❑ BASIC ENGINE CYCLES:

A. 4-Stroke Engine Cycle

▪ First stroke Intake stroke or induction
▪ Second stroke Compression stroke or combustion
▪ Third stroke Expansion or power stroke, exhaust blowdown
▪ Fourth stroke Exhaust stroke

B. 2-Stroke Engine Cycle

▪ First stroke Compression stroke, combustion
▪ Second stroke Expansion stroke or power stroke,
exhaust blowdown, intake and scavenging
❑ FOUR-STROKE CYCLE GASOLINE ENGINE:

Intake stroke: The piston moves down the cylinder (from TDC to BDC) and draws in an air-fuel
mixture.
Compression stroke: The piston moves up the cylinder (from BDC to TDC) compressing the
mixture. Spark ignition occur near the end of compression.
Power stroke: After combustion at almost constant volume near TDC, the high cylinder pressure
moves the piston down (from TDC to BDC) for expansion or power stroke.
Exhaust stroke: Prior exhaust stroke, exhaust blowdown when exhaust valve opens near end of
expansion stroke. The piston moves up again (from BDC to TDC) pushing the burned gases.

Figure courtesy of Thermodynamics 1 by Hipolito B. Sta. Maria

❑ FOUR-STROKE CYCLE GASOLINE ENGINE:

Intake Stroke (Induction Stroke)

The piston travels from TDC to BDC with the
intake valve open and exhaust valve closed, creating
an increasing volume in the combustion chamber,
producing vacuum. The differential pressure of the
atmosphere and the vacuum inside the cylinder causes
air to be sucked in the cylinder. The air is mixed
with the fuel as it pass through the intake system
by means of carburetor or fuel injector.

where:
▪ TDC or Top Dead Center – the highest position (furthest
point away from the crankshaft) of the piston in the
cylinder when the crankshaft rotates.
▪ BDC or Bottom Dead Center - the lowest position (point
closest to the crankshaft)of the piston when the crankshaft
rotates.
❑ FOUR-STROKE CYCLE GASOLINE ENGINE:

Compression Stroke
When the piston reaches BDC, the intake valve closes
and the piston travels back to TDC with all valves closed.
This compresses the air-fuel mixture raising both the
pressure and temperature in the cylinder. The finite time
required to close the intake valve means that actual
compression doesn’t start until sometime aBDC. Near the
end of the compression stroke, the spark plug is fired and
combustion is initiated.
where:
▪ A/F or A:F or Air-Fuel Ratio – the ratio of the amount of
air supplied to the amount of fuel burned during the
combustion process.
▪ Combustion - a chemical reaction (chemical combination) at
high temperature of the combustible elements in the fuel
with oxygen. Heat energy and light being released in the
process.
❑ FOUR-STROKE CYCLE GASOLINE ENGINE:

Combustion
Combustion of the air-fuel mixture occurs in a very
short but finite length of time with the piston near
TDC at nearly constant volume combustion. It starts
near the end of the compression stroke slightly bTDC
and lasts into the power stroke slightly aTDC.
Combustion changes the composition of the gas mixture
to that of exhaust products and increases the
temperature in the cylinder to a very high peak value.
This in turn, raises the pressure in the cylinder to a
very high peak value.
where:
▪ Exhaust or Flue Gas – the product of combustion
❑ FOUR-STROKE CYCLE GASOLINE ENGINE:

Power Stroke or Expansion Stroke

With all valves closed, the high pressure
created by the combustion process pushes the
piston away from TDC. This is the stroke which
produces the work output of the engine cycle. As
the piston travels from TDC to BDC, cylinder
volume is increased causing pressure and
temperature drop.
where:
▪ Engine Work of Expansion – the work produced during the
power stroke (𝑊 = ‫ ) 𝑉𝑑𝑝 ׬‬with s = C or 𝑝𝑉 𝑘 = 𝐶
❑ FOUR-STROKE CYCLE GASOLINE ENGINE:

Exhaust Blowdown
Late in the power stroke, the exhaust valve is opened
and exhaust blowdown occurs. Pressure and temperature in
the cylinder are still high relative to the surroundings at
this point and a pressure differential is created through
the exhaust system which is open to atmospheric pressure.
This pressure differential causes much of the hot exhaust
gas to be pushed out of the cylinder and through the
exhaust system when the piston is near BDC. This exhaust
gas carries away a high amount of enthalpy which lowers the
cylinder thermal efficiency. Opening the exhaust valve
before BDC reduces the work obtained during power stroke
but is required because of the finite time needed for
exhaust blowdown.
❑ FOUR-STROKE CYCLE GASOLINE ENGINE:

Exhaust Stroke
By the time the piston reaches BDC, exhaust blowdown is
complete, but the cylinder is still full of exhaust gases
at approximately atmospheric pressure. With the exhaust
valve remaining open, the piston now travels from BDC to
TDC in the exhaust stroke. This pushes most of the
remaining exhaust gases out of the cylinder into the
exhaust system at about atmospheric pressure leaving only
the trapped in the clearance volume when the piston reaches
TDC. Near the end of the exhaust stroke bTDC, the intake
valve starts to open, so that it is fully open by TDC when
the new intake stroke starts the next cycle. Near TDC the
exhaust valve starts to close and finally is fully closed
sometime aTDC. This period when both the intake and exhaust
valves are open is called overlap.
❑ THEORETICAL ENGINE CYCLES:
Internal combustion engine cycles are considered air standard cycles, thus,
the value of the isentropic expansion ratio k is based on the following:
a. Cold-air standard, k = 1.4 Note: Standard atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi.
b. Hot-air standard, k < 1.4 Standard atmospheric temperature is 60oF (from SAE and
US Bureau of Standards), 59oF (from NACA), and 68oF
(from ASME Code).

Air Standard Cycle (Conditions set for theoretical cycle):

▪ Heat developed during combustion is simple (heat added from outside source).
▪ Heat carried away with the escaping exhaust gases is considered as though it
were taken away from the working substance which remains unchanged throughout
the cycle.
▪ Working substance considered is only the air. No chemical reaction is taken
into account.
▪ The specific heat of air is considered constant (k = Cp/Cv) .
▪ No heat exchange takes place between the working substance and the engine
walls during compression and expansion.
❑ THEORETICAL ENGINE CYCLES:
OTTO CYCLE (or EXPLOSION CYCLE)
▪ Otto Cycle is a working cycle of a gasoline or spark-ignition engine.
Processes of an Otto Cycle (S-V-S-V):
1-2 isentropic compression (S = C)
2-3 isometric heat addition (V = C)
3-4 isentropic expansion (S = C)
4-1 isometric heat rejection (V = C)

P-V and T-S Diagram of Otto Cycle

Analysis of the Otto Cycle:
1. Work of compression, WC: Process: 1 to 2
2
𝑝2 𝑉2 − 𝑝1 𝑉1
𝑊𝑐 = න 𝑝𝑑𝑉 =
1 1−𝑘
2. Heat added to the cycle, QA: Process: 2 to 3
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑇3 − 𝑇2

3. Work of expansion, We: Process: 3 to 4

4
𝑝4 𝑉4 − 𝑝3 𝑉3 A 4-stroke SI engine indicator
𝑊𝑒 = න 𝑝𝑑𝑉 = diagram. An indicator diagram plots
3 1−𝑘
cylinder pressure as a function of
combustion chamber volume over 720o
4. Heat rejected from the cycle, QR: Process: 4 to 1 cycle. The diagram is generated on
an oscilloscope using a pressure
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑇1 − 𝑇4 transducer mounted in the combustion
chamber and a position sensor
Note: In theoretical engine cycle it is assumed that the mounted on a piston or crankshaft.
heat from fuel charge (EC = mf x HV) is equal to
QA or the heat added to the cycle at combustion
efficiency of 100%.
Analysis of the Otto Cycle:
5. Net work of the cycle, Wnet :

𝑊𝑁𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝑅

6. Compression ratio, rk :
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑟𝑘 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑛

𝑉1 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝐷 where: V1 = V4 and
𝑟𝑘 = =
𝑉2 𝑉𝑐 V2 = V3 = Vc
1+𝑐
𝑟𝑘 =
𝑐

