KINDS OF POLICE PLANS

1. Policy and Procedure Plans- to properly achieve the administrative planning

responsibility within the unit, the commander shall develop unit plans relating to policies
or procedures, tactics, operations, extra-office activities and management. Further,
standard-operating procedures (SOP) shall be planned to guide members in routine and
field operations and in some special operations in accordance with the following
procedures.
● Field Procedure - intended to be used in all situations of all kinds of outline as a guide
to officers and men in the field.
● Headquarters Procedure - duties of the dispatcher, jailer, matron, and other personnel
concerned which may be reflected in the duty manual. Procedures involve coordinated
action on activity of several offices, however, shall be established separately as in the
case of using telephone for local or long distance calls, the radio teletype, and other
similar devices.
● Special Operational Procedures - certain special operations also necessitate the
preparation of procedures as guides. Included are the operation of the special unit
charge with the searching and preservation of physical evidence at the crime scenes
and accidents, the control of licenses, dissemination of information about persons,
inspection of the PNP Headquarters, and the like.
2. Tactical Plans - for coping with specific situations at known locations.
- plans for dealing with an attack against buildings with alarm systems and an attack
against the PNP Headquarters by lawless elements.
- For blockade and jail emergencies and for special community event, such as longer
public meetings, athletic contests, parades, religious activities, carnivals, strikes,
demonstrations, and other street affairs.
3. Operational Plans - for operations of special divisions like patrol, detective, traffic, fire
and juvenile control divisions. Operational plans shall be prepared to accomplish each of
the primary police tasks.
a. Regular Operating Programs - these operating divisions/units shall have specific plans to
meet current needs. The manpower shall be distributed throughout the hours of
operation and throughout the area of jurisdiction in proportion to need. Plans shall
assure suitable supervision, which become difficult when the regular assignment is
integrated to deal with this short time periodic needs.
b. Meeting Unusual Needs - the unusual need may rise in any field of police activity and is
nearly always met in the detective, vice, and juvenile divisions by temporary
readjustment of regular assignment.
4. Extra-office Plans - active interest and the participation of individual citizen is so vital to the
success of the PNP shall continuously seek to motivate, promote, and maintain an active public
concern in its affairs. It is made to organize the community to assist in the accomplishment of
objectives and assist in coordinating community effort, in promoting public support, and in
combating organized crime.
5. Management Plans - map out in advance all operations involved in the organization
management of personnel and material and the procurment and disbursement of money.
Operational Procedures Pre- Operational Clearance
No police operation shall be conducted without the approval of the Chief/Commander/Head of
the concerned Police Unit/Office. A pre-operational clearance shall be filed by the Team Leader
of the operating team/s prior to the conduct of the operation and shall be approved by the
concerned Police Unit Commander. This clearance shall be submitted to the operations
section/division of the concerned police unit for record purposes.

Inter-Unit Coordination
1. Personal Coordination or by Official Representative - Team leader/ (TL) of local police
operating outside their territorial jurisdiction and National Support Units (NSUs) shall coordinate,
personally or through an official representative, with the Police Regional, Provincial or City
Police Office within whose jurisdiction the operation is to be conducted.
2. Coordination by Filling Coordination Form
Prior to the launching of the operation, except in case where the formal (in writing) inter-unit
coordination cannot be made due to the nature and/or urgency of the situation such as, but not
limited to, cross- jurisdictional pursuit operations, coordinating form, which shall be filed with the
concerned operation center of the Police Regional, Provincial or City Office (Anne "A" -
Coordination Form)
3. Coordination by Practical/ Available Means of Communication
In cases where formal inter-unit coordination is not feasible, the Police Unit concerned shall
endeavor to notify the territorial police office through any practical /available means of
communication at any time during the operation and, if not possible, shall accomplish and
furnish the territorial Police Office a written incident report immediately after the termination of
the operation.

