INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING

Lecture Notes

Computer Network
A computer network is a group of devices connected with each other through a transmission media
(link) such as wires, cables etc. for the purpose of sharing data or information and resources. These
devices can be computers, printers, scanners, Fax machines or any other device that is capable to send and
receive data. These devices are often referred as nodes.

Link
A link is a communication pathway that transfer data from one device to another.

For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the same
time. This referred to as Data Communication. When we communicate, we are sharing information.
This sharing can be:
 Local Communication or
 Remote Communication

 Local Communication
Local communication usually occurs face to face between individuals.

 Remote Communication
Remote communication takes place over distance.

Components of a Computer Network

A data communications system has five components:
i. Sender
ii. Receiver
iii. Message
iv. Transmission Media
v. Protocol

i. Sender
Sender is the device that has the data and needs to send the data to other device connected to the network.
It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera and so on.
 ii. Receiver
A receiver is the device which is expecting the data from other device on the network. Receiver can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, television and so on.

iii. Message
The message is the data or information which needs to be transferred from one device to another device
over a computer network. Popular forms of data or information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and
video.

iv. Transmission media

The transmission media is the physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver. Some
examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio
waves.

v. Protocol
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a person
who speaks only Swahili. It represents an agreement between the communicating devices.

Transmission Modes in Computer Networks

Transmission mode means transferring of data between two devices. It is also known as communication
mode or data flow. There are three types of transmission mode:

 Simplex Mode
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two
devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. It is mainly used in the business field as in
sales that do not require any corresponding reply.
 Simplex transmission can be thought of as a one-way road in which the traffic travels only in one
direction; no vehicle coming from the opposite direction is allowed to drive through. Example of
simplex devices are:
o Keyboards - can only send the input to the CPU. It cannot receive any feedback from the
CPU.
o Monitors - can only receive the input and display it on the screen. The monitor cannot reply
or send any feedback to the CPU.
o Mouse - can only send the instructions to the CPU. It cannot receive any feedback from the
CPU.
o Loudspeakers - can only receive the input from the music system. The loudspeakers cannot
reply or send any feedback, to the music system.
o Radio - can only introduce input.
o TV- can only introduce input.

The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.

Advantages of Simplex transmission mode:

 It utilizes the full capacity of the communication channel during data transmission.
 It has the least or no data traffic issues as data flows only in one direction.

Disadvantages of Simplex transmission mode:

 It is unidirectional in nature having no inter-communication between devices.
 There is no mechanism for information to be transmitted back to the sender (No mechanism
for acknowledgement).

 Half-Duplex Mode
The sender and receiver can both send and receive the information, but not at the same time. When
one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is like a
one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions. When cars are traveling in one direction,
cars going the other way must wait.
In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the
two devices is transmitting at the time. For example, in walkie-talkies, the speakers at both ends can
speak, but they have to speak one by one. They cannot speak simultaneously.

Advantages of Half-duplex transmission mode:

 It facilitates the optimum use of the communication channel.
 It provides two-way communication.

Disadvantages of Half-duplex transmission mode:

 The two-way communication can not be established simultaneously at the same time.
 Delay in transmission may occur as only one way communication can be possible at a
time.

 Full-Duplex Mode
Full-Duplex is the data transmission mode in which the data can flow in both directions at the same time.
It is bi-directional in nature. It is two-way communication in which both the stations can transmit and
receive the data simultaneously. The capacity of the channel is divided between the two directions of
communication. This mode is used when communication in both directions is required simultaneously.

Full duplex transmission mode is like a two-way road in which traffic can flow in both directions at the
same time.

For example, in a telephone conversation, two people communicate, and both are free to speak and listen
at the same time.

Advantages of Full-duplex transmission mode:

 The two-way communication can be carried out simultaneously in both directions.
 It is the fastest mode of communication between devices.

Disadvantages of Half-duplex transmission mode:

 The capacity of the communication channel is divided into two parts. Also, no dedicated path
exists for data transfer.
 It has improper channel bandwidth utilization as there exist two separate paths for two
communicating devices.