7. Percent clearance, c :
where: Clearance volume
𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉𝑐 • minimum cylinder volume (the volume of the
𝑐= =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝐷 cylinder when the piston is at the TDC)
• maximum cylinder volume less swept volume
• also equal to V2 and V3 (see p-v diagram)
Analysis of the Otto Cycle:
8. Volume displacement (Swept Volume), VD :
𝑉𝐷 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 where: L =
length of stroke (pistons displacement from TDC to BDC)
𝜋
A engine bore area = 𝐷2
=
4
𝑉𝐷 = 𝐿𝐴𝑁 D =
engine bore or diameter of the cylinder
𝑐𝑎𝑛
N =
𝑐𝑎𝑛 (for 2-stroke engine); N = (for 4-stroke engine)
2
𝑚3 𝑓𝑡 3 c =
no. of cylinders of an engine (1, 2, 4, 6, 8, etc.)
Unit: , , etc.
𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛 a =
action of cylinder (great majority of engines are built
single acting, a = 1)Double action cylinder (a = 2) is
9. Volumetric efficiency, 𝜂𝑣 : used only in very large engines of several hundreds of
horsepower per cylinder
𝑉𝑎 𝑚𝑎 /𝜌𝑎 n = engine speed (rotative or rotational speed), rpm or
𝜂𝑣 = = revolutions per minute
𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷
where: 𝑉𝑎 = volume flow rate of air into the engine
𝑚𝑎 = mass flow rate of air into the engine
10. Engine displacement , VE : 𝜌𝑎 = density of air evaluated at atmospheric condition
outside the engine
𝑉𝐸 = 𝐿𝐴𝑐 =
𝑃0
𝑅𝑎 𝑇0

Unit: 𝑐𝑚3 , 𝑖𝑛3 , etc. where: L = length of stroke (pistons displacement from TDC to BDC)
𝜋
A = engine bore area = 𝐷2
4
c = no. of cylinders of an engine (1, 2, 4, 6, 8, etc.)
Analysis of the Otto Cycle:
11. Expansion ratio, re :
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑟𝑒 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑉4
𝑟𝑒 = where: V4 = V1 and V3 = V2 = Vc
𝑉3

12. Thermal efficiency, et :

𝑊𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝑅
𝑒𝑡 = =
𝑄𝐴 𝑄𝐴

1
𝑒𝑡 = 1 −
𝑟𝑘 𝑘−1

Note:
For theoretical Otto cycle:
• Thermal efficiency increased by increased in rk
• Thermal efficiency increased by increased in k
• Thermal efficiency is independent of the heat added
Analysis of the Otto Cycle:
13. Mean Effective Pressure, MEP :
- the average pressure in the engine cylinder during the cycle
𝑊𝑁𝑒𝑡 where: 𝑊𝑁𝑒𝑡 = cycle net work
𝑀𝐸𝑃 =
𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷 = volume displacement
𝐵𝑃 = brake power
▪ Other Mean Effective Pressure 𝐼𝑃 = indicated power
𝑏𝑀𝐸𝑃 = brake mean effective pressure
𝐵𝑃 𝐼𝑃 𝑖𝑀𝐸𝑃 = indicated mean effective pressure
𝑏𝑀𝐸𝑃 = 𝑖𝑀𝐸𝑃 =
𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷

14. Average or Mean Piston Speed, S :

𝑆 = 2𝐿𝑛 where: 𝐿 = length of stroke (piston movement from TBC to BDC)
𝑛 = engine rpm or the rotative speed of the crankshaft
𝑆 = 15 to 50 ft/sec (average piston speed for all engines)
15. Ideal or Stoichiometric Air-Fuel Ratio, A:F :
𝐴: 𝐹 = 15: 1 average where: 𝐴: 𝐹 = the ratio of mass of air to mass of fuel input
into engine
𝐴: 𝐹 = 6 𝑡𝑜 19 range
ACTUAL ENGINE PERFORMANCE

Power Developed by the Engine:

1. Indicated Power, IP :
– the power developed inside the engine cylinder as obtained from the
pressure in the cylinder.
where: 𝑖𝑀𝐸𝑃 = indicated mean effective pressure
𝐼𝑃 = 𝑖𝑀𝐸𝑃 × 𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷 = volume displacement
𝐴𝑐 = area of the indicator card or diagram
𝐴𝑐 × 𝑘 𝑘 = spring scale (unit: kPa/m, psi/in, etc.)
𝑖𝑀𝐸𝑃 =
𝑙𝑐 𝑙𝑐 = length of the card or diagram

where:
Engine Indicator – the device used to measure the actual
net work done by the system to complete the cycle of
events.
Indicator Card – a pictured record of the variation of
pressure and volume of the working substance in a
cylinder as the piston reciprocates.
Oscilloscope and Mechanical Plotter – example of devices
that plots the indicator diagram
ACTUAL ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Power Developed by the Engine:
2. Brake Power, BP :
– the power transmitted to the engine drive shaft as part of the indicated
power developed in the engine cylinder.
where:
𝐵𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑇𝑛 𝑇 = torque developed in the crankshaft
Unit: N-m, ft-lb, etc.
𝑇 =𝐹×𝑟 𝑛 = rotative or rotational speed
= 𝐹 − 𝑊𝑇𝑎𝑟𝑒 × 𝐿𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝐹 = resisting force on the brake
= 𝑊 − 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 × 𝑅 𝑟 = radius of shaft
𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑒 = tare weight (actual weight of the brake)
where: 𝑊 = weight of the counter load
𝐿𝑎𝑟𝑚 = length of the lever arm
Dynamometers – instruments used to
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = reading of the spring balance
measure torque and brake power. 𝑅 = radius of the brake drum / brake wheel
ACTUAL ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Power Developed by the Engine:
2. Brake Power, BP :
– the power transmitted to the engine drive shaft as part of the indicated
power developed in the engine cylinder.

Prony Brake Dynamometer Friction Brake Dynamometer

ACTUAL ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Power Developed by the Engine:
❑ Effects of Altitude on Engine Performance:
SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) DERATING FORMULA: (applicable where the
change of temperature and pressure considered due to a given altitude)

For gasoline engines: Variation of temperature with altitude:

𝑃𝑜 𝑇𝑠 3.57℉ × 𝐻
𝑡𝑜 = 60℉ − if H < 35,332 ft
𝐵𝑃𝑜 = 𝐵𝑃𝑠 1000 𝑓𝑡
𝑃𝑠 𝑇𝑜

where: 𝑡𝑜 = −67℉ if H > 35,332 ft

𝐵𝑃𝑜 = observed brake power at a given
elevation Variation of pressure with altitude:
𝐵𝑃𝑠 = brake power at standard location
𝑇𝑜 = observed temperature at a given 0.5 𝑝𝑠𝑖 × 𝐻
𝑃𝑜 = 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖 − if H < 35,332 ft
elevation 1000 𝑓𝑡
𝑇𝑠 = SAE standard temperature, = 59oF
𝑃𝑜 = observed pressure at a given 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑑
elevation 𝑃𝑜 = if H > 35,332 ft
𝐻 − 35,332
1.452 +
𝑃𝑠 = SAE standard pressure = 14.7 psi 20,950
ACTUAL ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Power Developed by the Engine:
3. Friction Power, FP :
- the power absorbed in overcoming frictional resistance at the various
rubbing surfaces of the engine, such as the piston rings, cross head, crank
and the shaft bearings.
𝐹𝑃 = 𝐼𝑃 − 𝐵𝑃

Morse Test:
In this test, individual cylinders in a multi-cylinder engine are cut out
from firing, and the reduction in brake torque is determined while
maintaining the same engine speed. The remaining cylinders drive the
cylinder cut out.
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛
𝐼𝑃𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐵𝑃
෍ 𝐼𝑃 − ෍ 𝐹𝑃 = 𝐵𝑃𝑛 ෍ 𝐼𝑃 − ෍ 𝐹𝑃 = 𝐵𝑃𝑛−1
𝐼𝑃𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝐵𝑃𝑛 − 𝐵𝑃𝑛−1
(with all cylinders firing) (with one cylinder disabled) 𝑛 = total number of cylinders of an engine
MORSE TEST
In multi-cylinder internal combustion engines wherein all cylinders are of the same
cubic capacity, a reasonable estimate of the indicated power developed in each cylinder
can be made by the Morse test. This is most useful in small high speed engines where
indicator diagram cannot be taken satisfactorily by the standard mechanical indicator.
The test consist of measuring the brake power at the shaft when all cylinders are
firing and then measuring the brake power of the remaining cylinders when each one is cut
out in turn. Cutting the power of each cylinder is done in gasoline engines by shorting
the sparkplug and in the diesel engines by by-passing the cylinder fuel supply.
The speed of the engine and the fuel throttle or fuel pump setting is kept constant
during the test so that friction and pumping losses are approximately constant.