Requirements of Police Operations

1. Basic Requirements
Police operation like arrest,
search and seizure,
checkpoint, roadblocks demolition and civil disturbance management shall be conducted as
follows:
a. With a marked police vehicle;
b. Led by a Police Commissioned Officer (POC); and
c. With personnel in prescribed police uniform or
attire.
2. Use OF Megaphones and Similar Instrumentations
During actual police intervention operations, the Team Leader shall use peaceful means
including the use of megaphones or any other similar instrument to warn or influence the
offender/s or suspect/s to stop and/or peacefully give up
3. Warning Shots Prohibited
The police shall not use warning shots during police
intervention operations

Use of Force during Police Operations

1. Use of Excessive Force Prohibited
The excessive use of force during police operation is prohibited. However, in the lawful
performance of duty, a police officer may use necessary force to accomplish his mandated task
of enforcing the law and maintaining peace and order.
2. Issuance of verbal warning
The police officer must first issue a verbal warning before he could use force against an
offender. As far as practicable, the verbal warning shall be in the dialect that is known to the
offender or in the national language.
Basically, the verbal warning shall consist of the following: the police officer identifying himself;
his intention; and what he wants the offender to do. If the offender is a foreigner, the verbal
warning shall be done in English language followed by a demonstrative act of the police officer's
intent. The verbal warning shall be done in a loud and clear manner.
3. Non-Issuance of Verbal Warning When Excusable
The failure to issue a verbal warning is excusable in cases where threat to life or property is
already imminent, and there is no other option but to use force to subdue the offender.
4. Use of Non-Lethal Weapon
When suspect is violent or threatening, and that less physical measures have been tried and
deemed inappropriate, a more extreme, but non-deadly measures can be used such as
baton/truncheon, pepper spray, stun gun and other nonlethal weapon to bring the suspect under
control, or effect an arrest.
5. Application of Necessary and Reasonable Force
During confrontation with an armed offender, only such necessary and reasonable force should
be applied as would be sufficient to overcome the resistance put up by the offender; subdue the
clear and imminent danger posed by him; or to justify the force/act under the principle of self-
defense, defense of relatives , or defense of stranger.
6. Factors to Consider in the Reasonableness of the Force Employed
A police officer, however, is not required to afford offender/s attacking him the opportunity for a
fair or equal struggle. The reasonableness of the force employed will depend upon the number
of aggressors, nature and characteristic of the weapon used, physical condition, size and other
circumstance to include the place and occasion of the assault.
The police officer is given the sound
discretion to consider these factors in employing reasonable force.
7. Responsibility of the Police Officer in Charge of the Operation
The police officer who is in charge of the operation shall, at all times, exercise control over all
police personnel in the area of operation, and shall exhaust all possible means to apply the
necessary and reasonable force to protect lives and properties during armed confrontation.

Use of Firearm During Police Operations

1. Use of Firearm When Justified
The use of firearm is justified if the offender poses imminent danger of causing death or injury to
the police officer or other persons. The use of firearm is also justified under the doctrines of self-
defense, defense of relative, and defense of stranger. However, one who resorts to self-defense
must face a real treat on his life, and the peril sought to be avoided must be actual, imminent
and real.
Unlawful aggression should be present for self-defense to be considered as a justifying
circumstance.
2. Firing at Moving Vehicles Prohibited But with Exceptions
A moving vehicle shall not be fired upon except when its occupants pose imminent danger of
causing death or injury to the police officer or any other person, and the use of firearms does
not create a danger to the public and outweigh the likely benefits of its non-use.
3. Parameters to be Considered in Firing at
Moving Vehicles
In firing at a moving vehicle, .the following parameters should be considered:
a. The intent of the suspect/s to harm the police
officer or other persons;
b. The capability of the suspect/s to harm with
certainty the police officer or other persons; and
c. Accessibility or the proximity of the suspect/s
from the police officer and other persons.
4. Filing of an Incident Report after the Use of Firearm
A police officer who fires his service firearm or weapon during a confrontation with an offender
must submit an incident report outlining the circumstance necessitating the use of his firearm.
5. Procedures After an Armed confrontation
Immediately after an armed confrontation, the officer who is in charge of the operation;
a. Secure the site of confrontation;
b. Take photographs
c. Check whether the situation still poses imminent
danger
d. Evacuate the wounded to the nearest hospital;
e. Ensure that all persons who died on the spot are not moved from their original position;
f. Arrest suspect should be kept in isolation;
g. Conduct debriefing on all involved PNP operatives,
h. Submit After-operations report; and
I. Ensure psychological stress counseling for all
involved PNP operatives.

