architectural styles of domes and minarets from West Asia can be seen in different parts of
India. India’s Neighbours :India has 28 states and eight Union Territories. India shares its land boundaries with:

•Pakistan and Afghanistan in the northwest

•China (Tibet), Nepal and Bhutan in the north
•Myanmar and Bangladesh in the east
The southern neighbours across the sea consist of the two island countries, Sri Lanka and Maldives. India has had strong geographical and historical links with its neighbours.
The Himalayan Mountains
•The Himalayan Mountains stretch over India's northern boundaries. These mountain ranges run west-east from the Indus to the Brahmaputra.
•The Himalayas are young mountains that are the loftiest and one of the most rugged mountain barriers in the world.
•The Himalayas span approximately 2400 km and vary in width from 400 km to 150 km from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh.
•In terms of longitudinal extent, the Himalayas have three parallel ranges, namely:Greater Himalayas or the Himadri: The northernmost range is known as the Himadri or Inner or Great Himalayas It is the most continuous range, consisting of the
highest peaks with an average elevation of 6000 metres. The core of this Himalayan region is made of granite and is asymmetrical.

•Lesser Himalayas or the Himachal: The rugged mountain region to the south of the Himadri is known as the Lesser Himalayas or Himachal. The altitude of this mountain range varies between 3700 and 4500 metres whereas the average
width is 50 kilometres. It includes ranges like Pir Panjal, Dhaula Dhar, and Mahabharat, of which the Pir Panjal range forms the longest and the most important range.
•The Shiwaliks: The outermost range of the Himalayas is known as the Shiwaliks whose altitude varies between 900 and 1100 metres and extends over a width of 10-50 kilometres. The term "Duns" refers to the longitudinal valley that spans
between the Lesser Himalayas and the Shiwaliks. Some of the well-known Duns are Dehradun, Kotli Dun, and Patli Dun.
•The Himalayas have also been divided into regions from west to east:

•The Himalayan region between the Indus and the Sutlej has traditionally been referred to as the Punjab Himalaya, but it is also known as Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya from west to east.
•The Kumaon Himalayas are the Himalayas between the Satluj and Kali rivers.
•The Nepal Himalayas are defined by the Kali and Teesta rivers.
•Assam Himalayas refers to the area between the Tista and Dihang rivers.
The Himalayas curve sharply to the south beyond the Dihang Gorge and spread along India's eastern border, known as the Purvanchal, or Eastern Hills and Mountains. Purvanchal comprises the Patkai, Naga, Manipur, and Mizo hills.
The Northern Plains
•The northern plain was determined by the interplay of India's three major river systems, namely the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra, as well as their tributaries.
•The northern plain expands over an area of about 7 lakh sq. km. which is 2400 km long and 240-320 km broad.
•It comprises alluvial soil deposits which are formed at the basin lying at the foothills of the Himalayas. They are fertile and densely populated because of their favourable climate and agricultural productivity.
•It is broadly divided into three sections, namely:

•The Punjab Plains are the westernmost section of the Northern Plain. The Indus and its tributaries, the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Satluj, comprise this plain.
•The Ganga Plain is situated between the Ghaggar and Teesta rivers. It is spread across North India, including Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and parts of Jharkhand and West Bengal.
•The Brahmaputra Plain lies to the east of the Ganga Plain in the state of Assam.

•The Northern Plains can be separated into four regions based on the variations in relief features.

•The rivers deposit pebbles in a narrow belt 8 to 16 km wide that runs parallel to the Shiwaliks' slopes, after descending from the mountains. This is known as Babar.
•Streams and rivers re-emerge, forming the terai, a damp, swampy, and marshy region.
•The majority of the northern plain is made up of older alluvium. It is located above the floodplains of the rivers and has a terrace-like feature known as bhangar.
•Kankar is the name given to the soil in the Bhangar region, which comprises calcareous deposits.
•Khadar refers to the floodplains' newer, younger deposits.
The Peninsular Plateau
•The Peninsular Plateau is a tableland, it is made up of ancient crystalline, igneous, and metamorphic rocks. It was formed as a result of the breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land. The black soil area known as Deccan Trap is one of the Peninsular
plateau's distinguishing features.
•This plateau consists of two broad divisions-

•The Central Highlands: This division lies to the north of the Narmada River and encompasses a large portion of the Malwa plateau. The central highlands are bounded on the northwest by the Aravalli range and on the south by the Vindhya
range. The Central Highlands are wider in the west as compared to the east. The Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand are the plateau's eastward extensions. The Chhota Nagpur Plateau denotes the farther eastward extension drained by the
Damodar River.
•The Deccan Plateau: It is a triangular landmass to the south of the Narmada River. The Plateau is also evident in the northeast, where it is known as the Meghalaya, Karbi-Anglong Plateau, and North Cachar Hills. In the north, the Satpura
range flanks its broad base, while the Mahadev, Kaimur Hills, and Maikal ranges comprise its eastern extensions.

•The Deccan Plateau's western and eastern edges are marked by the Western and Eastern Ghats, respectively.
•The Western Ghats are higher in elevation than the Eastern Ghats. The highest peak in the Western Ghats is Anaimudi, which stands at 2695 metres, and the highest peak in the Eastern Ghats is Mahendragiri, which stands at 1501 metres.
The Indian Desert
•Near the western margins of the Aravalli Hills, the Indian Desert is an undulating sandy plain covered with dunes.
•Large areas of the Indian Desert near Pakistan are covered in crescent-shaped dunes known as barchans.
•This region receives about 150 mm of rain annually.
•The Luni River is the only large river in this region, owing to the arid climate and low vegetation cover.
The Coastal Plains
•A coastal plain is a low-lying, flat area of land that is adjacent to the ocean.
•Two narrow strips of plain lands are found to the west and east of the peninsular plateau, which is known as the Western Coastal Plain and Eastern Coastal Plain, respectively.
•The Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea form a barrier along the western coast. It is a narrow plain divided into three sections.
•The northern part of the west coast is called the Konkan, from Mumbai – Goa. The Kannad Plain is the central stretch, and the Malabar Coast is the southern stretch.
•The Eastern Coastal Plains is a large area of landmass that stretches between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. The northern part is known as the Northern Circar, while the southern part is known as the Coromandel Coast.
•On the east coast, large rivers such as the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri have formed extensive deltas. Lake Chilika is a significant feature on the east coast.
The Islands
•The Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Lakshadweep Islands are two groups of islands in India. These islands lie close to the equator and have an equatorial climate and a dense forest cover.
•In the Arabian Sea, the Lakshadweep Islands group lies near Kerala. The Lakshadweep Islands were once known as Laccadive, Minicoy, and Amindive. The administrative headquarters of Lakshadweep is located on Kavaratti Island. The flora and fauna
of this island group are extremely diverse.
•The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are an island group in the Bay of Bengal. These islands are a ridge of submarine mountains. The entire group of islands is divided into two broad categories i.e. the Andaman in the north and the Nicobar in the south.
India's regions complement one another, making the country's natural resources more abundant. Mountains serve as a source of both forests and water. The plains provide grain. Minerals are abundant in plateaus whereas coastal areas are important
for fishing and port development.
The Important Physiographic Division of India
The physical features of the India map will showcase the various important divisions of India. In this section, you will learn about the physical features of India Class 9 that are categorised under the following physiographic divisions
•The Himalayan Mountains.
•The Northern Plains.
•The Peninsular Plateau.
•The Indian Desert.
•The Coastal Plains.
•The Islands.
Things to Learn about the Himalayan Mountains
•The Himalayan Mountains are stretched over the northern borders of India. From the Indus to the Brahmaputra, these mountain ranges run in the west-east direction. Also, in its longitudinal extent, it has three parallel ranges which have been
discussed in Geography Class 9 Chapter 2 notes.
•The three parallel ranges are the Great or Inner Himalayas which are also known as Himadri, Himachal or Lesser Himalaya, and Shiwaliks. Below are the detailed descriptions of these ranges that you might require for the Physical Features of India
project.
•Himadri is the northernmost range. It has the loftiest peaks and is regarded as the most continuous mountain range. It has an average height of 6,000 metres. The folds of Himadri are asymmetrical and the core of this section of Himalayas is
composed of granite.
•To the south of Himadri is the most rugged mountain system which is regarded as the lesser Himalaya or Himachal. It is also important to know that the Pir Panjal range is regarded as the most important and longest range.
•Lastly, the outermost Himalayan range is known as Shiwaliks which are composed of unconsolidated sediments. The longitudinal valley that lies between Himachal and Shiwaliks is known as Duns. The most popular Duns are Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun, and
Patli Dun.

