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Grammar_fm_i-viii.qxd 11/12/07 4:09 PM Page i

GRAMMAR
SUCCESS
IN 20 MINUTES
A DAY
Grammar_fm_i-viii.qxd 11/12/07 4:09 PM Page ii
Grammar_fm_i-viii.qxd 11/12/07 4:09 PM Page iii

GRAMMAR
SUCCESS
IN 20 MINUTES
A DAY

NEW YORK
Grammar_fm_i-viii.qxd 11/12/07 4:09 PM Page iv

Copyright © 2008 LearningExpress, LLC.

All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions.

Published in the United States by LearningExpress, LLC, New York.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Grammar success : in 20 minutes a day.
p. cm.
ISBN: 978-1-57685-600-0
1. English language—Grammar—Problems, exercises, etc. I. LearningExpress (Organization)

PE1112.G676 2008

428.2—dc22

2007038881

Printed in the United States of America

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN: 978-1-57685-600-0

For information on LearningExpress, other LearningExpress products, or bulk sales, please write to us at:
LearningExpress
2 Rector Street
26th Floor
New York, NY 10006

Or visit us at:
www.learnatest.com
Grammar_fm_i-viii.qxd 11/12/07 4:09 PM Page v

Contents

INTRODUCTION vii

PRETEST 1

NOUNS and PRONOUNS

LESSON 1 Kinds of Nouns 13
Common, proper, concrete, abstract, collective, and compound nouns
LESSON 2 Noun Usage 19
Plural and possessive nouns
LESSON 3 Pronouns 27
Personal, reflexive, demonstrative, relative, interrogative, and
indefinite pronouns
VERBS
LESSON 4 Verb Types 35
Action, linking, and helping verbs
LESSON 5 Regular and Irregular Verbs 39
Common regular and irregular verbs, problem, and tricky verbs
LESSON 6 Verb Forms and Tenses 49
Present and past, present and past participle, and other verb forms;
basic tense review
MODIFIERS
LESSON 7 Adjectives 57
Articles, pronouns as adjectives, and demonstrative and comparative adjectives

v
Grammar_fm_i-viii.qxd 11/12/07 4:09 PM Page vi

– CONTENTS –

LESSON 8 Adverbs 63
Common adverbs, comparative adverbs, and how to distinguish adverbs
from adjectives
LESSON 9 Prepositions 69
Common prepositions and how to distinguish prepositions from adverbs

LESSON 10 Misplaced Modifiers and Tricky Words 73

Kinds of modifiers, homonyms, and homographs

SENTENCE STRUCTURE

LESSON 11 Sentence Basics 83

Subjects, predicates, complements, and direct and indirect objects
LESSON 12 Agreement 89
Subject-verb and pronoun-antecedent agreement

LESSON 13 Phrases 95
Prepositional, adjective, adverb, verbal, participial, infinitive, gerund, and
appositive phrases
LESSON 14 Clauses 99
Independent, subordinate, noun, adjective, and adverb clauses

LESSON 15 Conjunctions 105

Coordinating, corrective, and subordinating conjunctions

LESSON 16 Combining Sentences 111

Kinds of sentences, including compound, complex, and compound-complex,
that enliven writing
PUNCTUATION

LESSON 17 End Punctuation 119

Periods, question marks, and exclamation points

LESSON 18 Internal Punctuation I 123

Commas, colons, and semicolons

LESSON 19 Internal Punctuation II 131

Apostrophes, hyphens, and dashes

LESSON 20 Internal Punctuation III 137

Quotation marks, parentheses, brackets, italics and underlining,
and parentheses
POSTTEST 145

vi
Grammar_fm_i-viii.qxd 11/12/07 4:09 PM Page vii

Introduction

D o your grammar skills need some brushing up? Perhaps you have an exam on your horizon, or you
want to hone your grammar skills to help improve your writing or speech. Whatever the case may
be, this quick reference guide will help put you well on your way toward accomplishing your gram-
mar goals—no matter how big or small.
Because English is so complex, the rules and guidelines—called grammar and usage—are necessary to help
us better understand its many idiosyncrasies. While language is forever changing to meet our needs, the inner work-
ings of a sentence are, for the most part, as constant as the stars, and figuring out these dynamics is like putting
a puzzle together (or taking it apart, if you will). Understanding the inner workings of a sentence will ultimately
help you with your speech and writing—the essence of communication and language. And the benefits of your
efforts will always far outweigh the loss of about 20 or so minutes of your day.
Before you begin to progress through the book, take the time to determine what you know and what you
might need to focus more on by taking the pretest. You might be surprised just how much you remember!

vii
Grammar_fm_i-viii.qxd 11/12/07 4:09 PM Page viii
Grammar_Pre_001-010.qxd 11/12/07 4:10 PM Page 1

Pretest

B efore you start your study of grammar skills, you may want to get an idea of how much you already
know and how much you need to learn. If that’s the case, take the pretest that follows.
The pretest consists of 50 multiple-choice questions covering all the lessons in this book.
Naturally, 50 questions can’t cover every single concept or rule you will learn by working through these pages. So
even if you answer all of the questions on the pretest correctly, it’s almost guaranteed that you will find a few ideas
or rules in this book that you didn’t already know. On the other hand, if you get a lot of the answers wrong on
this pretest, don’t despair. This book will show you how to improve your grammar and writing, step by step.
So use this pretest for a general idea of how much of what’s in this book you already know. If you get a high
score, you may be able to spend less time with this book than you originally planned. If you get a low score, you
may find that you will need more than 20 minutes a day to get through each chapter and learn all the grammar
and mechanics concepts you need.
Record the answers in this book. If the book doesn’t belong to you, write the numbers 1–50 on a piece of
paper and write your answers there. Take as much time as you need to complete this short test. When you finish,
check your answers against the answer section that follows. Each answer tells you which lesson of this book teaches
you about the grammatical rule in that question.