CRIME MAPPING
Crime Mapping is associated with the simple display and querying of crime data using a
Geographic Information System (GIS). It is a general term that encompasses the technical
aspects of visualization and statistical techniques, as well as practical aspects of geographic
principles and criminological theories (Wilson and Filbert K. 2008) The term is a combination of
visualization and statistical techniques manifested as software. This combination of techniques
is shared between mapping, spatial analysis, and spatial data analysis. Mapping is simply a
visualization tool that is used to display raw geographic data and output from analysis, which is
done through a GIS.

Types of Mapping
Here are the types of mapping being employed in law enforcement, particularly that of crime
mapping (Boba, 2001):
1. Manual Pin Mapping
Wall maps have long been a simple and useful way to depict crime incidents or hot spots. Many
police departments still have large maps tacked to the wall of the briefing room with the most
recent crimes represented by pins. Although useful, manual wall maps, offer limited utility
because they are difficult to keep updated, keep accurate, make easy to read, and can only
display a limited amount of data. For example, although different colored pins could be used to
represent different types of crime, date and time of incidents, the nature of incidents, and other
information cannot be displayed easily. In order to update a manual wall map, for example, the
pins must be removed each month. Unless a photo or some other mechanism is used to record
the previous month’s map, the information illustrated on the map is lost. Thus, comparison is
difficult, if not impossible, from one month to the next. Finally, the maps become unreadable
when they display large amounts of data because of the numerous pins and/or holes (Boba,
2001, p. 18).
2. Computer Mapping
Computer map is like a wall map, in that the computer is used to place a point at a specific
location just as a person would put a pin on a wall map. Thus, computer maps have limitations
similar to wall maps. While visually appealing and easy to use, computer mapping does not
allow any more effective analysis than manual pin mapping (Boba, 2001, p.19) .
3. Geographic Information System (GIS)
A GIS is a powerful software tool that allows the user to create anything from a simple point
map to a three-dimensional visualization of spatial or temporal data. A GIS is different from
manual pin maps and computer maps in that it allows the analyst to view data behind the
geographic features, combine various features, manipulate the data and maps, and perform
statistical statistical functions.
4. Crime Analysis Mapping
It is the process of using a geographic information system in combination with crime analysis
techniques to focus on the spatial context of criminal and other law enforcement activity. In this
report, the term crime analysis mapping is used to describe this process because using a GIS to
analyze crime is not just the act placing incidents on a map but also of analysis.

Theoritical Explanations of Crime and Place

Theories of crime and place understand crime in a physical or spatial environment. They explain
crime patterns by the location of targets, offenders’ choice of travel routes, use of space for
various activities, and the innate ability of a place or target to defend itself (what-when-how.om,
n.d.). Theories of crime and place can be described as belonging together under the umbrella of
what is called Environmental Criminology (Brantingham and Brantingham, 1981).

Level of Theories of Crime

Macro-Level
Theories of crime and place at this level of spatial aggregation explain crime patterns across
larger areas. Examples of macro-level crime and place theories include routine activity theory,
crime pattern theory.
Meso-Level
Explanations of crime at the meso-level explain crime at an intermediate level of spatial
aggregation. Examples of crime and place theories at the meso-level include territorial
functioning, and collective efficacy.
Micro-Level
Theories at the micro-level focus on explanations of crime at the individual level or at the actual
location of the crime. An example of these theories is rational choice theory.

Environmental Criminology
Environmental Criminology is the study of crime as it occurs within a geographical area, and
it’s a post its theory that suggests crime is influenced, it not caused, by a person’s spatial
environment. The basis is specifically how individuals, with all their diverse attributes, become
influenced to commit crimes by the elements in their immediate location. Environmental
criminologists look for crime patterns and seek to explain them in terms of environmental
influences. From these explanations they derive rules that enable predictions to be made about
emerging crime problems, and that ultimately inform the development of strategies that might be
employed to prevent crime.

Rational Choice Theory

Rational choice theory, also called rational action theory or choice theory, is a school of
thought based based on the assumption that individuals choose a course of action that is most
in line with their personal preferences. It posits that people calculate the costs and benefits of
choices in making decisions. The perceived costs, risks, benefits of certain actions can be
dependent on one’s own personal preferences.

Routine Activities Theory

Developed by Marcus Felson and Lawrence E. Cohen (1979), routine activities theory
requires three elements be present for a crime to occur:
1. A motivated offender with criminal intentions and the ability to act on these inclinations,
2. A suitable victim or target, and
3. The absence of a capable guardian who can prevent the crime from happening.
These three elements must converge in time and space for a crime to occur.