The drainage of a landmass refers to its river system. Small streams which flow from different directions usually come together to form the main river body. This river drains into a larger water body like a lake, sea, or ocean. The area which is drained by
a single river system is termed a drainage basin. An elevated physical structure like a mountain or an upland sometimes separates two drainage basins. This physical feature is called the water divide.
Important Drainage Systems of India
1.The drainage systems in India are dominated by broad relief features.
2.The Indian rivers are categorised into two major groups:

3.The Himalayan Rivers:

•These rivers have water throughout the year and hence, they are perennial. They are snow-fed rivers and also receive water from rainfall.
•The Ganga and the Brahmaputra are the two major rivers of this type, originating from the north.
•They form gorges and cause intensive erosional activities in their upper courses; in the middle course, they meander and form oxbow lakes; the lower course is marked by the striking feature of deltas.

2.The Peninsular Rivers: The peninsular rivers are seasonal and depend on rainfall. They are shallower in comparison to the Himalayan rivers.

3.It can be rightly said that these two groups of rivers are different in many ways.

The Himalayan River Systems

1.Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra are the three Himalayan rivers that form three major river systems of India. An account of these three rivers is given below:

2.Indus River System:

 •The river Indus rises near Mansarovar in Tibet and flows west to enter India in Ladakh. There are tributaries like the Shyok, the Nubra, the Zaskar, and the Hunza, which join the Indus in Kashmir. Indus emerges from the mountains in Attock
after flowing through Baltistan and Gilgit.
•At Mithankot, Beas, Satluj, Ravi, Jhelum and Chenab join the Indus. The Indus River eventually meets the Arabian Sea, east of Karachi. The Indus is a very long river. \Ganga River System:

•Bhagirathi is the headwaters of river Ganga and it is fed by the Gangotri glacier. Alakananda joins it at Devprayag in Uttarakhand.
•Ganga rises at the confluence of Alaknanda and Bhagirathi and emerges on the plains at Haridwar. Ganga has a number of tributaries.
•The Yamuna is a right-bank tributary of the Ganga which originates from the Yamunotri glacier in the Himalayas.
•The other tributaries like Ghagra, Kosi, and Gandak rise in Nepal. These tributaries flood the northern plains and severely damage life and property. These floods also help mankind by enriching the soil for agriculture.
•Chambal, Betwa, and Son arising from the semi-arid regions of peninsular India join the Yamuna and hence are Ganga’s tributaries as well.
•Ganga is, thus, enlarged with its tributaries. It flows eastward till the northernmost part of the Ganga delta, Farakka.
•At Farakka, Ganga bifurcates into Bhagirathi and Hooghly distributaries. These meet the Bay of Bengal.
•The mainstream flows into Bangladesh to be joined by the Brahmaputra to form Meghna which flows into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers form a delta known as the Sundarbans.

3.Brahmaputra River System:

•The Brahmaputra rises near the Mansarovar lake in Tibet. Most of Brahmaputra's course lies out of India and it is a bit longer than Indus.
•The Brahmaputra flows parallel to the Himalayan range and is called Tsang Po. At a region called Namcha Barwa, it turns to enter Arunachal Pradesh. Streams named Dibang, Dihang, and Lohit join it to be called the Brahmaputra. It forms
many riverine islands here.
•The Brahmaputra overflows to flood the banks of Assam.
The Peninsular River Systems
1.The Western Ghats serves as a water divide in the peninsular region.
2.Some of the rivers of this river system are east-flowing while some are west-flowing. Godavari, Krishna, Mahanadi, and Kaveri flow east to drain into the Bay of Bengal. There are many deltas formed by these rivers. Narmada and Tapi flow towards the
west to drain into the Arabian Sea and form estuaries.
3.An account of these rivers is as followsNarmada Basin:

•The Amarkantak hills in Madhya Pradesh give rise to the Narmada River. Narmada flows west through a rift valley.
•Many wonderful places are associated with Narmada like the 'Marble Rocks' near Jabalpur, the Dhauladhar Falls, etc.
•The basin formed by the Narmada River covers parts of Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. The tributaries of the river are short and join it at right angles.