Comparison Chart
Basis for Comparison Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex
Direction of Two-directional, one at Two-directional,
Unidirectional
Communication a time simultaneously
 Both devices can Both devices can
Only one device can
Send / Receive transmit the signal, but transmit the signal at the
transmit the signal
one at a time same time
Worst performing mode Best performing mode
Performance Better than Simplex
of transmission of transmission
Example Television, Keyboard Walkie-talkie Telephone
Transmission Media
Transmission media is a physical communication channel (path) that carries the information from the
sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals. For instance, in a copper
cable network the bits in the form of electrical signals whereas in a fiber network, the bits are available in
the form of light pulses.

Classification of Transmission Media

Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:

1. Guided or Bounded or Wired media

In guided media, transmitted data travels through cabling system that has a fixed path. For example,
copper wires, fibre optic wires, etc. Guided media are made up of a conductor (usually copper) wrapped
in a jacket made of nonconductive material.
The main features of guided media mainly include:
 They offer high speeds
 Are more secure than unguided media
 Have low-cost
 Are used in small distances.

Types of Guided Media

There are three major types of Guided Media:

1.1 Twisted Pair Cable

It consists of two separately insulated conductor copper wires twisted along each other. Generally, several
such pairs are bundled together in a protective cover. They are most commonly used in telephone lines.
However, if two or more wires are lying together, they can interfere with each other’s signals. To reduce
this electromagnetic interference, pair of copper wires are twisted together in helical shape. Such twisted
copper wires are called twisted pair.

Advantages of twisted pair cable

Twisted pair cable are the oldest and most popular cables all over the world. This is due to the many
advantages that they offer:
 Can be used for both analog and digital transmissions
 Least expensive for short distances
 Entire network does not go down if a part of network is damaged
 Can be easily maintained

Disadvantages of twisted pair cable

With its many advantages, twisted pair cables offer some disadvantages too:
 Signal cannot travel long distances without repeaters
 High error rate for distances greater than 100m
 Very thin and hence breaks easily
 Not suitable for broadband connections

This is the most frequently used type of transmission media and it is available in two types:

1.1.1 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

The wires that are not shielded but simply bundled together in a protective cover are called unshielded
twisted pair (UTP) cables. These cables can have maximum length of 100 metres. This type of cable has
the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical shield for this purpose. It is used for
telephonic applications.
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Characteristics of UTP
 Least expensive
 Easy to install
 High-speed capacity
 Susceptible to external interference
 Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
 Short distance transmission due to attenuation

1.1.2 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate
Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Characteristics of STP
 Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
 Eliminates crosstalk
 Comparatively faster
 Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
 More expensive

1.2 Coaxial Cable

The name of the cable is coaxial (sometimes coax) as it contains two conductors parallel to each other. It
has an outer plastic covering containing two parallel conductors each having a separate insulated
protection cover. The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode (transmitting a
single signal at high speed) and Broadband mode (transmitting multiple signals simultaneously). Cable
TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

Coaxial Cable

Characteristics of Coaxial Cable

 High Bandwidth
 Better noise Immunity
 Easy to install and expand
 Inexpensive

1.3 Optical Fiber Cable

A fiber optic cable is a flexible filament of a very clear glass capable of carrying information in the form
of light. It consists of a glass surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding to
avoid light leakage to the surroundings, Kevlar a high-strength lightweight protective material and a
protective outer jacket.

Fiber optic cables are used to transfer large volumes of digital data signals in the form of light up to
distances of hundreds of miles with higher throughput rates than other communication cables.

Characteristics of Optical Fiber Cable

 Increased capacity and bandwidth
  Lightweight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
2. Unguided or Unbounded or Wireless media
An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic signals without using any physical medium i.e.
no physical medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals. Therefore, it is also
known as wireless transmission.

In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic signals can flow easily. Signals
are normally broadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of
receiving them.

2.1 Radiowaves Transmission media

Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3KHz and 1GHz are normally called radiowaves.
Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless phones use Radiowaves for
transmission. Radiowaves are omnidirectional (propagated in all directions). When an antenna transmits
radiowaves, they are propagated in all directions. This means that the sending and receiving antennas do
not have to be aligned i.e., the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving
antenna.