Routine activities theory relates the pattern of offending to the everyday patterns of social
interaction. Crime is therefore normal and is dependent on available opportunities to offend. If
there is an unprotected target and there are sufficient rewards, a motivated offender will commit
a crime. It is an approach in criminology which examines the ways in which the everyday
behavior of individuals exposes them to more or less risk of being a victim. The exploration of
such routine activities allows the criminologist to identify ‘hot spots’ where criminal activity is
likely to be concentrated.
Cartographic School
The cartographic school of criminology represents or examines the relationship of criminality to
the physical environment and other social factors. Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quételet (a
Belgium mathematician and Andre-Michel Guerre (a French statistician) in Europe during the
1830's and 1840's were the proponents of this school of criminology. They compiled detailed
statistical information relating to crime and attempted to identify the circumstances that
predisposed people to commit crimes.
This school of thought used maps to plot crimes within a certain geographic area. It also uses
mathematics and statistics in conjunction with cartographic practices to promote scientific
knowledge about crime’s relationship to social factors. This school introduced the first spatial
and ecological perspectives on crime and criminal behavior. As geography plays an important
role within modern policing, cartographic schools can contribute valuable information to criminal
research and crime prevention.

Crime Pattern Theory

Crime pattern posits that criminal events are most likely to occur in areas where the activity
space of offenders overlaps with the activity space of the potential victim/targets. It considers
how people’s everyday activities influence their awareness spaces and, in the case of offenders,
how this influence their awareness spaces and, in the case of offenders, how this influences
their spatial decision-making when it comes to offending.

Because of engaging in routine activities, people either offenders or otherwise, are believed to
form mental maps to represent the routine activity nodes they frequent the pathways they
must travel to move from one activity node to another, and the areas that surround them. Some
routine activity nodes will be shared by many people and hence encapsulated in their
awareness spaces, but others will be more unique to particular individuals. It is where offender
awareness spaces overlap with suitable opportunities for crime that they are most expected to
engage in crime. And it is where the activity spaces of many offenders overlap that hotspots of
crime are most likely to form (Johnson, 2014).

Territorial Functioning
Territorial functioning is a perspective within environmental criminology that links the presence
of fear of crime to the amount of crime. From this perspective, the occurrence of crime and fear
of crime are associated with three elements (Taylor, 1988):
1. Attitudes of residents (responsibility and perceptions of control);
2. Behaviors (responding to intrusions or potential intrusions and exercising control over
activities in the territory); and
3. Markers (signs and embellishments).
It revolves around protecting a space and defending it against intrusion. It is based on the notion
that residents are likely to protect spaces that belong to them, and over which they have some
means of control (Taylor, Gottfredson, and Brower, 1984).
Collective Efficacy
Collective efficacy is the process of activating or converting social ties among neighborhood
residents in order to achieve collective goals, such as public order or the control of crime
(Sampson, 2006). It is represented as a combined measure of shared expectations for social
control and social cohesion and trust among neighborhood residents (Cullen, and Wilcox,
2010). Collective efficacy describes what residents are willing to do to improve their
neighborhoods. Although social cohesion is the foundation of collective efficacy, at the core of
collective efficacy are the willingness to intervene and the capacity for informal social control. In
neighborhoods with collective efficacy, neighbors agree on what is acceptable behavior and
reinforce it in each other.

Geographic Information System

Geographic Information System (GIS) is a system that creates, manages, analyzes, and
maps all types of data. GIS connects data to a map, integrating location data (where things are)
with all types of descriptive information (what things are like there) (ESRI, n.d.). It is a computer
system that analyzes and displays geographically referenced information. It uses data that is
attached to a unique location (USGS, n.d.).
Types of GIS Data
A geodatabase is a database composed of spatial data and attribute data (Dempsey, 2021).
Spatial data is any type of data that directly or indirectly references a specific geographical area
or location. Data quality is the degree of data excellency that satisfies the given objective. In
other words, completeness of attributes in order to achieve the given task can be termed as
Data Quality/ Data quality is a pillar in any GIS implementation and application as reliable data
are indispensable to allow the user obtaining meaningful results (Dempsey, 2008). Spatial Data
quality can be categorized into:
● Data Completeness- It is basically the measure of totality of features. A data set with
minimal number of missing features can be termed as Complete-Data.
● Data Precision- It is the degree of details that are displayed on a uniform space.
● Data Accuracy- It is the discrepancy between the actual attributes value and coded
attribute value.
● Data Consistency- It is the absence of conflicts in a particular database.