2.Tapi Basin: Satpura gives rise to the Tapi River. It rises in Betul, Madhya Pradesh, and flows parallel to Narmada but is shorter. It flows through Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
3.The Sabarmati, Bharathpuzha, Mahi, and Periyar are the other main west-flowing rivers here.
4.Godavari Basin: The Godavari is also known as the 'Dakshin Ganga' as it is the largest Peninsular river. It rises in Nasik, Maharashtra at the Western Ghats and drains into the Bay of Bengal. The Godavari Basin is the largest river basin in South
India. Maharashtra, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, and Andhra Pradesh are drained by the Godavari. Purna, Manjra, Pranhita, Wainganga, and Penganga are its tributaries
5.Mahanadi Basin: The highlands of Chhattisgarh give rise to Mahanadi which flows through Odisha to meet the Bay of Bengal. The Mahanadi basin drains Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, and Odisha.
6.Krishna Basin: Krishna River rises from a spring near Mahabaleshwar. Its tributaries like the Koyana, Ghatprabha, Musi, Tungabhadra, and Bhima join it on its course. The Krishna Basin drains the states of Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Andhra
Pradesh.
7.Kaveri Basin: The Brahmagiri range of Western Ghats gives rise to the Kaveri River and it flows into the Bay of Bengal in the south of Cuddalore in Tamil Nadu. Amravati, Hemavati, Kabini, and Bhavani are tributaries that join Kaveri. The basin
drains Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka. Kaveri gives rise to India's second-biggest waterfall Shivasamudram.
Lakes in India
1.India has numerous lakes and they can be classified into the following types based on size and other features:

2.Permanent Lakes: Many of the lakes in India are permanent and have water all year round.
3.Non-Permanent Lakes: There are also non-permanent lakes usually draining the semi-arid regions.
4.Glacial Lakes: These lakes form from glaciers and ice sheets.
5.Ox-Bow Lakes: These are formed from meandering rivers.
6.Lagoons: Lakes and lagoons are formed by spits and bars. Lake Chilka, Kolleru Lake, and Pulicat Lake are a few such lagoons.
7.Saltwater Lakes: Some lakes have saline water and are called saltwater lakes. The Sambhar Lake in Rajasthan is a saltwater lake that drains a dry area. It is used for salt production.
8.Freshwater Lakes: Lakes with freshwater are called freshwater lakes which are mostly glacial in origin and are found in the Himalayan belt. They are snow-fed. However, the largest freshwater lake of India, the Wular Lake located in Jammu and
Kashmir is formed due to tectonic activity. Dal Lake, Nainital, Loktak, Bhimtal, and Barappani are some other freshwater lakes.
9.Man-Made Lakes: These are lakes artificially created by man. There have been a few man-made lakes in India like the Guru Govind Sagar.

2.Lakes have numerous uses some of which are as follows:

1.Lakes are indispensable to humans as they help in the regulation of the river flow.
2.They are also used for the generation of hydroelectric power.
3.A typical aquatic ecosystem is created surrounding the lake that helps to provide recreational opportunities, increase natural beauty, and open the doors to the tourism development of the region.
•Climate is the total of weather situations and variations over a large area for a long period, normally more than 30 years. Rivers and their Role in the Economy
•Weather may be described as the state of the atmosphere measured at a specific time. 1.Rivers play a significant role in the country's economy. They
•Components of climate and weather are identical i.e. humidity, precipitation, atmospheric stress, wind, and temperature. are indispensable. Their significance is as follows:
•Our earth is split into many climatic zones. India is stated to have the monsoon kind of weather. There is a well-known pattern of climate in the country however there are visible
variations that exist regionally. The most crucial aspects of the climate are temperature and precipitation. 2.Rivers attract human settlements in their banks as their
water is a necessity for human survival.
3.They are used in navigation.
Factors Affecting India's Climate 4.The water of rivers also aids in irrigation. This is, in fact,
1.Latitude: From the Rann of Kutch inside the west to Mizoram in the east passes the Tropic of Cancer, dividing the country into parts. To the south lies the tropical region and to the the most important function of rivers as in India
north lies the subtropical area. agriculture is the prime economic activity for livelihood.
2.Altitude: To the north stands the Himalayan range with a peak of approximately 6000 metres. In the south, there are huge coastal stretches with a maximum elevation of as much as 5.Rivers help in hydroelectric power generation.
30 metres. The Himalayas prevent the cold chilly winds from Central Asia from coming into the country. Pollution and River
3.Wind and Pressure: The pressure and wind system affecting the weather and climate situations in India are ruled by certain parameters. These are pressure and surface winds, 1.River water has been increasingly used for agricultural,
western cyclones and tropical cyclones, and the top air stream. municipal, and domestic purposes for ages which resulted in
the reduction of their volume.
•India is located in the region of the northeasterly winds that begin from the subtropical high-pressure belts of the northern hemisphere and blow towards the south. These 2.Also, untreated pollutants like sewage and untreated
winds get deflected because of the Coriolis effect and circulate toward the equatorial low-stress belt. These winds do not have moisture, and for this reason, carry very little rain pollutants are discharged into the rivers, thus polluting them
at all. and even decreasing their capacity for self-cleansing.
•During winters, a high-pressure region prevails north of the Himalayas. During summers, there may be an entire reversal of wind direction. As low pressure develops over the 3.Industrialization and urbanisation further increase the levels
landmass causing the wind to blow from oceans to landmass, it collects moisture from the Indian Ocean and blows inside the south-east direction. of river pollution.
•Upon crossing the equator, the wind turns right in the direction of the region wherein low pressure is created over the Indian subcontinent. This is referred to as the southwest
monsoon wind which brings in massive rainfall over the landmass of India. Upper flow referred to as the jet stream is controlled through westerly winds.
Indian Monsoons: Arrival and Retreat
•Indian monsoons have a period of one hundred to two hundred days that is from the early of June to the mid of September. On the appearance of monsoons, the regular rainfall will increase suddenly and this heavy rainfall lasts for several days. This
phenomenon is referred to as the burst of the monsoons.
•This climate situation is distinguishable from the pre-monsoon showers. The monsoon approaches the southern tip of the Indian peninsula during the first week of June from which it is divided into two branches one the Arabian Sea branch and the
other the Bay of Bengal branch. The Arabian Sea branch reaches Mumbai ten days later whereas the Bay of Bengal branch during the first week of June.
•Mountains are liable for the monsoon winds to deflect West in the direction of the Ganga plains, The Arabian Sea branch through the middle of June seems over Saurashtra and Kutch and central India.
•The branches of southwesterly monsoons meet at the Ganga plains. Delhi gets showers from the Bay of Bengal branch through the end of June, and Punjab, Haryana, Eastern Rajasthan, and Western UP enjoy showers through the first week of July. By
mid-July, the monsoon winds cover the entire country.
Monsoon
•Monsoon wind is a seasonal wind which mainly prevails in the south and south-east Asia. The Arabic word “mausim” meaning season, is the origin of the term “monsoon.” From May to September, it blows from the southwest to the northeast direction
and brings heavy rainfall to the Indian subcontinent. Again, this wind blows from northeast to southwest during the Reverse Monsoon period.