𝐼𝑃𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑡−𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐼𝑃𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 − 𝐼𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝐵𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐼𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 𝐹𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

where:
𝐼𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐼𝑃𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 × 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑠
ACTUAL ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Efficiencies of the Engine:
1. Thermal Efficiency, et:
– the relationship between the quantity of heat energy that is converted into
useful work.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 where: 𝐸𝐶 = energy charge from the fuel
𝑒𝑡 = = 𝑚𝑓 × 𝐻𝑉
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑚𝑓 = fuel mass flow rate
a) Indicated Thermal Efficiency, 𝒆𝒊 : 𝐻𝑉 = heating value of the fuel
(lower heating value or LHV is used
𝐼𝑃 𝐼𝑃 𝐼𝑃 in engine analysis)
𝑒𝑖 = = =
𝑄𝐴 𝜂𝑐 𝐸𝐶 𝜂𝑐 (𝑚𝑓 × 𝐻𝑉) 𝜂𝑐 = combustion efficiency
b) Brake Thermal Efficiency, 𝒆𝑩 : 𝑄
𝐵𝑃 𝐵𝑃 𝐵𝑃
Note: 𝜂𝑐 = 𝐴
𝐸𝐶
𝑒𝑏 = = = ▪ 𝜂𝑐 ranges from 0.95 to 0.98 if engine
𝑄𝐴 𝜂𝑐 𝐸𝐶 𝜂𝑐 (𝑚𝑓 × 𝐻𝑉)
operates properly
▪ unless otherwise specified 𝜂𝑐 is
assumed 100%
ACTUAL ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Efficiencies of the Engine:
2. Engine Efficiency, 𝜼:
- the ratio of the work of an actual system to the work of an ideal system.
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝜂=
𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒

a) Indicated Engine Efficiency, 𝜼𝒊 :

where: 𝑇𝑃 = Theoretical Power
𝐼𝑃 𝐼𝑃
𝜂𝑖 = = = 𝑊𝑁𝑒𝑡
𝑇𝑃 𝑊𝑁𝑒𝑡 = 𝑒𝑡 × 𝑄𝐴

b) Brake Engine Efficiency, 𝜼𝑩 :

𝐵𝑃 𝐵𝑃
η𝐵 = =
𝑇𝑃 𝑊𝑁𝑒𝑡

c) Mechanical Efficiency, 𝜼𝒎 :
𝐹𝑃
𝐵𝑃 where: % 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝐼𝑃
η𝑚 = 𝐼𝑃
= 1 − % 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
ACTUAL ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Specific Fuel Consumption:
- is defined as the amount of the fuel consumed in unit time per unit power
developed. Its other names are fuel economy or fuel rate.

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

𝑆𝐹𝐶 = = Unit: kg/kW-hr, lb/hp-hr, etc.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

1. Ideal Specific Fuel Consumption:

Conversion of Units:
𝑚𝑓
𝑆𝐹𝐶 = 1 barrel, bbl = 42 gal
𝑊𝑁𝑒𝑡 1 drum = 55 gal

2. Actual Specific Fuel Consumption: Recall: Effect of temperature on the

density of fluid
a. Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption, ISFC: S.G.O = S.G.std [1-0.0007(tf – 15.6)]
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚𝑓 (if the temperature tf is given in
𝐼𝑆𝐹𝐶 = = degree Celsius)
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑃
S.G.O = S.G.std [1-0.0004(tf – 60)]
b. Brake Specific Fuel Consumption, BSFC:
(if the temperature tf is given in
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚𝑓 degree Fahrenheit)
𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 = =
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐵𝑃
ACTUAL ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Heat Rate of the Engine:
- It is the ratio of the energy charge to the work or power developed. It is
defined as the reciprocal of thermal efficiency (if heat input is based on QA).
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝐻𝑅 = Unit: kJ/kW-hr,Btu/hp-hr, etc.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

1
𝐻𝑅 = If heat input is based on QA
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

