Introduction

Chapter 10:
Relationships Between Two Variables • Bivariate Analysis: A statistical method
designed to detect and describe the
1. Constructing a Bivariate Table relationship between two nominal or ordinal
variables (typically independent and
2. Elaboration dependent variables).
– Spurious relationships
– Intervening relationships • Cross-Tabulation: A technique for
– Conditional Relationships analyzing the relationship between two or
more nominal or ordinal variables. Allows
for consideration of “control” variables.

Chapter 6 – 1 Chapter 6 – 2

Constructing a Bivariate Table Example of Bivariate Crosstabulation:

• Column variable: A variable whose Support for Abortion by Job Security

categories are the columns of a bivariate (absolute numbers provided)
table (from my experience it is usually the Job Security
dependent variable). Can Find Can Not Find
Job Easy Job Easy Row Total
Support
• Row variable: A variable whose categories for Yes 24 25 49
are the rows of a bivariate table (from my Abortion No 20 26 46
experience it is usually the independent
Column Total 44 51 95
variable).
What are the dependent and independent variables? What are
the column and row variables? Marginals?
• Marginals: The row and column totals in a What is the disadvantage of providing only absolute numbers?
bivariate table. What is the advantage of providing percentages?
Chapter 6 – 3 Chapter 6 – 4

Column Percentages
Constructing a Bivariate Table:
Effect of Job Security on Support for Abortion
Percentages Can Be Computed in (absolute numbers in parentheses)

Different Ways: Can Find Can Not Find

Abortion Job Easy Job Easy Row Total
Yes 55% 49% 52%
1. Column Percentages: column totals as base (24) (25) (49)
2. Row Percentages: row totals as base
No 45% 51% 48%
(20) (26) (46)
We typically provide percentages for the
independent variable Column Total 100% 100%

Chapter 6 – 5 Chapter 6 – 6
Questions to Answer When Examining a
Bivariate Relationship Direction of the Relationship

1. What are the dependent and • Positive relationship: A relationship

independent variable? between two variables (i.e., a bivariate
relationship) measured at the ordinal level
2. Does there appear to be a relationship? or higher in which the variables vary in the
(the chi square statistic is usually used with a
crosstabulation) same direction (both go up or both go
down).
3. How strong is it? (There are “measures of
association” that will indicate the strength of • Negative relationship: A bivariate
the relationship. We will learn a few such as relationship measured at the ordinal level
“lambda” and “gamma”)
or higher in which the variables vary in
opposite directions (when one goes up the
4. What is the direction of the
relationship? other goes down).
Chapter 6 – 7 Chapter 6 – 8

A Positive Relationship A Negative Relationship

(as class goes up “health” goes up) (as “class” goes up “traumas” go down)

Chapter 6 – 9 Chapter 6 – 10

Elaboration
More Examples • Elaboration is a process designed to
further explore a bivariate relationship; it
Which are likely to be positive relationships
and which negative relationships? involves the introduction of a “control”
variable (it’s the process of “elaborating”
1. The relationship between hrs. studying and grades on the relationship between two variables
by considering a third variable).
2. The relationship between partying and grades

3. The relationship between “amount of sleep” and • A control variable is an additional variable
grades considered in a bivariate relationship. This
third variable is “controlled for” when we
4. The relationship between “color of shoes” and
grades examine the relationship between two
variables.
Chapter 6 – 11 Chapter 6 – 12
 1. Testing for a spurious relationship
• A Spurious relationship is a relationship in which
both the independent variable (IV) and the
Elaboration Tests dependent variable (DV) are influenced by a third
variable. The IV and DV are not causally linked,
– Spurious relationships although it might appear so if one was unaware of
– Intervening relationships the third variable.

– Conditional Relationships
• The relationship between the IV and DV is said to
be “explained away” by the control variable.

• A Direct causal relationship is a relationship

between two variables that cannot be accounted
for (or explained away) by other variables. It is a
“nonspurious” relationship.
Chapter 6 – 13 Chapter 6 – 14

Example of a Bivariate Relationship

that appears to be spurious, prior to
testing for spuriousness:

# of Firefighters and Property Damage

Number of firefighters
at the scene of a fire
(IV)
+

Property Damage
(DV)

Chapter 6 – 15 Chapter 6 – 16

A second example of a spurious relationship: Example of a third (control) variable causing a

A relationship between two variables prior to “spurious” relationship:
considering a third variable: (elaboration considers control variables)
(that is, prior to elaboration)

Sale of Ice Cream

(two variables Sale of Ice Cream +
appear related) Outdoor
+
temperature
+
Number of Outdoor Number of Outdoor
Crimes Crimes
Chapter 6 – 17 Chapter 6 – 18
 In-Class Assignment: 2. Elaboration can test for an
intervening relationship
Write down an example of a spurious
relationship (don’t confer with your • Intervening relationship: a
relationship in which the control
neighbor just do the best you can to variable intervenes between the
think of one) independent and dependent
variables.
Identify the dependent and
independent variable and the “control” • Intervening variable: a control
variable that follows an independent
variable that is causing the spurious variable but precedes the dependent
relationship? variable in a causal sequence.