•The low pressure created over the northern Gangetic plains intensifies and draws trade winds from the southern hemisphere. These winds originate over the regions of the warm subtropical Southern Ocean and pass the equator to blow in a
southeasterly path to go into India.
•The winds are moisture-laden. The windward aspect of the Western Ghats is hit by these winds and experiences heavy rainfall of more than 250 cm. The rain shadow regions of Madhya Pradesh in the Deccan plateau additionally acquire a little rain.
•The northeastern part of the country gets the most rainfall for the duration of this period. Mawsynram, found in the Khasi hills, gets the highest average rainfall in the world. In the Ganga valley, it decreases from east to west which is from Rajasthan and
Gujarat receiving scanty rainfall.
Formation of Monsoon
Monsoon winds are generated due to the difference in land and sea heating and cooling rates. During the summer, a high-pressure cell forms in the east of Madagascar and a low-pressure cell in the Tibetan plateau. Due to these two pressure cells,
monsoon winds develop and enter India in two branches- the Bay of Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea branch, causing heavy rainfall. At the end of May, the monsoon hits the coast of Kerala and brings heavy rainfall to this region. It is also known as the
Burst of Monsoon.
Retreating Monsoon or the Transition Season:
•Between October and November, the apparent movement of the sun is closer to the south. The monsoon trough will become weaker and be replaced by high-pressure systems.
•Southwest monsoon initiated retreating from the country by the start of October. It withdraws from the northern parts of the country first. Retreating monsoons is related to clear skies and a rise in the temperature.
•By early November the low-pressure situations get shifted over the Bay of Bengal which creates a cyclonic disturbance that generally originates over the Andaman Sea. The cyclone hits the eastern coast of India inflicting massive damage.
Monsoons as a Unifying Bond
Monsoons are a unifying bond inside the country. Though the monsoons are marked by seasonal and local variations, the entire country is keen for its arrival. Agriculture is completely dependent on the monsoons. India is an agriculture-centric country,
rainfall and monsoons are necessary for the country.
Definition of Weather
Weather is defined as the atmospheric condition of a particular place for one day or a few hours. It depends on temperature, humidity, wind speed, etc.
Difference Between Climate and Weather in Climate Chapter Class 9 Notes
•In Climate Geography Class 9, you will learn about climate and weather and how they are different from each other. Though the components and variables of climate and weather are the same, there is still a difference.
•The weather conditions of a peace deal with the day-to-day variations of its atmospheric condition. On the other hand, a place's climate is the average weather conditions for 30 years or more. Weather is frequently changeable, but the climate is a
standard concept for a given period.
Factors That Control the Climate of a Place
•Latitude: The places near the equator receive direct sun rays throughout the year. So, the temperature remains high almost throughout the year. On the other hand, the places near the poles receive slanting sun rays and thus have low temperatures
throughout the year.
•Altitude: The temperature decreases by 6 degrees every 1 km from the sea level; this is known as the average lapse rate.
•Distance from the Sea: The places located near the sea have a moderate climate, but regions located far away from the sea have an extreme type of climate. This happens because two types of wind always prevail near the coast, i.e., land breeze and
sea breeze.
•Relief Features: The presence of some significant relief features also plays a role in shaping the climate of a place.
•Humidity: The humidity of a place is highly affected by its distance from the sea.
•Ocean Currents: If cold ocean currents are circulating near the shores of a country, then the country will have a cooler climatic condition than the country where warm ocean currents are active near the shores.
Factors Affecting India’s Climate
The factors which control the diversified climatic conditions of India are as follows:
Latitude - Places in the northern part of India have a cold climate, while places in the southern states have warm climatic conditions.
•Altitude - Places located on the slopes of the Himalayas or other hill ranges have colder climates than the places on the plains.
•Presence of Winds - In the northwest part of India, local winds prevail during the summer months, which considerably control that region's climatic conditions.
•Relief - The relief features of a place, whether on the plainland or the hills or plateaus, determine the climatic conditions of a place.
Seasons of India
The notes on Climate Geography Class 9 speak about the four prevalent seasons in India - summer, rainy, post-monsoon or transition period, and winter. In northwest India, a local hot wind prevails during summer, known as loo. Then, the monsoon
wind brings rain in the rainy season. After that, a mild climate prevails all over India in the transition period. During winter, snowfall occurs in northern and northeastern parts of India

•It is defined as a form of government where rulers are elected by the choice of people.

•So, the difference between democratic and non-democratic governments is that the power of electing their representative is in people’s hands.

Examples of Non-Democratic Governments

•In Myanmar, the army controller becomes the ruler and people over there have no role to play in electing their representative.

•In Saudi Arabia, the representatives are from royal families, this is the base on which they qualify to become kings. Here also, people have no role to play in making decisions.
Features of Democracy
Here are few questions which is necessary to be answered for a true democracy:

1.Which type of people are going to be elected as rulers and what kind of decisions need to be taken by non-elected officials?

2.In which circumstances an election is to be considered democratic?

3.What includes in the elector’s population and whether they are equal or have some exceptions?

4.What is the form of a democratic government? Also, state what are the limitations and freedoms of a decision making by the representative who is elected?

5.How much is necessary for a democracy to respect the rights of a citizen?

Major Decision by the Elected Leaders
•Pakistani General Pervez Musharraf, in October 1999 led the military and overthrew a democratic government and declared himself the ‘Chief Executive’.

•In the year 2002, he changed his designation to President and declared himself an additional 5 years.

•In the year August 2002, he passed the ‘Legal Framework Order’ which stated that the President can dismiss the national and provincial assemblies.

•After elections, elected candidates vested some powers, the final power rested with military officers and General Musharraf. It shows that it is not a democratic country.

•In the USSR in communist Poland and the US in contemporary Iraq, power lied with external instead of elected locals. Whereas in democracy, the final power lies with those which are elected by the people.
Free and Fair Electoral Competition 1.Lack of knowledge in the public interest can result in wrong decision making.
•In China, to elect members for the country’s parliament which is called Quanguo Renmin Daibiao Dahui (National People’s
Congress), elections are held every 5 years. 2.Democracy is based on electoral competition, it brings corruption.

•Candidate needs to be a member of the Chinese Communist Party or 8 of its allies to contest elections in 2002-03. 3.People electing their representative may be unaware of their wellbeing.
Arguments in Favor of Democracy
•The communist party used to form the government. A democratic government is always a better government since it is an accountable form of government.

•Since independence, 1930, Mexico presidential elections have been held every 6 years. Until 2000 each and every election •Democracy improves decision making quality.
was won by PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party).
•Democracy gives a method to deal with differences and conflicts.
•A fair and free electoral competition where the existing ruling party has a fair chance to lose is an aspect of democracy.
•Democracy enhances citizens' dignity.
•Examples of Democracy are – India and the United States etc.
One Person, One Vote, One Value •Democracy is better compared to other forms of government since it allows us to correct our mistakes.
•Political equality is the basis of democracy. Broader Meaning of Democracy
•Under representative democracy, everyone does not rule. The elected representative takes a decision on behalf of their
•In a few instances where equal rights are denied have been observed. people:

•Women had no right to vote until 2015, in Saudi Arabia. 1.Modern democracies are characterized by huge populations; which makes it impossible for them to make the right
decision.
•In Estonia, citizen rules made it very much difficult for people from Russian minorities to gain the right to vote.
2.If they could make the right decision, citizens would not have a greater amount of time, the skill to play a role in all
•Fiji’s electoral system gave more value to indigenous Fiji than Indian-Fijian. the decisions.