A sending antenna send waves that can be received by any receiving antenna. The radio waves
transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by another antenna that may send signal using
the same frequency or band. Radiowaves, particularly with those of low and medium frequencies can
penetrate walls. Radiowaves examples are FM radio and Television.
Radiowaves Transmission media are further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial Transmission and (ii) Satellite
Transmission.

Characteristics of Radiowaves Transmission media

 Radiowaves are omnidirectional so they are useful for multicasting in which one sender but many
receivers.
 Radiowaves are easy to generate and penetrate walls (obstacles). By this, an AM/FM radio can
receive signals inside a building.
 The signal is broadcasted through free space (air).
 Their electromagnetic spectrum ranges from 3KHz to 1GHz
 Radiowaves cover a large area.

2.2 Microwaves Transmission media

Electromagnetic waves from frequencies between 1GHz and 300GHz are called microwaves.
Microwaves are unidirectional (propagated in one direction). Because Microwaves travels in straight
lines, the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly aligned with each other.

The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of the antenna. Cellular phones,
satellite networks, and wireless LANs are using Micro Waves.
Characteristics of Microwaves Transmission media
 Microwaves are unidirectional (sending and receiving antennas need to be properly aligned).
 The signal is unicasted through free space (air).
 At low frequency microwaves can penetrate walls and very high-frequency cannot penetrate
walls.
 Their electromagnetic spectrum ranges from 1GHz to 300GHz
 It is inexpensive for short distance and expensive for long distance as it requires a higher tower
for a longer distance.
 It is affected by environmental conditions and antenna size.
2.3 Infrared Transmission media
Electromagnetic waves from frequencies between 300GHz and 400THz are called Infrared which can be
used for very short distance communication purposes such as TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard,
printer, data transfer between two cell phones, data transfer between a computer and cell phone resides in
the same closed area etc. Infrared travels in a straight line hence it is directional by nature. Because of
high frequency range, Infrared cannot penetrate walls (obstacles).

Characteristics of Infrared Transmission media

 Infrared are unidirectional (sending and receiving antennas need to be properly aligned).
 The signal is unicasted through free space (air).
 Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls (obstacles). Therefore, the infrared communication in
one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
 Their electromagnetic spectrum ranges from 300GHz to 400THz
 Infrared supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate is very high.
 An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.
 Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays will interfere with
the infrared waves.

Comparison Chart
Basis for
Radiowave Microwave Infrared
Comparison
Omnidirectional in
1 Direction Unidirectional in nature Unidirectional in nature
nature
At low frequency, can
At low frequency, penetrate through walls They cannot penetrate
2 Penetration can penetrate through (obstacles), At high through walls
walls (obstacles) frequency cannot (obstacles)
penetrate
Frequency range: Frequency range: 1GHz Frequency range:
3 Frequency range
3KHz to 1GHz to 300GHz 300GHz to 400THz
4 Security Offers poor security Offers medium security Offers high security
Used in long distance Used in long distance Used in very short
5 Communication
communication communication distance communication
6 Attenuation Attenuation is high Attenuation is variable Attenuation is low
Setup and usage cost Setup and usage cost is
7 Usage Cost Usage cost is very less
is moderate high

Network Transmission (Traffic) Types

In computer networks, when we have to send any message to other nodes (computers), we first think of
the audience, who will be receiving this message. The message is intended either for a single node (one to
one), or a group of nodes (one to many), or to all nodes (one to all) as per the needs. Due to this, we use
various network traffic or transmission types. These types are classified according to the receiver.
The three network transmission types are as follows:

i. Unicasting (One to One)

 Unicasting is the most commonly used data transmission type on the internet. In Unicasting, the
data traffic flows from a single source node (sender) to a single destination node (receiver) on the
network.