Chapter 6 – 19 Chapter 6 – 20

Intervening Relationship:
Examination of two variables prior to Examination of an intervening variable
considering a third “intervening” between two other variables
variable

Attending Hours Studying Grades

Attending Grades Weekday Parties
Week Day Parties
(independent variable) (dependent variable) (IV) (Intervening Variable) (DV)

Chapter 6 – 21 Chapter 6 – 22

3. Elaboration tests for Conditional

In-Class Assignment: Relationships
• Conditional relationship: a relationship in
What is another example of an which the independent variable’s effect on
intervening relationship? the dependent variable depends on (or is
conditioned by) a category of a control
What is the dependent and independent variable.
variable and what is the “control”
variable that is intervening between • The relationship between the independent
the two variables? and dependent variables will change
according to the different conditions (or
categories) of the control variable.
Chapter 6 – 23 Chapter 6 – 24
 Example of a relationship between two Example of a Conditional Relationship
variables prior to considering a
“conditional” control variable
+
# of Dolls owned Hours spent
Playing with Dolls
# of Dolls owned Hours spent
Playing with Dolls
Gender of Child
(two categories: male and female)

Chapter 6 – 25 Chapter 6 – 26

Another Example of a Conditional

Another Example of a Conditional Relationships
Relationships
+
Empowering the Job Satisfaction
Employee
Empowering the Job Satisfaction
(letting him/her
Employee make decisions)
(letting him/her
Maslow’s Hierarchy
make decisions)
of Need
(categories range from basic “physical”
needs to “self actualization” and “esteem”
needs)

Chapter 6 – 27 Chapter 6 – 28

Three Goals of Elaboration

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, 1943
1. Elaboration allows us to test for spurious
relationships
One’s level of need
is a condition for 2. Elaboration clarifies the causal sequence
how empowerment of bivariate relationships by introducing
affects job variables hypothesized to intervene
satisfaction. between the IV and DV.
3. Elaboration specifies the different
conditions under which the original
bivariate relationship might hold.

Chapter 6 – 30
Religion and Society (negative Chapter 11:
effects)
Test of Statistical Significance
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yx (such as t-test and Chi Square)
TZv8c_GBM&feature=related
and
Measures of Association

Chapter 6 – 32

What is the Chi Square?

A test of statistical significance,
like the t-test and chi square, Just like the t-test, the
gives us the probability that the Chi Square is a
null hypothesis is correct. test of statistical significance
providing the level of probability
If the t value shows us that there that the null hypothesis is true.
is a 5% (.05) or less chance that
the null hypothesis is correct, we If the probability of it being true
reject the null hypothesis and is less than 5% (.05), we will
accept the research hypothesis. reject the null hypothesis and
accept the research hypothesis.

Chapter 6 – 33 Chapter 6 – 34

What is the difference between a

test of statistical difference and
Why do we need a Chi Square measures of association?
test when we have the t-test?
1. A test of statistical significance tests
The t-test requires interval level whether we should reject the null hypothesis
data. A chi square can be used and accept the research hypothesis.
with ordinal or nominal level data. 2. Measures of association (such as lambda and
gamma) measure the “strength” of the
relationship”

Chapter 6 – 35 Chapter 6 – 36
 Measures of Association:
(such as Lambda and Gamma)
Suppose we found that the
examine the size or strength of the
strength/size of the
association between two variables in a
association between two
sample (not focused on whether or not
variables was large, BUT, the
the null-hypothesis can be rejected).
test of statistical significance
indicated that we cannot
Typically, if the null hypothesis cannot
reject the null hypothesis of
be rejected (i.e., we assume there is no
no association.
statistical association between the two
variables), then we ignore the
How would we interpret these
“strength” of the association found
results?
since whatever it is, we have
determined it is due to sampling error.
Chapter 6 – 37 Chapter 6 – 38

Answer: in most cases, if Chi Square is not

How does Chi Square help us
significant then we must assume that the two
variables are not associated (we cannot reject determine the level of probability
the null hypothesis of “no association”) even if that the null hypothesis is true?
the measure of association (e.g., lambda,
gamma) is large. That is, the probability that the
association/relationship found
If the two variables are not associated, then it
between two variables in our
doesn’t matter how “strong” the relationship is
in our sample since the probability is sample is simply due to sampling
sufficiently high that the two variables are not error and not an association found
associated with one another in the population. in the population.

Chapter 6 – 39 Chapter 6 – 40

Answer: Chi Square compares the

observed relationship, found in the sample, More Specifically:
to a
How does Chi Square Work?
“table of no relationship.”
First, it creates a table of “no
That is, it creates a table displaying the 2
relationship”. This is done by, first,
variables and calculates the numbers that
creating a table that shows the two
would be in each cell of the table if there
variables and their margin totals found
were no relationship and then compares
from the sample (no numbers are
this table to the table of actual data
placed in the cells of the table yet).
found from the sample.