1
Grammar_Pre_001-010.qxd 11/12/07 4:10 PM Page 2

– PRETEST –

þ Pretest 7. Circle the antecedents/pronouns that properly

agree in gender.
1. Circle the common nouns. John/he bird/she
soda love puppy fish/his Mrs. Brown/she
Jamaica thoughtlessness Logan Road student/it Mr. Cho/her
troubling clapping zip
friendly sorrow mend 8. Circle the antecedents/pronouns that agree in
number.
2. Circle the abstract nouns. kids/him everybody/they
peace telephone livelihood Kathy and I/it fish/they
deceit cheerfulness jungle group/it fish/it
NASA smile rubber band each/he or she woman/we
test eyelash patience both/they

3. Circle the proper nouns. 9. Circle the interrogative pronouns.

Texas Work Clock who when whose
Puzzle Nancy Mr. Klondike which whom whomever
Licorice Mexico City Basketball how where what
IBM Spiderman Mt. Everest
10. Circle the subjective case pronouns.
4. Circle the nouns that are pluralized correctly. I went to his house and saw him.
stockings partys deer She brought me an apple and I thanked her.
knots tooths cacti They went to Pat’s and called me.
chimnies mice radioes
dresses guies suitcases 11. Circle the objective case pronouns.
He threw it toward me.
5. Circle the hyphenated nouns that are spelled Pass me the salt.
correctly. We made them sandwiches.
sister-in-laws kilowatt-hours
runner-ups forget-me-nots 12. Circle the reflexive case pronouns and underline
follow-ups sticks-in-the-mud the possessive case pronouns.
She helped herself to the apple pie her mom
6. Circle the nouns that have been correctly made made this afternoon.
possessive. Drew’s headache was so bad he couldn’t bring
child’s her’s Jody’s himself to finish paying his bills.
Congress’ tooth’s cactus’s We ourselves are responsible for our own
puppies’ moms’ Jason’s happiness.
women’s his’ dress’s

2
Grammar_Pre_001-010.qxd 11/12/07 4:10 PM Page 3

– PRETEST –

13. Circle the demonstrative pronouns and under- 19. Circle the correct tricky verb in each sentence.
line the relative pronouns. Sandy carefully (hanged, hung) her new cur-
That is the most annoying sound that I have tains on the window.
ever heard. Peter tried to (accept, except) his explanation,
Those are the boxes of blankets that Mom but it was difficult.
plans to take to the SPCA. You (can, may) take another glass of lemonade
Is this the channel that you were watching? if you like.

20. Identify the tense of the verbs that follow as:

14. Circle the action verbs.
present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect,
wash be hold cook
future perfect, present progressive, past progres-
would buy pray gnaw
sive, or future progressive.
put write loan marry
will drive am driving
had driven drove
15. Circle the linking verbs.
drive has driven
appear took become sat
drives will have driven
feel prove call grow
study look is lose 21. Circle the common adjectives in the following
sentences.
16. Circle the regular verbs and underline the irregu- Dan went to the community library to
lar verbs. research the American Revolution.
forgive grow buy walk The beach is the perfect place to relax and read
wash hide sew pet a good book.
sit hear play throw Ben was sad that his new radio had broken.

22. Place the correct indefinite article in front of

17. Circle the correct form of lay/lie in each sentence.
each noun.
Joy found her hairbrush (laying, lying) in the
___ house ___ elephant
suitcase.
___ unicorn ___ yellow flower
The swing has (lain, laid) broken behind the
___ one-way street ___ honor
shed for two years.
___ underdog ___ loafer
The boy had (laid, lain) awake before getting
___ unopened gift ___ orange
up to play.
___ hour ___ occasion
___ wrist ___ admirer
18. Circle the correct form of sit/set in each sentence.
___ upper level
The class (set, sat) patiently as the teacher
took attendance. 23. Change the following proper nouns into proper
Claudia’s aunt (sits, sets) the table while Gert adjectives.
cooks dinner. Italy Bahama Africa
(Setting, Sitting) on the porch on a cool sum- Texas France Hawaii
mer night is the best. America Virginia Denmark
California Belgium China
Japan Inca England

3
Grammar_Pre_001-010.qxd 11/12/07 4:10 PM Page 4

– PRETEST –

24. Determine whether the boldfaced word in each 28. Determine whether the boldfaced word in the
sentence is a possessive pronoun or a possessive sentence is an adjective or an adverb.
adjective. The accounting department ran at a fast but
His sneakers were worn, so he bought new friendly pace.
ones. Cory worked hard on improving his tennis
Marissa crossed her fingers and hoped the swing for the tournament.
winning ticket would be hers. Nora was sent straight to her room for dis-
My uncle showed me an autographed Babe obeying her parents.
Ruth baseball card and said it would one
day be mine. 29. Identify the prepositional phrases in the follow-
ing sentences.
25. Determine whether the boldfaced word in each Ferdinand Magellan was the first explorer to
sentence is a demonstrative pronoun or a sail around the world.
demonstrative adjective. Without a doubt, regular exercise is necessary
This is really over-the-top! for good health.
Take this money and buy yourself a treat. The little monkey ran around Mom’s living
Watch these carefully while they boil. room and climbed up the drapes.

26. Determine which form of comparative or superla- 30. Determine whether the boldfaced word is a
tive adjective best completes each sentence. preposition or an adverb.
Terry’s (most high, highest) jump in the high Holly was beside herself with fear when the
jump was four feet, six inches. child darted into the street.
Sean’s bank account was (larger, more large) If we can reach Hightstown by five, we may be
than mine. able to see the president’s motorcade go by.
Barbara was (best, better) at chess than her Use caution when you walk across busy
roommate Natalie. streets.

27. Circle the correct form of the comparative and 31. Rewrite each sentence so that the misplaced
superlative adverbs in the following sentences. modifiers are properly placed.
Joel was (less, least) active during the winter The woman was walking her dog with hair
than during the summer. curlers.
The store brand’s price was the (low, lower, Walking along the shore the sand burned my
lowest) of the three brands. feet.
This was the (long, longer, longest) day of the Tina bought a guinea pig for her brother they
year. call Butterscotch.

4
Grammar_Pre_001-010.qxd 11/12/07 4:10 PM Page 5

– PRETEST –

32. Using the clues, write the homonyms or 37. Identify the verb that correctly completes the fol-
homographs. lowing sentences.
school leader/integrity Neither Jessica nor Marty (like, likes) to do the
to crack/a short rest laundry.
carry on/curriculum vitae Spaghetti and meatballs (is, are) my favorite
rip/saline from the eye Italian meal.
good/underwater spring Sally or Zach (is, are) probably going to be the
wrapped/a boo-boo valedictorian this year.