Attribute data is information appended in tabular format to spatial features. The spatial data is
the where and attribute data can contain information about the what, where, and why. Attribute
data provides characteristics about spatial data (Dempsey, 2013). The main difference between
attribute data and spatial data is that the attribute data describes the characteristics of a
geographical feature while spatial data describes the absolute and relative location of
geographic features.

Types of Spatial Data

In GIS spatial referenced data group can be further classified into
two different types (Dempsey, 2021):
1. Vector data- It is composed of individual points stored as coordinate pairs that indicate a
physical location in the world. It is extremely useful for storing and representing data that has
discrete boundaries, such as borders or building footprints, streets and other transport links, and
location points (Romeijn, n.d.). There are three types of vector Data, namely:
● Point data (feature)- It is commonly used to represent nonadjacent features and to
represent discrete data points. Points have zero dimensions; therefore, you can
measure neither length nor area with this dataset. Examples would be schools, points of
interest, and in the example below, bridge and culvert locations. Point features are also
used to represent abstract points. For instance, point locations could represent city
locations or place names (Dempsey, 2021).

● Line (or arc) data (feature) - It is used to represent linear features. Common examples
would be rivers, trails, and streets. Line features only have one dimension and therefore
can only be used to measure length. Line features have a starting and ending point.
Common examples would be road centerlines and hydrology. Symbology most
commonly used to distinguish features from one another are line types (solid lines
versus dashed lines) and combinations using colors and line thicknesses (Dempsey,
2021).
● Polygon data (feature) - It used to represent areas such as the boundary of a city (on a
large-scale map), lake, or forest. Polygon features are two dimensional and therefore
can be used to measure the area and perimeter of a geographic feature. It is commonly
distinguished using either a thematic mapping symbology (color schemes), patterns, or
in the case of numeric gradation, a color gradation scheme could be used.
Both line and point feature data represent polygon data at a much smaller scale. They help
reduce clutter by simplifying data locations. As the features are zoomed in, the point location of
a school (for example) is more realistically represented by a series of building footprints showing
the physical location of the campus. Line features of a street centerline file only represent the
physical location of the street. If a higher degree of spatial resolution is needed, a street curb
width file would be used to show the width of the road as well as any features such as medians
and rights-of-way or sidewalks (Dempsey, 2021).

2. Raster Data - It is also known as grid data, it represents the fourth type of feature: surfaces
(Dempsey, 2021). It is cell-based, and this data category also includes aerial and satellite
imagery. It provides a representation of the world as a surface divided up into a regular grid
array, or cells, where each of these cells has an associated value (Romeijn, n.d.). There are two
types of raster data:
● Continuous Raster Data It has no clearly defined boundaries. Every point on a map
made with continuous GIS data will contain a value. Elevation, slope, temperature, and
precipitation are examples of datasets that are continuous (Dempsey, 2020).
● Discrete Raster Data- It is a geographic data that only occurs in specific locations. For
polygon data, discrete data has well defined boundaries. Point and line GIS data such as
tree locations, rivers, and streets all fall into the category of discrete datasets. Maps
made with discrete GIS data will have areas on the map that contain values from that
dataset and areas on the map where that dataset is absent (Dempsey, 2020).
There are also three types of raster datasets (Dempsey,
2021):
1. Thematic data- Thematic data layers are information data sets that have a common feature
or attribute placed in the same layer of spatial data. This guide is arranged by general spatial
themes. This guide is meant to be a starting point for finding spatial data that corresponds to a
specific focus of a GIS analysis or map.
2. Spectral data- these are satellite images and aerial photographs which are then often used
to derive information (example: vegetation geologic information) by classifying the spectral
signatures of each type of feature.