If the values in the 2 tables are similar, Next, it uses the marginal totals to
then there is a high probability that, determine what numbers will go in each
whatever relationship is seen in the cell of the table.
sample, is due to sampling error and not
due to a real relationship in the population.
Chapter 6 – 41 Chapter 6 – 42
 Once this table is created, it compares this Table 11.1 below provides sample frequencies
“table of no relationship” (taken from your book). What are the
to the dependent and independent variables? What
table displaying the actual data found from are the marginals?
the sample
In order to calculate a Chi Square for these
The more similar the data, what would you guess is the next step
table of no relationship is to the that should be taken?
actual-data table the more likely that there is
NO association between the two variables in
the population.

That is, whatever relationship is found in the

sample, and subsequently shown in the actual-
data table, is likely due to sampling error and
not a true reflection of the population.
Chapter 6 – 43 Chapter 6 – 44

Table 11.1 provides actual frequencies from a sample.

The next step is to calculate a

table of “no association”.
That is, if this sample had
been drawn and there was “no
Table 11.3 provides the table of “no association”. That is,
association” between the what one would expect to find if these two variables
variables what would the table were not associated.
look like?

Chapter 6 – 45 Chapter 6 – 46

We need to calculate fe = Expected Frequency if No Once we have created our second table of “no
Association. association”, how do we calculate Chi-Square?

That is, the cell frequencies that would be expected in

a bivariate table if the two variables were unrelated X2 = (fo - fe)2
(statistically independent) fe
Where:
For each cell in the table:
fo = observed frequencies
fe = expected frequencies if no association
fe = (column marginal) ( row marginal)
Total N
Chi Square compares the observed and the expected
frequencies and from this comparison provides the
probability that the null hypothesis of no association
should be accepted. Typically, alpha is set at .05. If
there is a 5% or less probability that the null
hypothesis is true, then we reject the null hypothesis.
Chapter 6 – 47 Chapter 6 – 48
 Table 11.5 calculates chi square for our How do we interpret the Chi
example using the chi square formula. Square Statistic?

That is, in our example what

does the number, 57.99 mean?

Answer: we use a Chi Square

distribution table to locate
57.99 and it’s associated
probability (Appendix D in text).
Or, we observe computer
results such as from SPSS.

Chapter 6 – 49 Chapter 6 – 50

Is Chi Square significant when

it equals 57.99 with one degrees
of freedom (DF)?

(see Chi Square distribution

table)

Chapter 6 – 51 Chapter 6 – 52

An examination of the Chi Square Distribution Limitations of Chi Square:

table, with a df of 1, shows us that:
1. Chi Square is sensitive to sample size. The
larger the sample size the larger the chi
the probability of obtaining a X2 of 57.99, when
square. Consequently, the null hypothesis is
the null hypothsis is true, is less than .001. more likely be rejected with a large sample.

That is, if there is “no association” between the 2. Chi Square is sensitive to small expected
variables, then the chances of drawing a sample frequencies. Each cell should include at least
5 cases to be sure that chi square is accurate.
with the degree of association found in our
sample is less than 1 in 10,000 samples. 3. While Chi Square shows us statistical
Therefore, we will reject the null-hypothesis of significance it does not give us information
no difference and assume that the difference about the strength of the relationship or
found in the sample is a difference existing in substantive significance. (This is left for
measures of association and interpretation of
the whole population (we accept the research
the data)
hypothesis).

Chapter 6 – 53 Chapter 6 – 54
 Answer: typically, if the chi square is not
significant, then the measure of
association (e.g., lambda) should not be
So, given the limitations, it is useful considered since we must accept the null
hypothesis of no difference.
to revisit our earlier question:
However, because chi square is affected
Does it make sense to report (or
by the number of cases in the sample, if
even examine) the measures of
the sample is small, chi square is more
association if the test of statistical
likely to suggest no relationship between
significance tells us that we should
two variables (even if one exists).
not reject the hypothesis of “no
association”?
Therefore, if one has a small sample it
would be wise to examine the size of the
measure of association (e.g., lambda) even
if chi square is not significant.
Chapter 6 – 55 Chapter 6 – 56

Table 11.1 provides actual frequencies from a sample.

凩訝
Table 11.3 provides the table of “no association”. That is,
(see you later) what one would expect to find if these two variables
were not associated.

Chapter 6 – 57 Chapter 6 – 58

To read the table we need to

know the degrees of freedom.

With cross-tabulation data we

find the degrees of freedom by
using the following formula:

df = (r – 1) (c – 1)
Where:
r = the number of rows
c = the number of columns

What are the degrees of freedom

in our bivariate (2 X 2) table?
Chapter 6 – 59