33. Identify the simple subject in the following 38. Identify the verb that will agree with the indefi-
sentences. nite pronouns in the following sentences.
Next week, Scott and Jennifer will get married. Everything (go, goes) to the basement for
Shopping sprees can be fun, but very expensive. sorting.
It may be too soon to tell. Somebody (need, needs) to bring some milk
home.
34. Identify the simple predicate in the following While others (prefers, prefer) to eat salad first,
sentences. I prefer to eat it last.
Reading is good exercise for the brain.
Try again. 39. Determine which pronoun best fits for proper
The log, when turned over, revealed a whole pronoun/antecedent agreement in each sentence.
different world. The boys took ________ time walking home
from school.
35. Identify whether the boldfaced word is a direct or Nobody saw __________ name on the cast list.
an indirect object in the following sentences. The scared joey hopped to _________ mother
Brandy took the pot of flowers and brought it for security.
into the garden window.
Grumbling to himself, Stan dragged the heavy
40. Identify the adjective and adverb phrases in the
garbage cans out to the street.
following sentences.
He gave her a high-five to assure her that all
Books with weak spines need to be reinforced
was well.
to lengthen their shelf life.
The lizard scurried across the sidewalk and
36. Identify the verb that correctly agrees with the
disappeared into the bushes.
subject in each sentence.
The cashier with the red hair and braces was
Patty (fly, flies) frequently for work.
especially helpful.
All of us (watch, watches) out for one another.
Nobody (want, wants) to play croquet in the
the backyard with me.

5
Grammar_Pre_001-010.qxd 11/12/07 4:10 PM Page 6

– PRETEST –

41. Identify the participial phrases, infinitive 45. Identify the noun clause in each sentence.
phrases, and gerund phrases in the following I can see what you mean.
sentences. What Wendy said took everyone by surprise.
Hoping to win the lottery, Harriet bought 50 How it ends remains to be seen.
tickets for tonight’s drawing.
To help pass the time, Jake reads a book that 46. Identify the adverb clause in each sentence.
he takes along. Because it was getting late, Sonya got her
Caring for her ailing grandmother is Lori’s things ready to go.
focus right now. It will be an enjoyable gathering, provided it
doesn’t rain.
42. Identify the appositive phrases in the following Craig was going to try to reach the finish line,
sentences. even though it seemed so far off.
Ron, a referee and mentor, is a fair-minded
and friendly man. 47. Identify the coordinating conjunction(s) in each
Jeannine works for KTL, a telecommunica- sentence, and the word or group of words it is
tions company in Kansas City. connecting.
Molly, my student, has a very fanciful Logan or Melanie can go to the retreat if they
imagination. want to.
Karla wanted to visit longer with her friend, but
43. Determine whether each group of words is an
she had a long drive home and it was late.
independent or a subordinate clause.
We signed up for the early class so we could
Made to order
have the rest of the afternoon free.
Loosen up a little bit
Don’t make any assumptions
48. Identify the simple, compound, complex, and
We’ll just see about that
compound-complex sentences.
Before you go a. We can go to dinner now or we can go after
Have a nice day the concert.
b. When the judge announced the winner, the
44. Identify the adjective clause in each sentence. audience clapped loudly and gave him a
Now I remember the guy that you described to standing ovation.
me yesterday. c. All of the graduates will receive a degree.
The house at the end of the road is where my d. If you try harder, you will certainly achieve
father grew up. success.
The room next to the office is where the pro-
fessors meet.

6
Grammar_Pre_001-010.qxd 11/12/07 4:10 PM Page 7

– PRETEST –

49. Add punctuation where necessary in the follow- 50. Correctly place quotation marks, commas, and
ing sentences. end marks in the following sentences.
Nathans birthday is May 21 1991 which fell on Are we almost there yet Jodi asked for the
a Monday this year ninth time.
Mr Roberts left a message asking me to pick And if you look to your left the tour guide
up these items staples printer paper correc- went on to say you’ll see Elvis’s home,
tion fluid and two boxes of paper clips I Graceland
guess the supply closet got raided
All of the girls dresses were pink with white
eyelet ruffles on the sleeves edges.

7
Grammar_Pre_001-010.qxd 11/12/07 4:10 PM Page 8

– PRETEST –

þ Answers

If you miss any of the following questions, you may refer to the designated lesson for further explanation.

1. soda, love, puppy, thoughtlessness, clapping, 14. wash, hold, cook, buy, pray, gnaw, put, write, loan,
sorrow (Lesson 1) marry (Lesson 4)
2. peace, livelihood, deceit, cheerfulness, patience 15. appear, become, feel, prove, grow, look (Lesson 4)
(Lesson 1) 16. forgive grow buy walk
3. Texas, Nancy, Mr. Klondike, Mexico City, IBM, wash hide sew pet
Spiderman, Mt. Everest (Lesson 1) sit hear play throw
4. stockings, deer, knots, cacti, mice, dresses, suit- (Lesson 5)
cases (Lesson 2) 17. lying, lain, lain (Lesson 5)
5. kilowatt-hours, forget-me-nots, follow-ups, sticks- 18. sat, sets, Sitting (Lesson 5)
in-the-mud (Lesson 2) 19. hung, accept, may (Lesson 5)
6. child’s, Jody’s, Congress’, tooth’s, cactus’s, puppies’, 20. will drive: future
moms’, Jason’s, women’s, dress’s (Lesson 2) had driven: past perfect
7. John/he, Mrs. Brown/she (Lesson 3) drive: present
8. fish/they, group/it, fish/it, each/he or she, both/they drives: present
(Lesson 3) am driving: present progressive
9. who, whose, which, whom, whomever (Lesson 3) drove: past
10. I went to his house and saw him. has driven: present perfect
She brought me an apple and I thanked her. will have driven: future perfect
They went to Pat’s and called me. (Lesson 6)
(Lesson 3) 21. community, perfect, good, new (Lesson 7)
11. He threw it toward me . 22. a house, a unicorn, a one-way street, an underdog,
Pass me the salt. an unopened gift, an hour, a wrist, an upper level,
We made them sandwiches. an elephant, a yellow flower, an honor, a loafer, an
(Lesson 3) orange, an occasion, an admirer
12. She helped herself to the apple pie her mom (Lesson 7)
made this afternoon. 23. Italian, Bahamian, African, Texan, French, Hawai-
Drew’s headache was so bad he couldn’t bring ian, American, Virginian, Danish, Californian,
himself to finish paying his bills. Belgian, Chinese, Japanese, Incan, English
We ourselves are responsible for our own (Lesson 7)
happiness. 24. His: possessive adjective; her: possessive adjec-
(Lesson 3) tive; hers: possessive pronoun; My: possessive
13. That is the most annoying sound that I have ever adjective (Lesson 7)
heard. 25. This: demonstrative pronoun; this: demonstrative
Those are the boxes of blankets that Mom plans adjective; these: demonstrative pronoun
to take to the SPCA. (Lesson 7)
Is this the channel that you were watching? 26. highest, larger, better (Lesson 7)
(Lesson 3) 27. less, lowest, longest (Lesson 8)