•These are some examples which contradict the basis of democracy where an adult citizen must have one vote with equal •Understanding democracy can help people to identify the weakness of existing democracy and can differentiate between
value. minimal and good democracy.
Rule of Law and Respect for Rights Democracy in India
•In the year 1980, Zimbabwe gained independence. The leader Robert Mugabe of the ZANU-PF party, which led for the •India is seen as the largest democracy around the world.
freedom struggle ruled the country.
•Since independence, citizens have been given the right to vote and have equal rights in voting without considering their
•President Mugabe used malpractices in elections so that ZANU-PF always won. caste, religion, gender or color.

•Only the verdicts of the ruling party were presented by the television and radios since a law existed that restricted the right to •Democratic principles by which the Indian government functions are: sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic and
criticize the President. republic.

•Harassment was done to the independent journalist who talked against the government. •Elections are held after every 5 years.

•Hence, in a democratic government: •Government officials work under the Election Commission during election days.
Why Democracy? What are the Merits of Democracy?
1.Major decisions were taken by the rulers elected by the people. •A democratic government might not The merits of democracy are:
be stable as the leaders keep on
2.Fair choice of people in changing rulers. changing.
•In a democracy, the dignity of citizens is maintained.
3.Equal opportunity to all the citizens in choosing their representative. •Morality may not always prevail in
the government. •It improves the quality of decision making.
4.Government’s power is limited by the basic rules of the constitution.
Arguments Against Democracy •There might be corruption in relation •Provides a path for resolving conflicts.
Argument of instability may rise because the government is changed frequently: to electoral competition.
•The form of government is more accountable.
•Ordinary people would not choose
1.Political competition and power-play can take the dominance over morality. the best leader. They might not have •The government abides by the constitution as it is answerable to the citizens.
a proper idea about governance. What are the Demerits of Democracy?
2.Delay in decision making because of multiple consultations. The demerits of democracy are:
What is a Constitution?
There are certain basic rules that the citizens and the government of a nation have to follow. All such rules together are called the constitution. As the supreme law of the country, the constitution determines the rights and duties of the citizens, the
powers of the government and how the government should function. This chapter throws light on all these aspects and provides a comprehensive idea of the constitution of a country.

Democratic Constitution In South Africa

Struggle Against Apartheid
•Racial discrimination in South Africa is set by white Europeans. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, trading companies from Europe settled in and became local administrators. The apartheid system divided people and marked them by the
colour of their skin. White rulers treated all white people as superior. Non-whites had no voting rights and were barred from living in white areas. Blacks, coloured and Indians have been fighting apartheid since 1950. The African National Congress (ANC)
was an umbrella organization that was against the apartheid policies. Nelson Mandela was one of eight leaders accused of sedition by the white South African government. They were sentenced to life in prison in 1964 on charges of opposing the
country's apartheid regime.

•Formation of the New Constitution

• As anti-apartheid protests intensified, blacks could no longer be held hostage under dictatorship. The white government changed its policies. Discriminatory laws were repealed. The ban on political parties and media restrictions has been
lifted. Nelson Mandela was released after 28 years in Robben Island prison. The apartheid government ended at midnight on April 26, 1994, paving the way for the formation of a multi-racial government.

• After the emergence of a new democratic South Africa, the ruling dictatorship and the genocide and the party that led the liberation struggle came together to form a common constitution. This constitution gives its citizens the greatest
rights available in any country. Together, they decided that in the pursuit of a solution, no one should be excluded.

•Why a Constitution?
• Take the example of South Africa to see why we need a constitution and what constitutions do. The oppressor and the oppressed planned to live together as equals in the new democracy. Each section wanted to protect their interests and
demanded greater social and economic rights. Through negotiations, both sides agreed. Whites agree with the principle of democracy and that one person has one vote. They also agreed to accept certain basic rights for the poor and the
working class. Blacks have agreed that much of the law will not be complete and that the majority will not dispossess the white minority. How should this relaxation be made? The only way to build and maintain confidence in such a
situation would be to write down some rules of the game for everyone to follow. These supreme laws that no government can ignore are called the constitution.

• Each country has its own distinct groups of people. People all over the world have different opinions and interests. The constitution is the supreme law that determines the relationship between the people living in an area (called citizens)
and the relationship between the people and the government. Find out what the following principles are:

•First, it creates the level of trust and communication needed for different types of people to live together

•Second, it sets out how the government will be formed, who will have the power to make decisions.

•Third, it puts limits on the powers of government and tells us what citizens' rights are.

•Fourth, it reflects people's desires for a better society

All countries with constitutions are not democratic but on the other side all democratic countries will have constitutions.

•Guidelines for the Constitution of India

• First, we need to understand what our Constitution is all about. Read the views of our great leaders on our Constitution and read what the Constitution says about its philosophy. This is done in the preamble of the Constitution.

•Dream and Promise:

There were many members who followed the view of Mahatma Gandhi. India's dream of eradicating inequality was shared by Dr. Ambedkar, who played a key role in drafting the Constitution, but his vision for eliminating inequality in
India was different from Gandhiji's.

•We, the People of India: The Constitution was drafted and made by the people through representatives, and was not given by the king any foreign power.

•Governor: People have the right to make decisions on internal and external matters. No foreign power can control and suppress the Indian Government.

•Socialist: Wealth is created in society and should be shared equally by society. Government must regulate land and industry ownership to reduce social and economic inequalities.

•Country: Citizens have complete freedom to practice any religion. But there is no official religion. The government will treat all religious beliefs and practices with the same equal respect.
 •Democratic: A form of government where people enjoy equal political rights, elect their own rulers and hold them accountable. The government is governed by certain basic rules.

•Republic: The head of state is the elected person.

•Justice: Citizens cannot be discriminated against on the basis of race, religion, or sexual orientation. Social inequality should be reduced. The government should work for the well-being of all, especially the poor.

•Freedom: There are no unreasonable restrictions on citizens' thinking, how they wish to express their thoughts and how they wish to follow their ideas in action.

•Equality: All are equal before the law. Traditional social inequality must end. The government needs to ensure that all people must have equal opportunities.

•Brotherhood: We should all act as members of one family. No one should treat his fellow citizen as inferior.

•Modeling Council
The drafting of the constitution was done in a meeting of elected representatives referred to as the Constituent Assembly. Election Council elections were held in July 1946 and its first meeting was held in December 1946. Shortly thereafter,
the country was divided into India and Pakistan and the Constituent Assembly was also divided into the Constituent Assembly of India and Pakistan. The Constituent Assembly which drafted the Indian constitution had a total of 299 members.
The Assembly adopted the Constitution on 26 November 1949 but came into operation on 26 January 1950. To mark this day we celebrate January 26 as Republic Day every year.