It is a 'one-to-one' type of data transmission between the sender and receiver. In other words, we
can say that a single station is sending information to another station on the network. The below-
mentioned diagram best describes unicasting:

The packets sent by PC1 are received by PC6 only through switch, all other PCs in the network
are left. The majority of data traffic on the internet works via the unicast principle. For example,
every time a website is visited by the user, there is a direct connection between the client and
server.

ii. Multicasting (One to Many)

Multicast is a kind of data transmission type in which a single source (sender) communicates a
message to a group of devices (receivers). It is a kind of one-to-multiple transmission.
 All the devices which are interested in receiving the messages will have to first join the multicast
group. Multicasting is described in the below-mentioned diagram:

The packets sent by PC1 are received by PC6, PC7, PC8, PC9, PC10 only through switch,
remaining PCs in the network are left.

iii. Broadcasting
Broadcasting is a transmission type in which the data traffic flows from a single source (sender)
to all the devices (receivers) on the network simultaneously i.e., it sends the information to every
device at once.
 The same data is received by everyone, making it efficient for wide-spreading the message with
all nodes. The below-mentioned diagram best describes broadcasting.

The packets sent by PC1 are received by all PCs over the network through switch.

Computer Network Architecture

Computer Network Architecture refers to how computers are organized in a system and how tasks are
allocated between these computers. The architecture defines how computers must communicate with each
other to obtain maximum benefits from a computer network, such as better response time, security,
scalability, transfer data rate, connectivity etc.
There are two most popular computer network architectures used:
1. Peer to Peer Network (P2P)
2. Client-server Network

1. Peer to Peer Network (P2P)

In peer-to-peer architecture all the computers in a computer network are connected with every computer
in the network. Every computer in the network uses the same resources as other computers. In a peer-to-
peer network, each computer acts as its client and server i.e., it can perform both requests and responses.
A Peer-To-Peer network has no central computer that acts as dedicated server, but all computers act as a
server for the data stored in them.
A peer-to-peer network allows computer hardware and software to communicate without the need for a
server. Unlike client-server architecture, there is no central server for processing requests in a P2P
architecture. The peers directly interact with one another without the requirement of a central server. Its
network designed primarily for the small local environments usually up to 10 computers. Peer-to-peer is
mostly used for file sharing.

Here is how file sharing works:

One computer user makes some of the files on the hard disk drive available for sharing. Information on
these files is made available to the rest of the users so they can decide if they want to download one or
more of these files. Once a second user has downloaded a file, this can also be made available to the rest
of the users. So now there are two possible sources from which to download the same file. This is how
files can be spread over thousands of users, one download at time.

Advantages of a Peer-to-Peer Architecture

1. Less costly as there is no central server that has to take the backup.
2. In case of a computer failure all other computers in the network are not affected and they will
continue to work as same as before the failure.
3. Installation of peer-to-peer architecture is quite easy as each computer manages itself.

Disadvantages of a Peer-to-Peer Architecture

1. Each computer has to take the backup rather than a central computer and the security measures
are to be taken by all the computers separately.
2. Scalability is an issue in a Peer-to-Peer Architecture as connecting each computer to every
computer is a headache on a very large network.

2. Client-server Network
In a Client-Server Network, one central computer act as a hub that is known as a server and all other
computers are known as a client. A Client-Server network has a dedicated service providers. All shared
data is stored in the server which is shared with the client computers when the client computers make a
request. The server is responsible for managing all data, such as files, directories, printers, etc.
Sometimes a server is described in terms of the specific service it provides such as e-mail server, print
server or storage server. Some servers however can provide all these services.

Servers
Servers are typically computers with more processing speed, memory and hard disk space than a
regular desktop computer. The network servers run their own operating system that manages the
various network tasks as well as services that run on the network. Depending on the need for network
storage and services, a single network may only use one or a large number of servers.

Clients
Clients are hardware devices (computers) which provide end users with access to data and services
on the server.

Difference Between Peer-to-Peer network and Client-Server network

Sn Peer to Peer network Client-Server network
Used in small networks with up to 10 Usually used on both small and large
1
computers networks
2 Each computer is used to store its own data A centralized server is used to store data
3 Peer-To-Peer network is cheaper Client-Server network is more expensive
Peer-To-Peer network is less stable and A client-server network is more stable and
4
secure secure
A powerful computer that acts as a server is
5 Peer to Peer doesn’t need a server
used

Advantages of Client-Server Network

1. Security in a client-server network is better because a server manages shared resources.
 2. The client-server network improves the overall performance of the system with the help of a
dedicated server.
3. Data backup is secure, as every computer does not need to manage the backup.