1. Ideal Heat Rate: (Heat input is based on fuel)

𝐸𝐶
𝐻𝑅 = Unit: kJ/kW-hr,Btu/hp-hr, etc.
𝑊𝑁𝑒𝑡

2. Actual Heat Rate:(Heat input is based on fuel)

▪ Indicated Heat Rate, IHR: ▪ Brake Heat Rate, BHR:
𝐸𝐶 𝐸𝐶
𝐼𝐻𝑅 = Unit: kJ/kW-hr,Btu/hp-hr, etc. 𝐵𝐻𝑅 =
𝐼𝑃 𝐵𝑃
EXAMPLES
1. An ideal Otto cycle engine with 15% clearance operates on a 0.227
kg/s of air. Intake state is 100.58 kPa and 37.7oC. The energy
released during combustion is 110 kJ/s. For hot-air standard with k
= 1.32, find
a) p, V, T at each corner
b) Wnet
c) et
d) MEP
2. An Otto engine has a clearance volume of 7%. It produces 300 kW
power. What is the amount of heat rejected in kW?
3. The stroke of an internal combustion engine is 75 mm. The diameter
of the cylinder is 70 mm and the clearance volume at the end of
compression is 36 m3. Assuming compression follows the law pV1.37 =
C, calculate the pressure at the end of compression if the initial
pressure is 97 kPa.
EXAMPLES
4. A 203.2 mm by 279.4 mm, single acting, 2-stroke spark-ignition engine has the
following results during a 30-minute test on a dynamometer:
Speed 660 rpm
Area of indicator card 746 mm2
Length of card 81 mm
Spring scale 52,000 kPa/m (average vertical movement of the
indicator)
Determine the indicated power.
5. A 4-stroke, 3600 rpm engine having an air-fuel ratio of 16 consumed a fuel
which heating value is 43,000 kJ/kg. If each cylinder of the engine required
0.0005 kg of air per cycle and for a combustion efficiency of 98%, calculate
the following:
a) fuel consumption in lb/hr of the 6-cylinder engine
b) brake thermal efficiency, if brake output torque, T = 205 N-m
c) indicated thermal efficiency, if mechanical efficiency is 85%
d) volumetric efficiency (assume 𝜌𝑎 at condition, where 𝑡0 = 25oC; and the
engine is a 3L V6 SI square engine)
e) brake specific fuel consumption in lb/hp-hr
f) cylinder dimension using condition in (d).
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. An air standard engine has a compression ratio of 20 and a cut-off ratio of 5.
If the intake air pressure and temperature are 100 kPa and 27oC, find the work in
kJ/kg.
Ans. 1,430.72 kJ/kg

2. A 21cm by 26cm engine developed an output of 155 kW. This engine is a 4-stroke
type, single acting, with 6 cylinders and operates at 550 rpm. Find the brake
mean effective pressure in kPa.
Ans. 625.89 kPa

3. During a Morse test on a 4-cylinder, 4-stroke petrol engine, the throttle was
set in a fixed position and the speed maintained constant at 35 rps by
adjusting the brake, and the following powers in kW were measured at the brake:
With all cylinders firing, BP developed = 57 kW
With spark plug of cylinder no.1 shorted, BP = 38.5 kW
With spark plug of cylinder no.2 shorted, BP = 37 kW
With spark plug of cylinder no.3 shorted, BP = 37.5 kW
With spark plug of cylinder no.4 shorted, BP = 38 kW
Estimate the mechanical efficiency of the engine.
Ans. 74%
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
4. The compression ratio in an air-standard Otto cycle is 8. At the beginning of
the compression stroke, the pressure is 14.7 psia and the temperature is
60oF. The heat transferred to the air per cycle is 800 Btu/lb. Determine the
mean effective pressure of the cycle.
Ans. 213.5 psi

5. A 4-cylinder, 4-stroke cycle petrol engine is to be designed to develop a

brake power of 185 kW at 2,100 r.p.m. The stroke bore ratio is to be 1.5 to
1. Assuming mechanical efficiency of 75 per cent and indicated mean effective
pressure of 830 kPa, determine the required bore and stroke. If the indicated
thermal efficiency of the engine is 31.5% and the calorific value of petrol
is 42,000 kJ/kg calculate the petrol consumption in litres per hour and brake
specific petrol consumption in litre per kW per hour. Take specific gravity
of petrol as 0.73.
Ans. D = 15.332 cm; L = 23 cm; 91.947 litres/hr; 0.497 litre per kW/hour]