•Institutional design
This is about integrating these principles into institutional arrangements. Very long and detailed text. Therefore, it needs to be updated regularly to keep it updated. It is provided for the introduction of changes, known as periodic amendments
to the constitution. Like any other Constitution, the Constitution of India also provides for the election of a new president. It describes who will have the power to make decisions. It also limits what the government can do by granting certain
unrestricted citizens' rights.

Class 9 Social Science Political Science Chapter 2 Constitutional Design

Constitutional Design
Students while preparing the chapter of constitutional design always have a common question in mind which is what is constitutional design? And to give a perfect answer to this question, constitutional design notes explained the democratic
Constitution of South Africa and Apartheid.
Apartheid
The racial discrimination that was imposed in South Africa by the White Europeans is termed as Apartheid. The White Europeans with arms and forces started ruling South Africa in the seventeenth and eighteenth century. They started Apartheid and
divided people based on their skin colour. Under their rule, all non-whites were treated as inferiors and as slaves. Voting rights were not given to non-white citizens of the country, and they are also not allowed to stay in areas where white people were
residing.
The black coloured and Indian start their fight against this discrimination from the year 1950 by making an umbrella organisation which was named as African National Congress. Nelson Mandela was one of the leaders who was fighting against this
struggle and was sentenced to imprisonment in 1964 on the context of his opposition against the Apartheid.
Rise of New Democratic Constitution of South Africa
The protest and struggle against the Apartheid risen every day, making it hard for the white government to keep the blacks under the policies of Apartheid due to which the white government was bound to change its policies. All the discriminatory laws
of the country were declared void and banned parties were again operational. Nelson Mandela was released from jail after a long duration of 28 years. The Apartheid government finally came to an end on the night of 26th April 1994.
Following the rise of New Democratic South Africa, this party has gone through all oppression and brutal killings. This party was leading the freedom struggle and was the main reason for the creation of a new non-racial Constitution. This Constitution
gave rights to every citizen of South Africa without any racial discrimination.
Need For Constitution
The need for Constitution can be witnessed in the Apartheid situation of South Africa. The rulers and the people who were being ruled in South Africa were planning to live under one democracy where they both will be considered as equals. Each
section was of the motive to safeguard its interest and was keen to enjoy some social and economic rights. After a lot of negotiations, both the parties cracked a deal which was acceptable by both the parties. In this deal, the whites were in support of
the principle of majority rule in which one person has the right to give one vote. They also agreed to impose some rights for the poor and workers. In this deal, the blacks agreed to the point that if they win in the majority, they will not take away the
properties of the white minority. The only way to make this legal was to write the rules that everyone should follow. The rules that can't be ignored by any government is termed as the Constitution.
Every country has different types of people with diverse thoughts. People have a difference of opinion and interests. The Constitution is the supreme law which is responsible for determining the relationship among people living in a territory and the
relationship between government and people. Below, there is a list of functions that a constitution performs:

•It is responsible for generating a certain amount of trust and coordination among people who have different opinions.

•It informs the rules and regulations under which a government will get selected who is meant for ruling the country.

•The Constitution is responsible for limiting the powers of the government over citizens and also informs the citizens about their rights.

•It is responsible for expressing the aspirations of the people which is required for creating a good society.
Why Do We Need Elections?
•Election is a tool or a mechanism adopted by many countries, through which people choose their representatives. In the world, more than 100 countries conduct elections. The process of selection of representatives at regular intervals is known as
election.
•The election is necessary because:
1.Citizens of that country can independently select the person who is going to make important decisions and shape the future.
2.To maintain a peaceful environment in the country, by making and implementing good policies and laws.
3.It guarantees that no government is elected for an indefinite period.
4.It helps citizens of the country to engage themselves in their country’s betterment.
What Makes an Election Democratic?
•The minimum required conditions for a democratic election are:
1.Everyone should be able to vote with equal value.
2.Parties and their candidates shall offer real choices to their voters and should contest elections.
3.The choices need to be offered at regular intervals, that is, elections should be conducted after every few years.
4.Only that should be elected which is preferred by the people of that country.
5.Elections need to be conducted in a free and fair manner, keeping people’s wishes as the priority.
Is it Good to Have Political Competition?
•Yes, political competition is good, due to the following reasons:
1.If there is no competition among several candidates, then the election becomes pointless.
2.Political leaders get motivated by a desire to do something in their political country.
3.It provides incentives to the political leaders and their parties.
What is Our System of Elections?
•After every 5 years, Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha (Assembly) elections are held regularly. The term of the elected representative ends after every 5 years. Elections are held in all the constituencies within a few days, this is called general elections.
Electoral Constituencies
•Our country is divided into different areas, to conduct elections, this is called electoral constituencies. Voters elect one representative living in an area.
•For Lok Sabha, the country is divided into 543 constituencies.
•Representatives elected from each constituency are called Members of Parliament (MP).
•Each state is divided into a specific number of Assembly constituencies, and the representative elected here is called a Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA).
•Each town or village is divided into many wards like constituencies. Each ward elects one member of the village.
Reserved Constituencies
•Constitution makers have made a special system for reserved constituencies for backward sections.
•In Lok Sabha, 84 seats are reserved for the Scheduled Castes and 47 seats for Scheduled Tribes.
•In various states, seats for other backward classes and women as well in the rural and urban areas.
•Voters List
•A list of those who are eligible to vote in a democratic election is prepared, this list is called the Electoral Roll and is commonly known as the Voter’s list.
•Citizens who are above 18 years of age are eligible to vote.
•Irrespective of their religion, caste, or gender, everyone is allowed to give their vote.
Nomination of Candidates
•Any citizen who wants to be a candidate needs to have a minimum age of 25 years, for voting minimum age required is 18 years.
•If anyone has a criminal background, then there are restrictions but it is applicable in very extreme cases.
•Those who get the party's nomination are called party ‘ticket’.
•According to the direction of the Supreme Court, every candidate now has to make a legal declaration, details:

(i) Any serious case pending against the candidate.

(ii) Complete details of assets and liabilities of the candidates and his/her family
(iii) Educational qualifications.
Election Campaign
Campaigns are held so that people get a chance to get to know their prospective candidates, which will help them to understand more about the ideas and the commitments they will fulfil after becoming the representative.

•During the campaign, candidates contact their voters.

•Political parties advertise in the media and newspapers to promote their candidates.
•The campaign takes place for more than 2 weeks.
•Political parties try every possible way to attract the public by focusing their attention on some issues in society.
•According to election law, no candidate or party can:
1.Give bribes or attempt to threaten voters.
2.Attract the voters in the name of religion or caste.
1.Using government resources for election campaigns.
2.Use of a place of worship.