Disadvantages of Client-server Network

1. The entire network is down in case of server failure.
2. Client-server Network is difficult to set up and maintain.
3. The client-server network is costly, as it requires a large memory server.

Network Devices
Network devices or network hardware are hardware devices that are used to connect computers, printers,
fax machines and other electronic devices to a network. These devices transfer data in a fast, secure and
correct way over same or different networks.

Types of Network Devices

There are different types of network devices used in a computer network. Some network devices are
installed on the device, like NIC card or RJ45 connector, whereas some are part of the network, like
router, switch, hub etc. Here is the list of common networking devices:

1. RJ45 Connector
RJ45 is the acronym for Registered Jack 45. RJ45 connector is an 8-pin jack used by devices to
physically connect to Ethernet based local area networks (LANs). The cable used for Ethernet LANs are
twisted pair cables and have RJ45 connector pins at both ends. These pins go into the corresponding
socket on devices and connect the device to the network.
 2. Ethernet Card
Ethernet card, also known as Network Interface Card (NIC), is a network hardware device used by
computers to connect to Ethernet LAN in order to communicate with other devices on the LAN. The
earliest Ethernet cards were external to the system and needed to be installed manually. In modern
computer systems, it is an internal hardware component. The NIC has RJ45 socket where network cable
is physically plugged in.

3. Hub
Hub is a centralized device that connects multiple devices together through a twisted pair or fiber optic
cables in a single ethernet LAN network. The transferring of data in a computer network can be done in
the form of packets. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches. Hubs do not filter
data; they just send data packets to all connected devices.
When Hub receives the data signals from a connected device on any of its port, except that port, it
forwards those signals to all other connected devices from the remaining ports. Hubs do not have the
intelligence to find out best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
Advantages of Hubs
 It can extend total distance of the network.
 It does not affect performance of the network
 It is cheaper
 It can connect different media types

Disadvantages of Hubs
 Hubs cannot filter information i.e. it passes packets to all the connected devices.
 It does not have mechanisms such as collision detection and retransmission of packets.
 It does not operate in full duplex mode
 It does not have mechanism to reduce the network traffic.

4. Bridge
A bridge is a network device that connects two or more local area networks (LANs) or two segments of
the same LAN that use the same protocol. The process of gathering networks is called Network
Bridging. Bridges connects two networks that use the same protocol to communicate e.g., Ethernet to
Ethernet, FDDI to FDDI, Token Ring to Token Ring.
Basic functions of the Bridge are the following:
 Bridges connects two or more different LANs that has a similar protocol and provides
communication between the devices (nodes) in them.
 By joining multiple LANs, bridges help in multiplying the network capacity of a single LAN.
 Bridges also connect virtual LANs (VLANs) to make a larger VLAN.
 A wireless bridge is used to connect wireless networks or networks having a wireless segment.

5. Switch
Switch is a network device that connects other devices to Ethernet networks through twisted pair or fiber
optic cables. It uses packet switching technique to receive, store and forward data packets on the
network. The switch maintains a list of network addresses of all the devices connected to it. A switch
does what a hub does, but more efficiently. By paying attention to the traffic that comes across it, it learns
which computers are connected to which port.
On receiving a packet, it checks the destination address and transmits the packet to the correct port.
Before forwarding, the packets are checked for collision and other network errors. After that, the data is
transmitted in full duplex mode.

Data transmission speed in switches can be double that of other network devices like hubs used for
networking. This is because switch shares its maximum speed with all the devices connected to it. This
helps in maintaining network speed even during high traffic.

6. Router
A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet connection. It is used to
receive, analyze and forward the incoming packets to another network based on the information available
in the routing table.

Router can transmit data from one LAN to another if both networks support the same set of protocols. So,
a router is typically connected to at least two LANs and the Internet Service Provider (ISP). It determines
the best path from the available paths for the transmission of the packet.