3. Pictures (imagery)- this includes scanned maps or drawings and building photographs.
Types of Attribute Data
Attribute data can be store as one of five different field types in a
table or database (Dempsey, 2013):
1. Character- The character property (or string) is for text-based values such as the name of a
street or descriptive values such as the condition of a street. Character attribute data is stored
as a series of alphanumeric symbols.
2. Integer- It is a whole number (not a fractional number) that can be positive, negative, or zero.
It is divided between short and long integer values. Short integers store numeric values without
fractional values for a shorter range than long integers.
3. Floating- it attributes values store numeric values with fractional values. These are for
numeric values with decimal points.
4. Date- it contains date and time values.
5. BLOB- it stands for binary large object and this attribute type is used for storing information
such images, multimedia, or bits of code in a field. This field stores object linking and
embedding (OLE) which are objects created in other applications such as images and
multimedia and linked from the BLOB field.

Geographical Information System and Crime Mapping

According to Chainey and Rateliff (2005) crime mapping is a progressiveblend
ofpracticalcriminaljusticeissueswiththeresearchfield ofgeographical information systems and
science. GIS can be employed at different levels to support operational policing, tactical crime
mapping, detection, and wider-ranging strategic analyses (Chainey and Ratcliff,
2005). In its most basic form, crime mapping is the use of Geographic Information System (GIS)
to visualize and organize spatial data for more formal statistical analysis. Spatial analysis can be
employed in both an exploratory and well as a more confirmatory manner with the primary
purpose of identifying how certain community or ecological factors (such as population
characteristics or the built environment) influence the spatial patterns of crime. Two topics of
particular interest include examining for evidence of the diffusion of crime and in evaluating the
effectiveness of geographically targeted crime reduction strategies.
Crime mapping can also be used to visualize and analyze the movement or target selection
patterns of criminals. Mapping software allows for the creation of electronic pin-maps and by
spatially organizing the data, GIS increases the analytical value of these maps. Crime mapping
allows practitioners to explore crime patterns, offender mobility, and serial offenses over time
and space. Within the context of local policing, crime mapping provides the visualization of
crime clusters by types of crimes, thereby validating the street knowledge of patrol officers.
Crime mapping can be used for allocating resources (patrol, specialized enforcement) and to
inform how the concerns of local citizens are being addressed (Reid, S., Tita, G., and Valasik,
M., 2019)

Law Enforcement and Crime Mapping

Computerized crime mapping technology enables law enforcement agencies to analyze and
correlate data sources to create a detailed snapshot of crime incidents and related factors within
a community or other geographical area. It allows law enforcement agencies to plot crime-
related data against a digitized map of a community, city, or region. Crime-related data then can
be compared and analyzed with other external data sources (Mamalian and LaVigne, 1999).
GIS does not replace a law enforcement agency's process of collecting and storing information
in a database. Rather, it enhances the agency's ability to use the data. It also enhances a police
officer's time on the streets. An officer with access to GIS software and additional datasets,
such as parolee and probationer data, can run queries from a laptop in the patrol car (OVC,
2003).

Crime Analysis
Crime analysis is defined as a set of systematic analytical processes providing timely and
useful information on crime patterns and trends.
Effective crime analysis affects all areas and operations of a police department by refining and
distributing useful information (Stiles,
1981). It is used to improve the operations and administration of police departments, to improve
the job satisfaction of police officers, to permit the patrol deployment system to correspond with
service demand, and to augment patrol activities in crime prevention (Karpilo, 2019).
Types of Crime Analysis
The types of crime analysis are (Karpilo, 2019):
1. Tactical Crime Analysis- This type of crime analysis that looks at the short-term in order to
stop what is currently taking place, it deals with immediate criminal offenses for example, a
crime spree. It is used to identify one perpetrator with many targets or one target with many
perpetrators and provide an immediate response.
It provides information to assist operational personnel in the identification of crime trends and in
the arrest of criminal offenders.
2. Strategic Crime Analysis: This type of crime analysis looks at the long-term and on-going
issues. It is primarily concerned with operational strategies and seeks solutions to ongoing
problems. Its focus is often on identifying areas with high crime rates and problem-solving ways
to decrease the overall crime rates. Its purpose is to perform police service more effectively and
efficiently by matching service delivery to demands for service.
3. Administrative Crime Analysis- This type of crime analysis looks at the administration and
deployment of police and resources. It deals with long-range comparisons. Examples of
administrative crime analysis tasks include providing economic, geographic, and law
enforcement information to police management, City Administration, City Council, and
neighborhood/citizen groups.