•Some of the popular slogans used by parties are:

1.Garibi Hatao (Remove poverty).
2.Save Democracy.
3.Land to the Tiller.
4.Protect the Self-Respect of the Telugu.

Polling and Counting of Votes

•The day when voters cast their vote is called election day.
•Voters have their name on the voter's list and go to a nearby ‘polling booth’ where election officials identify the person and put a mark on the finger before casting their vote.
•Earlier ballot paper system was used, where on a sheet of paper the names of candidates and their parties were listed.
•Now, Electronic voting machines (EVM) are used to record votes. This machine shows the names of the candidates and party symbols.

What Makes Elections in India Democratic?

a) Independent Election Commission
•In India, elections are conducted by the Election Commission (EC), it is independent and it has its own Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) appointed by the President.
•EC can make decisions on the conduct and control of elections from the announcement of elections to the declaration of results.
•It implements a code of conduct and can punish any party or candidate who violates it.
•EC orders the government to issue guidelines to prevent any misuse of government power.
•On election day, officials work under the control of the EC.

b) Popular participation
•The participation of people shows us that elections are being conducted in a free and fair manner.
•In India, illiterate, underprivileged, and low-income groups of people vote in large numbers compared to rich people.
•The interest of voters in elections has significantly increased in recent years.
c) Challenges to free and fair elections
•Overall, in India, elections are effectively free and fair. Few candidates might win purely based on money and power.
•Candidates with lots of money may not have a guarantee to secure victory.
•In some parts of the country, candidates with criminal connections try to push other desirable candidates out of the electoral race to secure a ticket.
•Tickets are being distributed to relatives and family friends.
Popular Participation
The effectiveness of the election process can be assessed by examining voter participation rates. Voter turnout measures the percentage of eligible voters who cast their ballots.

In India, poorer, less educated, and underprivileged individuals tend to vote in higher proportions compared to wealthier and more privileged groups. Many ordinary citizens believe that voting allows them to influence political parties to adopt policies
and programs that benefit them. Over time, there has been a growing interest among voters in election-related activities.
Acceptance of Election Outcome
A key indicator of the fairness and freedom of an election is the acceptance of its results. In India, it is common for ruling parties to lose elections at both the national and state levels. In contrast, in the US, incumbent representatives seldom lose their
positions. In India, approximately half of the sitting MPs and MLAs lose their reelection bids. Candidates who spend excessively on vote-buying or who have criminal backgrounds often face defeat. Generally, the outcomes of elections are accepted as the
people's verdict by the losing parties, with only a few elections being contested.
Challenges to Free and Fair Elections
While elections in India are largely free and fair, there are notable challenges and limitations:

•Financial Advantage: Candidates and parties with substantial financial resources often have an unfair advantage over smaller parties.
•Criminal Influence: Candidates with criminal connections sometimes manage to secure nominations from major parties, sidelining other contenders.
•Nepotism: There are instances of party tickets being given to family members rather than to candidates based on merit.
•Limited Choices: Major parties often have similar policies and practices, reducing the real choices available to ordinary voters.
•Disadvantages for Smaller Parties: Smaller parties and independent candidates face significant hurdles compared to larger, established parties.
How are Major Policy Decisions Being Taken?
On August 13, 1990, an Order was issued by the Government of India. The order concluded the Socially & Educationally Backward Classes (SEBC) were the third category for 27% of reservations other than the SC and ST communities. People belonging
to backward classes only were eligible for this quota.

The Decision Makers

The major functionaries in India, that decide the above memorandum involves the following points:

1.The highest formal authority in India is the President, who is the head of the state.
2.The head of the government who takes most of the decisions in the Cabinet meetings is the Prime Minister.
3.The President & two Houses, Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha constitute the Parliament. To pass a memorandum, the Prime Minister must have the support of a majority of Lok Sabha members.

In India, the passing of the Office Memorandum became an issue of hot debate. Some felt that it would deny equality of opportunity to those people who did not belong to backward communities whereas others felt that it would give a fair
opportunity to those communities in government employment. In 1992, the Supreme Court resolved this case by hearing the ‘Indira Sawhney & others Vs Union of India case’. The order was then declared valid by the court and thus the policy
was followed thereafter.

Need for Political Institutions

•Institutions are various arrangements that are made in modern democracies. Institutions also perform functions assigned to them to make democracy work fairly.
•The Civil Servants work with the ministers and the cabinet, to take steps to implement the ministers’ decisions.
•The Supreme Court is an institution where disputes b/w citizens & the government are finally settled.
•Institutions when involved in meetings, and the committees associated with it often lead to delays and complications. But these delays are also very useful as they provide an opportunity for consulting more people. Just like good decisions cannot be
taken quickly, bad decisions are also not rushed into.
The Parliament
An assembly of elected representatives is referred to as Parliament which is the supreme political authority representing the people. Parliamentary discussions also influence the decision of the government and bring pressure to act. No decision can
then be implemented without the favour of the parliament.

Role of the Parliament

The following list reflects the powers of the Parliament and the reason why it is the most significant political institution in India.
Parliament is the final authority that makes laws in any country.
1.Every order that needs to be passed by the government needs the support of the two houses of the Parliament or at least the Lok Sabha.
2.The Parliament has total control over the funds of the Government and acts as a limiter to the access to monies the government has.
3.It influences public policy and is the highest forum available for the hearing and cognizing of issues that the public has.
Why Do We Need a Parliament
•For making laws in any country, parliament is responsible.

•Support of Parliament is an ultimatum for the government to take any decision.

•The government’s money also is controlled by the parliament

•It is called the supreme forum of argument on public issues and national policy in any country.

•In India, Parliament consists of two Chambers or Two Houses of Parliament:

Parliament Houses:
1. House of the People (Lok Sabha): It is directly elected by the people and has the power to represent on behalf of the people.
2. Council of States (Rajya Sabha): Elected indirectly to look after the interests of different states, regions, or federal units.