Routers are also used to divide internal networks into two or more subnetworks and are connected
internally to other routers creating zones that operate independently.
Difference Between Hub, Switch and Router
Sn Hub Switch Router
Router is a routing device
1 Hub is a broadcast device Switch is multicast device i.e. creates route for
transmitting data packets
Router is used to connect
Hub is use to connect device in Switch is used to connect
2 two or more different
the same network devices in the same network
network.
Hub sends data in the form of Switch sends data in the form of Router sends data in the
3
binary bits frames form packets
4 Hub only works in half duplex Switch works in full duplex Router works in full duplex
Only one device can send data Multiple devices can send data Multiple devices can send
5
at a time at the same time data at the same time
Hub does not store any IP
6 Switch store IP Address Router stores IP address
address

Assignment
7. Gateway
8. Modem
9. Repeater
10. Access Point

Network Topologies
The term Network Topology defines the geographic physical or logical arrangement of computer
networking devices. The physical arrangement describes the physical layout of a network while the
logical arrangement describes how the data flows in that network. Both, physical and logical
arrangements are also known as the physical topology and the logical topology.

Physical Topology + Logical Topology = Network Topology

Topology
The term Topology refers to the way in which the various nodes or computers of a network are linked
together.

Topology describes the actual layout of the computer network hardware. Two or more devices connect to
a link; two or more links form a topology.

Factors Considered for Selecting a Topology

The following factors are considered while selecting a topology:
1. Cost − Installation cost is a very important factor in overall cost of setting up an infrastructure.
So cable lengths, distance between nodes, location of servers, etc. have to be considered when
designing a network.
2. Flexibility − Topology of a network should be flexible enough to allow reconfiguration of office
set up, addition of new nodes and relocation of existing nodes.
3. Reliability − Network should be designed in such a way that it has minimum down time. Failure
of one node or a segment of cabling should not render the whole network useless.
4. Scalability − Network topology should be scalable (accessible), i.e. it can accommodate load of
new devices and nodes without perceptible drop in performance.
5. Ease of installation − Network should be easy to install in terms of hardware, software and
technical personnel requirements.
6. Ease of maintenance − Troubleshooting and maintenance of network should be easy.

Types of Network Topology

There are six types of topology in computer networks:

a) Bus topology
The physical Bus Network Topology is the simplest and most widely used of the network designs. It
consists of one continuous length of cable (trunk) known as the backbone cable that is shared by all
the nodes in the network and both ends of the backbone cable are terminated through the terminating
resistor known as terminators at each end that absorbs the signal when it reaches the end of line.
Without a terminator the electrical signal would reach the end of copper wire and bounce back
causing errors on the network. To connect a computer to the backbone cable, a drop cable is used.
Bus networks usually use coaxial cables that connect to each of the computers through T-shaped
connectors. A terminator specific to the type of cable used placed on each end node of the network.
Since the bus network is nothing more than a set of cables, connectors, and terminators, the signal is
not amplified when traveling through the wiring.

Advantages of Bus Topology

 It is relatively easy to install and is used for small networks.
 Failure of one node does not affect the network functioning.
 Cost is less as only one main cable is required and least amount of cable is required to
connect computers.
 Expansion is easier. New node can be easily added by using a connector.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

 If the main central line fails, the entire network collapses.
 They are also difficult to troubleshoot because everything happens on a single media
segment.
 Sharing a single communication channel results in slower access time.
 In this topology, higher network traffic slows down the bus speed. Only one device transmits
at a time, other devices wait for their turn.

b) Star topology
In local area networks with a star topology, each network node is connected to a central hub, router or
switch with a point-to-point connection. So, it can be said that every node is indirectly connected to
every other node with the help of the hub, router or switch. In Star topology every node (computer
workstation or any other peripheral) is connected to a central node called hub, router or switch.
Each node in the network uses its own separate twisted pair cable to connect to the central hub, router
or switch. The network does not necessarily have to resemble a star to be classified as a star network,
but all of the nodes on the network must be connected to one central device.