8
Grammar_Pre_001-010.qxd 11/12/07 4:10 PM Page 9

– PRETEST –

28. fast: adjective; hard: adverb; straight: adverb 43. Made to order: subordinate clause
(Lessons 7 and 8) Loosen up a little bit: independent clause
29. around the world; Without a doubt; for good Don’t make any assumptions: independent clause
health; around Mom’s living room; up the drapes We’ll just see about that: independent clause
(Lesson 9) Before you go: subordinate clause
30. beside herself: preposition; by five: preposition; Have a nice day: independent clause
by: adverb; across busy streets: preposition (Lesson 14)
(Lesson 9) 44. that you described
31. The woman with hair curlers was walking her dog. where my father grew up
The sand burned my feet while I was walking where the professors meet
along the shore. (Lesson 14)
Tina bought a guinea pig they call Butterscotch for 45. what you mean
her brother. What Wendy said
(Lesson 10) How it ends
32. principal/principle tear/tear (Lesson 14)
break/break well/well 46. Because it was getting late
resume/resume wound/wound provided it doesn’t rain
(Lesson 10) even though it seemed so far off
33. Scott and Jennifer; Shopping sprees; It (Lesson 11) (Lesson 14)
34. is; Try; revealed (Lesson 11) 47. Logan or Melanie
35. pot: direct object; it: direct object; garbage cans: Karla wanted to visit longer with her friend, but
direct object; her: indirect object; high-five: direct she had a long drive home and it was late.
object (Lesson 11) We signed up for the early class so we could have
36. flies, watch, wants (Lesson 12) the rest of the afternoon free.
37. likes, is, is (Lesson 12) (Lesson 15)
38. goes, needs, prefer (Lesson 12) 48. a. compound; b. compound-complex; c. simple;
39. their, his or her, its (Lesson 12) d. complex
40. with weak spines: adjective phrase (Lesson 16)
across the sidewalk: adverb phrase; into the 49. Nathan’s birthday is May 21, 1991, which fell on
bushes: adverb phrase a Monday this year.
with the red hair and braces: adjective phrase Mr. Roberts left a message asking me to pick up
(Lesson 13) these items: staples, printer paper, correction fluid,
41. Hoping to win the lottery: participial phrase and two boxes of paper clips; I guess the supply
To help pass the time: infinitive phrase closet got raided.
Caring for her ailing grandmother: gerund phrase All of the girls’ dresses were pink with white eye-
(Lesson 13) let ruffles on the sleeves’ edges.
42. a referee and mentor (Lessons 17–20)
a telecommunications company in Kansas City 50. “Are we almost there yet?” Jodi asked for the ninth
my student time.
(Lesson 13) “And if you look to your left,” the tour guide went
on to say, “you’ll see Elvis’s home, Graceland.”
(Lessons 17–20)

9
Grammar_Pre_001-010.qxd 11/12/07 4:10 PM Page 10
Grammar_les01_011-018.qxd 11/12/07 4:12 PM Page 11

Nouns and Pronouns

Grammar_les01_011-018.qxd 11/12/07 4:12 PM Page 12
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 CHRONIC MOIST ECZEMA (IMPETIGO) AT THE
MANE AND TAIL.

Fleshy neck, thick mane and tail, lymphatic constitution, profuse perspiration,
lack of cleanliness, alkaline soaps, plethora, foul stable, pus microbes. Symptoms:
itching or tenderness, shedding hair, thinning of mane and tail, skin thickened,
ridges and folds, tenderness, moisture, crusts raise hairs from follicles, fœtor, sores
and ulcers, matted hairs. Treatment: remove general and local causes, cleanse,
cool, pure stable, clip, reduce grain; cooling, laxative food, soothing or stimulating
applications, zinc oxide, talc, olive oil and diachylon plaster, iodoform, silver
nitrate, oil of cade, or of white birch, sulphur iodide, Canada balsam and sulphur,
green soap, dusting powders, ointments.