•The President is not a member of any of these Houses. All the laws made in the Houses need the assent of the President to become an Act.
•However, the Indian Constitution does not allow the Rajya Sabha any superior powers but the Lok Sabha holds power in some of the matters like:
•Both Houses need to pass any ordinary law. In case of difference between the two Houses, a joint session with members of both Houses together takes the final decision. Being more populous, the view of Lok Sabha generally prevails.
•Powers in money matters are mainly exercised by the Lok Sabha.
•Lok Sabha controls the Council of Ministers and makes daily decisions at different government levels. They take care of the execution of government policies.
In a democratic country, there are two categories of executives:
Political executive: Constitutes of political leaders elected by the people for a specific period who make big decisions.
•Permanent executive: People working in the civil services i.e. civil servants remain in office even when the ruling party changes and are permanently chosen. They work under political executives and support them in administration.
Is the Minister More Powerful than the Civil sServant? Why?
As the will of the people is supreme in a democracy, the elected representative of the people i.e. minister is empowered to exercise the will of the people on their behalf. Minister addresses people for any consequences of his/her decision. This is why
ministers take the advice of experts on all technical matters and then make the final decision. The President also appoints the Prime Minister based on the following procedure:
Prime Minister and Council of Ministers
•The majority party's leader controls the majority in the Lok Sabha and is appointed by the President, as the Prime Minister of the country.
•In case of no single majority, the President then appoints the person most likely to secure majority support.
•The Prime Minister continues in power so long as he is the leader of the majority party or coalition.
•The Prime Minister can then advise the President on the appointment of other ministers from the majority party or the coalition that has the majority in the Lok Sabha: The Prime Minister is thus free to choose ministers if they are members of
Parliament.
•A minister who is not a member of Parliament also has to get elected to one of the Houses of Parliament within 6 months of appointment as minister.
•The Council of Ministers includes all the Ministers (60 to 80) of different ranks as given below:

• Cabinet Ministers: They are regarded as top-level leaders of either the ruling party or the parties along with those in charge of the major ministries, The inner ring of the Council of Ministers, comprises about 25 ministers.

• Ministers of State/junior minister: assigned to assist various cabinet ministers and the ministers of state with independent charge.

• Most of the decisions in Parliamentary democracy are taken in Cabinet meetings. Every ministry has secretaries i.e. civil servants who provide important background information to the ministers to make decisions. The Cabinet Secretariat
also assists the Cabinet.
The Powers of the Prime Minister
•He is the head of the government and chairs cabinet meetings
•He keeps an eye on and Coordinates the work of all departments.
•In case of any disagreement b/w departments, his decision is final.
•Exercises general supervision of all ministries.
•Leader of all ministers.
•He is responsible for Distributing the work to the respective ministers.
•Has the power to dismiss ministers.
•The entire ministry will quit when the Prime Minister quits or resigns.
The President
•The President is called the head of the State who supervises the complete operation of all the political institutions in India, such that they function in accord to attain the aim of the State.
•The President is not elected directly by the people but he/she has to get a majority of votes from Members of Parliament (MPs) and the Members of the Legislative Assemblies (MLAs) to win the election.
•In the name of the President- Every government activity takes place.
•Laws and key policy resolutions of the government are issued.
•All the major appointments like that of the Chief Justice of India, Judges of the Supreme Court & the High Courts of the states, the Governors of any state, the Election Commissioners or Ambassadors to other countries, etc are made.
• All international treaties & agreements are done in his/her name.
•The President is also the commander in chief of the defence forces of India.
•The Council of Ministers advises the President to exercise these powers. The President can appoint the Prime Minister by their own will.
The Judiciary
•Supreme Court for the entire nation

•High Courts in states

•District Courts

•Local Courts

An integrated judiciary in India gives the Supreme Court control of judicial administration in the country. The other courts other than this are bound by its decisions.
•Any disputes
• between citizens of the country

• between citizens and government

• between two or more state governments

• between the union and state-level governments

The Judiciary of India is not under the control of the legislature or the executive in any manner. The judges do not act as per the government or the party in power.
The President takes advice from the Prime Minister and consults with the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court who appoints judges of the Supreme Court. Such a judge cannot be removed unless an impeachment motion is passed separately by two-thirds
members of the two Houses of Parliament.
Powers of Judiciary
•The power to interpret the Constitution of the country lies on the Supreme Court and the High Courts.
•The constitutional validity of any legislation or action of the executive can be determined by them through judicial review.
•According to the Supreme Court of India, the basic principles of the Constitution cannot be changed by Parliament.
•The Indian judiciary is the guardian of Fundamental Rights. According to public interest litigation, if the public interest is hurt by the actions of the government, then the public can approach the judiciary.
Working of Institutions and Policies
The working of the three mentioned institutions is necessary for a state to function in its optimal condition. India needs the implementation of laws and their enforcement, for which the institutions are used to refer to and make major policy decisions.
This is also how enforcement of a government order takes place. To make it easier to understand how they function, notes on the workings of institutions will contain the importance of government orders and the decision-makers who help establish
such government orders.
Government Orders
August 13, 1990, is when the court of India and the legislative assembly unanimously decided to issue an order called the Office Memorandum, containing legislation and statutes on job reservation benefits for the SEBC (Socially and Educationally
Backward Classes). The statutes further state that other than SC and ST, 27% of job reservation benefits are guaranteed to people who fit the SEBC category. It works as a quota only for those individuals who are less privileged.
Decision Makers of India
In India's democratic system, decision-making is a complex process involving various key figures and institutions. Here’s an overview of the primary decision-makers in India:
1.The President of India: As the ceremonial head of state, the President plays a crucial role in the Indian political system. They are responsible for appointing the Prime Minister, giving assent to bills passed by Parliament, and representing India in
diplomatic matters. The President's decisions, while largely ceremonial, can influence the political landscape.
2.The Prime Minister of India: The Prime Minister is the head of government and holds significant executive power. They lead the Council of Ministers, make policy decisions, and represent India both domestically and internationally. The Prime
Minister’s role is central to the functioning of the government and the implementation of policies.
3.The Council of Ministers: Appointed by the Prime Minister, the Council of Ministers includes various ministers responsible for different government departments. They play a key role in decision-making related to their specific areas, such as finance,
education, and health.
4.The Parliament of India: Comprising the Lok Sabha (House of the People) and the Rajya Sabha (Council of States), Parliament is responsible for making laws and shaping national policy. Members of Parliament (MPs) debate, propose, and pass
legislation that impacts the country.
5.The Judiciary: The judiciary, including the Supreme Court, High Courts, and lower courts, ensures that laws are interpreted and enforced fairly. It plays a crucial role in upholding the Constitution and resolving legal disputes, thus influencing decision-
making through legal judgments.
6.State Governments: Each state in India has its own government, headed by a Chief Minister. State governments make decisions on matters that fall under their jurisdiction, such as education and local infrastructure.
7.Local Government Bodies: Local bodies, including municipal corporations and panchayats, are involved in decision-making at the grassroots level. They address local issues and contribute to the implementation of policies and development projects.
The Role of Political Institutions
The working of political institutions in India is equivalent to the machinery that helps the government of India function. Without such institutions, a democratic government is going to find it hard to perfectly reflect the interests of its citizens. So one must
ask themselves the pertinent question, What is the role of institutions?

1.Institutions facilitate meetings discussing the laws that are and should be/ should not be binding in India.
2.Institutions involve deliberate complications & delays to include a wider audience that is available for consultation.
3.Institutions are established to give the correct legislative powers the chance to properly discuss the potential extent to which law or order could affect society.