Advantages of Star Topology

 Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
 Hub can be upgraded easily.
 Easy to troubleshoot.
 Easy to setup and modify.
 Failure of one node does not affect the network

Disadvantages of Star Topology

 Installation cost is high.
 Failure of the hub brings down the whole network because all the nodes depend on the hub.
 Performance depends on the hub's capacity
 A damaged cable or lack of proper termination may bring the network down.

c) Ring topology
In ring topology, each host machine (node) connects to exactly two other machines (nodes), creating
a circular network structure. When one host tries to communicate or send message to a host which is
not adjacent to it, the data travels through all intermediate hosts. To connect one more host in the
existing structure, the administrator may need only one more extra cable. The data flows in one
direction, i.e., in a clockwise direction.
Each device incorporates a receiver for the incoming signal and a transmitter to send the data on to
the next device in the ring. When a device sends data, it must travel through each device on the ring
until it reaches its destination. Every node is a critical link. In a ring topology, there is no server
computer present; all nodes work as a server and repeat the signal. The disadvantage of this topology
is that if one node stops working, the entire network is affected or stops working.

Advantages of Ring Topology

 It is relatively easy to troubleshoot.
 Easy to install and expand
 Offers equal access to all the computers of the networks
 Since data flows only in one direction, there is no collision in the network.
 Very high transmission speeds possible

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 Failure of single node brings down the whole network
 Troubleshooting is difficult as many nodes may have to be inspected before faulty one is
identified
 Difficult to remove one or more nodes while keeping the rest of the network intact
 In the ring topology signals are circulating at all times which develops unwanted power
consumption.

d) Mesh topology
The mesh topology has a unique network design in which each node on the network connects to every
other. It develops a point-to-point connection between all the devices of the network. It offers a high
level of redundancy, so even if one network cable fails, still data has an alternative path to reach its
destination.
In this topology, multiple paths exist between end devices. Based on paths, a mesh topology can be
divided into two types; Full Mesh Topology and Partial Mesh Topology.

If each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other in the network, it is a Full mesh
topology. If some of the nodes or devices are connected in the same fashion as mesh topology but
some nodes or devices are only connected to two or three devices in the network, it is a Partial mesh
topology.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

 The network can be expanded without disrupting current users.
 Complicated implementation.
 No traffic problem as nodes has dedicated links.
 It has multiple links, so if any single route is blocked, then other routes should be used for
data communication.
 It reduces the chances of network failure by connecting all the systems to a central node.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
  A mesh topology is robust.
 Installation is complex because every node is connected to every node.
 Dedicated links helps to eliminate the traffic problem.
 It is expensive to implement due to the use of more cables.
 It requires a large space to run the cables.

e) Tree topology
Tree topologies has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. So, it is
also known as hierarchical topology. Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and
star topology, so it is known as a Star Bus topology. Tree topology is the most common form of
network topology in use presently.

Tree topology has a group of star and bus networks connected to a linear bus backbone cable. The
top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are the descendants of
the root node. There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it
forms a parent-child hierarchy.

Advantages of Tree Topology

 The failure in one station does not affect the entire network.
 Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
 The whole network is divided into segments known as star networks which can be easily
managed and maintained.
 Error detection and error correction are easily done.
 Tree topology is mainly used for transmission of signals over long distances without being
attenuated.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

 Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
 If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to troubleshoot the problem.
 A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable will damage
the overall network.
 If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
f) Hybrid topology
 Hybrid topology is a mix of two or more topologies. When two or more different topologies are
combined together is termed as Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected with each
other will not result in hybrid topology. For example, there are three networks; one is built from the
ring topology another from the tree topology and another is built from the bus topology. If we
connect both networks to build a single large network, the topology of the new network will be
known as the hybrid topology.

In modern network implementations, the hybrid topology is mostly used to mix the wired network
with the wireless network.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

 If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the rest of the
network.
 Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without affecting the
functionality of the existing network.
 Hybrid topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the requirements of the
organization.
 Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the strength of the
network is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

 It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling, network
devices, etc.

Computer Network Types

There are various types of computer networks available. We can categorize them according to their size
as well as their purpose. The size of a network should be expressed by the geographic area and number of
computers, which are a part of their networks. It includes devices housed in a single room to millions of
devices spread across the world. Some of the most popular network types are:
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Wide Area Network (WAN)
3. Personal Area Network (PAN)
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

Local Area Network is a privately owned group of computers and peripheral devices connected to each
other in a small area such as school, laboratory, home, and office building. Local Area Network is a
widely useful network for sharing resources like files, printers, games, and other applications. LAN can
be a simple network like connecting two computers to share files and network among each other while it
can also be as complex as interconnecting an entire building.