This condition is especially common in horses with a profusion of

long hairs in the mane and tail, and in the heavy draught animal with
a thick, fleshy neck. In such the skin is very sensitive, and when
profuse perspiration soaks the skin, or concretes and decomposes
about the roots of the hairs, the local irritation necessary to the
production of the eruption is present. A lack of careful grooming is
therefore a common cause, yet soap left in washing the mane or tail
may be no less injurious. Plethora has its influence in many cases,
and the ammoniacal fumes from a wooden stable saturated with
excretions are not to be ignored. Finally in cases accompanied by
pustular eruption, the pus microbes must be recognized as factors.
Symptoms. There may be marked itching or extreme tenderness of
the part affected or in the absence of both there may occur a gradual
shedding of the long hairs, so that an increasing thinness of the mane
and tail (rat tail) becomes apparent. The skin covering the affected
parts is thickened, inflamed and thrown into ridges and folds, one
rubbing against another. The surface feels moist or is covered by
crusts formed by the condensation of the moist exudate, and
embracing the hairs and drawing them out of their follicles. Beneath
the concretions the skin is soaked in the tenacious fœtid liquid
discharge. The hair follicles become atrophied in connection with the
evulsion of the hairs, or under congestion the hairs stand rigidly
erect, and bristly or curly. As the freer secretion abates, the exudate
become more purely scally or encrusted, but the skin remains
thickened and thrown into folds. Under the inveterate rubbing or
gnawing the skin is often extensively abraded and large open sores
are formed which are indolent and slow to heal. That matting
together of the hairs which has been known as plica Polonica is often
the result of the disease of the hair follicles and the accumulation of
scabs which takes place in this disease, rather than to a special
infection like gregarina (coccidiosis).
Treatment. The first consideration must be to remove all general
and local causes of eczema, insure perfect cleanliness and good
grooming in any case in which these may been lacking, purify the air
of the stable if that has been foul, procure a cool environment when
that has been too hot, clip the patient if habitually soaked with
perspiration by reason of a heavy coat, suspend or moderate the
work if that has been too exacting, withhold a heating grain ration
(corn, buckwheat, barley, wheat, peas, beans), and furnish cooling,
laxative, easily digested food. In the cases before us the acute,
irritable stage has usually passed, so that the more stimulating
applications may be safely used, yet in many old standing cases a
fresh eruption may have taken place, which would demand for a time
the most soothing applications only. Apart from such cases the more
stimulating dressings are applied at once.
The affected surface is exposed by clipping or shaving off the long
hairs, thus at once removing a source of heat and irritation and
allowing of the direct and thorough application of the dressing.
Among the astringent and stimulant applications oxide of zinc
ointment and benzoated oxide of zinc are among the simplest and
least likely to irritate, but the stronger applications can usually be
borne. The Lassar paste consists of two parts each of finely powdered
talc and zinc oxide, four parts of vaseline and three per cent. of
salicylic acid. Oxide of bismuth may substitute the zinc oxide. Three
parts of olive oil and four of diachylon plaster melted together and
stirred until cool, makes another mildly astringent and sedative
application. Iodoform 1 dr. to an ounce of vaseline is an excellent
agent. A mixture of iodoform and tannin is used as a dusting powder
by Friedberger and Fröhner: or silver nitrate solution (6:100) may be
used. Tar ointment (1:8) with a little subcarbonate of potassium
added makes an excellent application. Oil of cade and oil of white
birch may be used in the same way, the latter being the most
desirable as a rule. Ammonia chloride of mercury as an ointment
(1:10), often acts well and the black wash, formed by the
decomposition of calomel with potash is often serviceable. Iodide of
sulphur and vaseline (1:10) is often an excellent resort. An ointment
of equal parts of Canada balsam and sulphur or iodide of sulphur in
four parts of vaseline is often effective. Other valuable preparations
are ointments (10%) of ichthyol, naphthol, chrysarobin or pyrogallol.
Hebra’s last resort of green soap is never to be forgotten, the affected
skin being thickly smeared with the soap which is left to dry on, and
is repeated and rubbed in, for several days in succession. It may
seem at first to aggravate the disease by reason of the solution and
removal of the covering of the vesicles or pustules and the exposure
of a pink sensitive surface, but day by day this improves and the skin
becomes smooth and more natural. After a few days of this
treatment, it may, if necessary, be followed by astringent or
stimulant dressings, or the varied medicaments may be incorporated
with the soap so as to form one dressing to be applied from the first.
When a healthy action has been once established, all that is required
further may be cleanliness, with the use of bland dusting powders or
ointments to establish the cure.
 CHRONIC ECZEMA OF THE CARPUS AND
TARSUS; MALANDERS: SALLENDERS.

Eruption in bends of carpus and tarsus and downward: Causes: lymphatic

temperament, constitutional predisposition, deranged internal organs, excessive
secretions, modified, congested skin, friction between dermal folds. Symptoms:
stiffness, heat, thickening and redness, vesicles or oozing, crusts, erect hairs,
shedding hair, squamæ, cracks, abrasions, fissures, subcutaneous engorgement,
lymphangiectasis. Treatment: Cleanse, get pure air, regular exercise, non-
stimulating food, avoid cold water, mud, slush, caustic soap, lime, sharp sand, foul
organic matter. Massage. Light bandages. Bland ointments. Dusting powders. Rest.
Iodoform. Starch. Zinc oxide. Boric acid. Magnesia. Bismuth. Lycopodion. Lead.
Tannin. Pyoktannin. Stimulating ointments. Green soap. Arsenic.

The bends of the carpus and tarsus in heavy, lymphatic, coarse

skinned horses are especially subject to eczema followed by a dense
scabby eruption, which in the old farrier’s nomenclature was known
as malanders in the fore limb and sallenders in the hind. It is not
always confined to the joints but may extend down the limb,
especially on the back, where the hair is coarser and the skin thicker,
as far as the fetlock or even to the hoof.
In the matter of causation much depends on the general
constitutional state which tends to eczema, and on the torpor or
derangement of some of the internal organs the functions of which
are interdependent with those of the skin. Something too must be
attributed to the freer secretions of these parts in coarse bred horses,
to the accumulation of such secretions and of extraneous irritants
under the long hair, to the sluggishness of the circulation in the
limbs which has to overcome the force of gravitation, and to friction
between the thick folds of skin in flexion, and stretching in extension.
Swelling of the lower limbs is at once a cause and an effect of the
disease.
 Symptoms. At the outset the animal may be seen to move rather
stiffly, and the skin is found to be hot, thickened and if white
reddened. Soon a close observation may detect the eruption of
vesicles, or simply an oozing of a yellowish or bloody serum which
concretes around the hairs forming an encrusted covering for the
part, holding the hairs erect and bristly, and even lifting them out of
their follicles. Cracks also appear in the depth of the fold, leading to a
more abundant exudate, and the disease may extend around the
whole surface of the limb.
In the more acute cases this may be followed by more or less
depilation, dessication and recovery, but too often the condition
becomes chronic, the thickened, encrusted or squamous skin
continues to exude, crack and cover itself with crusts, under which
the decomposing liquids macerate and irritate the exposed cuticle,
and engorgment of the whole limb with hyperplasia of the connective
tissue and lymphatic plexus and vessels is the result. This
hyperplasia of the skin and connective tissue (elephantiasis) is also a
common result of lymphangitis.
Treatment. As in other skin affections attention must first be given
to removal of the causes. Ensure cleanliness, pure air, regular
exercise, non-stimulating food, the avoidance of cold water, melting
snow, soapy washes and all other sources of irritation. Deep mud,
especially if charged with lime, sharp sand, decomposing organic
matter or other irritant, is particularly offensive.
Hand-rubbing (massage) of the limbs and evenly applied light
bandages are often of the greatest value in dispersing or obviating
swelling.
The slighter attacks may be met at the outset by bland ointments
or dusting powders and rest from all but necessary exercise. Dressing
with iodoform may bring about a recovery in a few days. Starch and
oxide of zinc, boric acid, magnesia carbonate, bismuth or lycopodion
may give good service. Lotions of lead acetate, tannin, iron sulphate,
alum, potassium permanganate or pyoktannin may be used as in
other forms of eczema. In obstinate cases green soap followed by
stimulating ointments or liniments, tar, oil of white birch, Canada
balsam, turpentine and glycerine, oil of cade, etc., will often serve an
excellent purpose. In these advanced cases an alterative such as
arsenic may be employed.
 ECZEMA OF ALIMENTARY ORIGIN IN CATTLE.
STARVATION MANGE. STALK DISEASE. MALT
ECZEMA. POTATO ECZEMA.

In low condition: erythema, hæmorrhagic extravasations, or vesicles on tail, lips,

fore legs, udder. Trombidium holosericeum. Malt or potato eczema: marc eczema
on legs and body. Causes: feeding on marc only, skins, green potatoes, fermenting.
Attack in ratio with marc eaten. Worst on new stock, and feeding cattle. Calves
have diarrhœa, children eruption. Bean trefoil and milk sickness act similarly.
Solanin. Unaffected by boiling. Season. Field. Chlorophyl. Narcosis absent. Is brain
adaptable? Other ingredients inoperative. Eczema ceases with change of food: is
not inoculable. Symptoms: fever, costiveness, inappetence, red mucosæ, weeping,
stringy salivation, debility, emaciation, black diarrhœa. May lie with extended
head, grinding teeth, tympany, lethargy, coma. Pig and dog vomit. Abortion.
Redness, swelling, stiffness on pasterns: may extend to whole body: exudations:
thick crusts: erect or shed hairs: rigid thickened, folded, cracked skin, buccal
mucosa may suffer: abscess, sloughs. Mortality slight and up to 20 per cent.
Lesions: congestions of small intestine, brain and muscle. Treatment: stop or
lessen the marc adding grain: turn to pasture: locally bathe, cold or tepid: lead
lotions: dusting powders: tannin: blue stone: creolin: cresol: tar or birch oil:
carbolic acid.

The skin of cattle seems to suffer more than that of other animals
in connection with the ingestion of poisons. In starved or very low
conditioned animals, eruptions are met with which may be in the
form of a simple erythema, a hæmorrhagic extravasation in spots, or
an eruption on the end of the tail in the form of epidermic
concretions or pustules (impetigo). Among the vineyards it is
common to find an eruption with papules and vesicles on the lips,
fore legs and udder of cows which were fed on the succulent young
shoots and leaves of the grape vine. In cases of this disease, Railliet
and Moreau have found a great number of the silky trombidium
larvæ (harvest bug), and accordingly attribute the affection
exclusively to their attacks. The growth of the vine on the warmest
and sunniest exposures, the most favorable to the propagation of this
acarus, gives much support to this conclusion.
Malt or Potato Eczema. On the continent of Europe where
potatoes are largely used for distillation and the production of starch,
herds of cattle are fed often almost exclusively on the refuse or marc,
and in such herds an eczematous eruption of the legs and
exceptionally of the body is a familiar occurrence.
Causes. The disease has been definitely traced to an exclusive
dietary on potato marc, and still more so to the skins, to tubers
rendered green by exposure to the sun, and to the distillery potato
refuse which has undergone fermentation. Thus 80 litres of the pulp
daily without dry food will determine a violent attack in the animal
consuming it, while the animal consuming 40 litres has it much
milder (Friedberger and Fröhner). It attacks animals living in the
best conditions of cleanliness and pure air, and the essentially toxic
quality of the cause may be deduced from the fact that newly bought
animals, which are not yet habituated to it suffer the most, that
fattening cattle are the common victims, while work oxen which
perspire more freely and milch cows escape, yet calves fed upon their
milk may suffer from diarrhœa and infants from a cutaneous
eruption (Johné). The poison it is to be inferred is eliminated in the
milk. Similar examples of the protecting of the milch animal by
elimination of the poison through the milk are found in bean trefoil
(cytisus) which poisons the milk while proving harmless to the goat
which yields it, and the poison of milk sickness which is deadly to
cattle which are not giving milk, and harmless to the milch cow, yet
deadly to those that consume her milk.
The exact nature of the poison is as yet uncertain, and as solanin is
the only toxic principle so far discovered in potato, this has been held
tentatively to be the essential cause. The amount of solanin in young
and germinated potatoes has been given by Cornevin as follows:

Germinated tubers Young tubers.

The entire tuber contains 0.21 0.16
The central fleshy part 0.16 0.12
The parings and pickings 0.24 0.18
 The toxic strength of the marc is not impaired by boiling, cooking
or other culinary treatment, and the same is true of solanin. The
toxicity is greatest after the potato has been subjected to
germination, or when it has become green by exposure to the sun,
and in these conditions the solanin is increased. The toxicity of the
marc is higher in certain years, and in the product of certain fields,
than in others, and this is in keeping with the effect of environment
in modifying the products of a plant. The increased production of
chlorophyl under the action of sunlight is associated with a material
increase of the amount of solanin. Until therefore another toxic
product can be shown to be the essential cause of this affection the
solanin must be charged with this result. This conclusion would be
more inviolable if the animals attacked showed other symptoms of
solanin poisoning such as narcotism, vertigo, stupor and paralysis,
and the absence of these may perhaps be due to the gradual advance
of the toxic action, and the progressive immunizing of the animal
system. The brain may be able to accommodate itself more readily
than the skin.
The other constituents of the potato or of the marc fail to produce
the eruption under other conditions: the alcohol in brewers and
distillers’ grains, the acetic, lactic and butyric acids in the refuse of
starch, beet sugar and canning factories, the potash in turnips and
other roots, the yeast ferment in brewers’ grains. The acarus of foot
mange (symbiotis bovis) is rarely present in the affected animal
though the eruption in the same situation would strongly suggest its
presence and lead to a search for it. Moreover the eczema appears at
once in a large number of animals, affecting a large area without
evidence of slow and steady progression and disappears with equal
rapidity in many cases when the diet is changed. Finally the eczema
has not been successfully propagated by inoculation which conveys
mange infallibly from animal to animal.
Symptoms. The disease is associated with slight fever, costiveness,
impaired appetite, hyperæmia of the mucosæ, epiphora, viscous
salivation, muscular weakness, and finally emaciation and black
diarrhœa. The gravity of these symptoms varies, being greater when
the animals have eaten the leaves and stems, the raw potatoes in
their skins, the young shoots and parings, or green potatoes which
have been sunned. The animals may lie most of their time stretching
themselves out with head extended on the ground, they may grind
the teeth, may have pulse small and rapid, tympany, lethargy, coma
and even paraplegia but these severe symptoms are exceptional and
almost altogether confined to the cattle of distilleries which receive
an exclusive diet of potato marc. In the pig and dog vomiting has
been noticed (Cornevin). Pregnant animals may abort.
The local symptoms begin with redness and swelling of the skin
around the pasterns, especially of the hind limbs, stiffness and a
disposition to lie most of the time; then small flattened vesicles
appear, isolated or confluent, which bursting, form extended, raw
patches the abundant exudations of which concrete into thick crusts.
The hairs stand erect and are abnormally thick at their roots. The
eruption may extend to the whole limb, the scrotum, mamma, tail
and body at large, so that in severe cases it is practically universal.
The skin becomes thick, rigid, hide bound, wrinkled and folded with
intervening cracks. As a rule, however, the eruption is confined to the
limbs, scrotum, mammæ and tail. In some extensive and persistent
cases the buccal mucosa suffers, particularly on the pad on the upper
jaw, which shows extensive and irregular ulcers with purulent centre
and swollen, congested margin. Abscesses may develop in the skin
and subcutem and sloughing of the integument is not unknown.
Mortality is slight as a change of food is usually made and a
recovery ensues in a few weeks. Yet Baranski noted 20 per cent. of
deaths in Galicia, mostly in old, worn out animals which had been
stabled for a length of time.
Lesions. On examination, post mortem, there are found
hyperæmia and inflammation of the small intestine, some congestion
of the cerebral meninges, and a red, bloody condition of the
muscular system.
Treatment. The toxic provender must be stopped, or reduced to 20
or 30 litres of pulp daily, supplemented by sound wholesome dry
fodder. Marker claims that 70 quarts daily of the potato marc may be
given if combined with a fair ration of Indian corn. Turning out
doors to pastures usually effects a speedy cure.
Local treatment is rarely demanded but when the irritation is great
it may be soothed by bathing with cold or tepid water, lead lotion,
glycerine and lead lotion, or by the application of ointments of lead,
tar, oil of cade or birch, or carbolic acid. Dusting powders of zinc
oxide, starch, lycopodium, boric and tannic acids may also be
employed. Decoction of oak bark or solution of blue stone is often
used, also creolin or cresol one part, to alcohol five parts.
It is rarely necessary to use other than the cooling and astringent
lotions, yet the persistence of irritable sores, ulcers and crusts must
be treated as in other chronic skin affections.
 MOIST ECZEMA OF THE PASTERNS IN THE OX.

Causes: hot season, foul stables, streptococcus. Symptoms: sudden attack, red,
swollen, warm, tender pastern, vesicles, crusts, scabs, lameness, foot rested on toe,
cracks, fissures, interdigital foot rot, shedding hoof, scaly chronic form. Treatment:
clean stables and yards, cleanse feet, lead lotion or zinc, phenol, iron or copper. Tar
water, tar, creolin, creosote, iodol.

This affection is comparable to the simpler forms of grease or

digital eczema in horses.
Causes. It occurs especially in the hot midsummer season in cattle
kept in filthy stables, where the feet and pasterns are kept filthy and
the air charged with irritant ammoniacal fumes. A streptococcus is
usually met with and may be found in pure cultures in resulting
abscesses.
Symptoms. The attack is sudden, the skin around the pastern
becoming red, warm, swollen and tender, with the formation of
vesicles, isolated or confluent, which rupture and discharge a serous
exudate that dries up into crusts and scabs. Lameness is a marked
symptom and in bad cases the swelling and pain are such that the
foot may be habitually raised from the ground and rested only on the
toe. The swollen skin is thrown into folds which rub on each other,
and breaks open into cracks from which exudes a serous fluid that
macerates and irritates the skin, the heel pad and the interdigital
space, so as to determine interdigital foot rot. This may lead to
inflammation inside the hoof with shedding of the horny mass, or it
may subside into a chronic form with an abundant squamous
product.
Treatment should be mainly prophylactic in the direction of
cleanliness and abundant litter in the stables, and the avoidance of
pools of liquid manure and of septic mud puddles in the yards and
roads.
In the early stages of the affection the pasterns and interdigital
spaces should be thoroughly cleansed and covered with a bandage
with a weak solution of acetate of lead, or of sulphate of zinc, or
carbolic acid, or sulphate of iron or copper. In the more advanced
stages tar water or crude tar will serve a good purpose, or watery or
alcoholic solutions of creolin, creosote, oil of tar, carbolic acid or
iodol. When the horn has been separated from the quick, it is usually
best to pare away all such, to bevel the edges so as to make them less
rigid and more pliant and to dress with tar water and later to cover
with undiluted tar and bandage.
MOIST ECZEMA OF THE TAIL, NECK, CHINE AND
DEWLAP OF CATTLE.

Definition. Causes: in work oxen, winter, foul stables; dairy cows on spoiled
fodder or maize, wheat, buckwheat, cotton seed, etc. Contagion. Symptoms: skin
hot, thick, tender, exuding, matted hair, vesicles, itching, excoriation, ulceration,
bleeding, sloughing. Treatment: Soothing. Cleanliness. Pure air. Tepid sponging.
Dusting powder. Clip or shave. Calomel with care. Phenol. Creolin. Silver or copper
salts. Tannic or boric acid.

This is an acute eczematous eruption of cattle beginning as a

congestion and swelling of the skin and advancing to an exudation or
secretion which bedews the surface with a sticky discharge, and
concretes into scabs and crusts.
Causes. The disease has been mainly seen in work oxen during
winter, when kept in close, foul stables and not properly groomed. It
is also seen in dairy cows and may be attributed to the indigestion
and gastric disorders which come from the ingestion of spoiled
fodders, or from a too stimulating diet, such as Indian corn, wheat,
buckwheat, barley, cotton seed, and the seeds of the leguminosæ.
Lafosse looked upon it as contagious, but Cadeac denies both this
and its alimentary origin.
Symptoms. The attack is severe, the skin becoming swollen, hot
and tender, especially at the base of the tail, on the neck, chine and
forehead. Soon the turgid, congested skin exudes a somewhat
glutinous serous product, which mats the hairs into tufts and exposes
the intervening red, excoriated skin, with here and there vesicles
singly or in groups. Itching is usually intense and the animal licks,
rubs and scratches the affected surface unmercifully. The resulting
excoriations and sores add greatly to the severity of the troubles,
including ulceration, bleeding and even sloughing.
 Treatment. Prophylaxis should be the first consideration, and in
the acute stages of the disease, its arrest by soothing applications.
Cleanliness, pure air, and tepid sponging, to be followed by a dusting
powder of boric or salicylic acid, or a lotion of acetate of lead or
sulphate of zinc may serve a good purpose. If the case proves
obstinate, the hair may be clipped or shaved to allow of the more
direct and thorough application of the dressings. Cadeac especially
recommends an ointment of calomel (1 ∶ 10) but this must not be
applied over an extended surface, nor must it be recklessly repeated
owing to the dangerous susceptibility of the bovine race to
mercurialism.
Lotions and ointments of carbolic acid are of great value in
moderating the intense pruritus, and a combination of this with lead
acetate will often prove quite effective. Lotions, liniments or
ointments of tar, oil of cade, creosote, or creolin. When ulcers are
present they may be treated by solutions of silver nitrate (2 ∶ 100) or
cupric sulphate (2 ∶ 100) or powdered iodoform. When the exudate is
excessive, astringent dusting powders often serve a good purpose;
tannic acid and boric acid, with starch or lycopodion.
 CHRONIC ECZEMA IN CATTLE.

Summer disease. Depilation. Scaly. Itchy at first. Lesions of bones, red zones
representing successive attacks. Alterative tonics indicated.

Megnin records the case of an ox which on three successive springs

had a miliary vesicular eruption on the loins and upper walls of the
abdomen, which persisted until the advent of cold weather in the fall.
The vesicles were followed by an exudate which concreted in solid
crusts, enveloping the roots of the hairs which were lifted from the
follicles and failed to be renewed, so that the animal entered on the
winter with an appearance of alopecia. The denuded surface was red,
shining and covered with a dense covering of lamelliform epidermic
scales. In the early stage of the eruption there was moderate pruritus,
but when the scaly stage was reached it was neither tender nor itchy
to any marked degree. Tar ointments had no effect in stimulating the
growth of the hair, and the skin remained bald until the next attack.
The second and third years the eruption extended farther, invading
not only the trunk, but the legs, and passing through the same
successive stages.
The animal was butchered and the shafts of the bones were found
to be abnormally red, and showed three concentric rings of deeper
brown, manifestly representing the three acute attacks and
resembling the concentric rings formed in growing bones when the
young animals are fed on madder.
The manifest disorder of nutrition in this chronic skin disease, is
an argument for the treatment by alterative tonics, such as arsenic,
as well as for the employment of tonics and corroborants in general.
In such cases the presumption is that local treatment would be
useless or nearly so until the general disorder could be repaired.
 ECZEMA IN SHEEP.

In anæmias squamous eruptions. In cold rainy weather moist eczema. Salving.

Thin wooled. Congestion, swelling, papules, vesicles, scabs, depilation. Recovery
with dry weather. Prevention: fold in rainy weather, covers. Pruriginous eczema.
Fagopyrism.

The skin of the sheep is so densely covered by wool and so

lubricated with its own secretion, that it is little liable to non-
parasitic dermatitis, or such as exist are to a large extent overlooked.
In internal parasitisms (distomatosis, strongyliasis, etc.), the wool
becomes flattened (“clapped”) and the skin the seat of a dry
(squamous) eczema with scaly accumulations around the roots of the
wool.
Moist Eczema, the “rain rot” of the Germans is seen in low
conditioned sheep which have been left out in the heavy cold rains,
and is attributed to the direct entrance of the rain by the dorsal shed
of the wool. In salving sheep it is a great point with the shepherds to
avoid opening the way for such entrance, by shedding only at a short
distance on each side of the spine, and never directly in the center.
Thin wooled sheep are also specially liable to the disease. When the
rain enters so as to soak the skin and deeper layers of the wool, it
softens and macerates the skin, introduces microbes and favors
decomposition and in various ways incites to dermatitis. The skin
becomes red and swollen with an eruption of papules and vesicles,
and an exudation which concretes in scabs around the wool, which
under the constant accretions from below lifts the wool from its
follicles, leaving bare scurfy, or vesicular patches. This appears in
different parts of the body beginning in the region of the vertebræ
(back, loins, croup), and extending on the shoulders, neck, sides of
the chest and abdomen. The disease is rarely inveterate and generally
subsides spontaneously on the return of the dry weather. Still it may
cause considerable loss of wool and hence it may be desirable to fold
the flocks during cold rainy seasons, or, if they must be run at
pasture, to cover the back of each with a piece of sacking.
 OTHER CUTANEOUS ERUPTIONS IN SHEEP.
A dry and a moist eczema have been noticed in the sheep,
(pruriginous eczema: impetiginous eczema) and a moist eczema of
the pastern comparable to grease in the horse. Fagopyrism also
occurs.
 ECZEMA IN SWINE.

Secondary skin lesions, maculæ, vesicles, seborrhœa, crusts. Impetigo of young:

cold weather: exposure: filth: spoiled or improper food. Symptoms: eyelids, etc.,
show itchy, red, swelling, pustules, scabs, erosions, may affect nose or mouth.
Duration 20 days. Hot weather aggravates. Treatment: cleanse: soapy washes:
emollient ointments, astringent lotions, saline laxative, diuretics.

Disease of the skin is by no means uncommon in swine, but it

occurs mostly as a manifestation of an acute general malady. Thus in
the different specific diseases, caused by microbes, maculæ in the
form of blood extravasations, punctiform or in extended patches are
constant phenomena. In some cases this is complicated by a
vesicular eruption, or by a seborrhœa and by a dense accumulation
of black crust on the surface.
Impetigo of Pigs. Benion and Cadeac describe this as a sporadic
affection of young pigs especially, which has been attributed to cold
stormy weather, lack of shelter, filthy pens, spoiled food and
insufficient nourishment.
Symptoms. The skin of the eyelids and other parts of the body
presents itchy, red, hot and swollen patches, which gradually pass
into a pustular eruption. The pustules no larger than a millet seed,
burst in forty-eight hours, and discharge a yellowish or purulent
liquid which concretes around the eyelashes or bristles, and glue the
eyelids together. The crusts may increase so as to cover the affected
part of the skin by a dense scabby covering which is firmly adherent
and when detached leaves a bleeding surface. It may extend to the
different mucosæ of the eye, nose or mouth. The disease runs a
course of twenty days or less being retarded by the extremes of
temperature. During the heats of summer the attendant pruritus is
very great and annoying. During convalescence the scabs and crusts
gradually detach themselves and drop off leaving the healthy skin
covered at first by a somewhat delicate epidermis.
Treatment is confined to cleanliness, soapy washes, emollient
ointments and astringent lotions (lead acetate, sulphuric or
hydrochloric acid) but no premature detachment of scabs is
permissible. Saline laxatives and diuretics are often called for.