LANs are used widely as it is easy to design and to troubleshoot. We can use different types of topology
through LAN. LANs are not limited to wire connection, can also work on a wireless connection. The
various devices in LAN are connected to central devices called Hub or Switch using a cable or
wirelessly.
Advantages of LAN
 Computer resources like hard-disks, software and printers can be shared easily. This significantly
reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
 Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server computer.
 Transfer of data and messages over networked computers is easy.
 Easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more secure.
 Without internet access, it is possible to connect all the workstations in a building with each
other locally.

Disadvantages of LAN
 LAN saves cost because of shared computer resources, but the initial cost of installing Local
Area Networks is quite high.
 The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not offer good
privacy.
 Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN admin is not able to
secure centralized data repository.
 Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues related to
software setup and hardware failures

2. Wide Area Network (WAN)

Wide Area Networks are networks that span over wide geographical locations which could be multiple
buildings or even multiple cities or countries. Wide Area Networks is suitable for providing Internet
access to Local Area Networks or some other kinds of networks. Wide area network communications
often require networking devices such as routers and modems for effective data communication.

Wide Area Networks are usually provided by ISPs which are interconnected to offer communication to
wider areas. A WAN link is usually referring to a network interface that provides connection of the
smaller network towards the bigger WAN network.

Advantages of WAN
 Covers a large geographical area so long distance business can connect on the one network.
 Shares software and resources with connecting workstations.
 Messages can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the network.
 Everyone on the network can use the same data. This avoids problems where some users may
have older information than others.
Disadvantages of WAN
 Need a good firewall to restrict outsiders from entering and disrupting the network.
 Setting up a network can be an expensive, slow and complicated. The bigger the network the
more expensive it is.
 Maintaining a network is a full-time job which requires network supervisors and technicians to
be employed.
 Security is a real issue when many different people have the ability to use information from other
computers. Protection against hackers and viruses adds more complexity and expense.

3. Personal Area Network (PAN)

Personal Area Network is a computer network formed around a person. Thomas Zimmerman was the
first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area Network.

A Personal Area Network handles data transmission within devices such as tablets, personal digital
assistants, smartphones, and computers. Single users in most cases basically use this type of network.
People make use of these types of networks commonly in situations where they need to connect wearable
or mobile devices. PANs can be wired, such as USB or FireWire or they can be wireless such as infrared
and Bluetooth.

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

 Wired Personal Area Network
 Wireless Personal Area Network

 Wireless Personal Area Network

Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by using wireless technologies such as WiFi,
Bluetooth. It is a low range network.

 Wired Personal Area Network

Wired Personal Area Network are created using wires such as the USB.
The range of a PAN typically is a few meters. Examples of wireless PAN, or WPAN, devices include
cell phone headsets, wireless keyboards, wireless mice, printers, barcode scanners and game consoles.

Advantages of PAN
 PAN networks are relatively secure and safe
 It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
 They are restricted to a small area

Disadvantages of PAN
 It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same radio bands.
 Distance limits.

4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A Metropolitan Area Network is a network consisting of a computer network across an entire city, college
campus, or a small region. This type of network is large than a LAN, which is mostly limited to a single
building or site. Depending upon the type of configuration, this type of network allows us to cover an area
from several miles to tens of miles.
MANs are usually owned by large organizations to interconnect its various branches across a city. MAN
comprises combination of different hardware and transmission media. It can be single network such as a
cable TV network or it is a means of connecting a number of LANs into a larger network so that
resources can be shared LAN to LAN as well as device to device.

Advantages of MAN
 MANs are extremely efficient and provide fast communication via high-speed carriers, such as
fibre optic cables.
 MANs provides a good back bone for large network and provides greater access to WANs.
 A MAN usually encompasses several blocks of a city or an entire city.

Disadvantages of MAN
 More cable required for a MAN connection from one place to another.
 It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers.