Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mašinski fakultet

HIBRIDNI TEHNIČKI SISTEMI

ELECTRIC MOTORS

An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy. The reverse process that of
using mechanical energy to produce electrical energy, is accomplished by a generator or dynamo. Traction
motors used on locomotives and some electric and hybrid automobiles often perform both tasks if the vehicle
is equipped with dynamic brakes.

Electric motors

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT

The principle of conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means
was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821 and consisted of a free-hanging wire
dipping into a pool of mercury. A permanent magnet was placed in the middle of the pool of mercury. When a
current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise
to a circular magnetic field around the wire. This is the simplest form of a class of electric motors called
homopolar motors. A later refinement is the Barlow's Wheel. These were demonstration devices, unsuited to
practical applications due to limited power.
Ányos Jedlik in 1828 Hungary demonstrated the first real electric motor, using electromagnets for
both stationary and rotating parts. He built an electric-motor propelled vehicle in 1828.
The first English commutator-type direct current electric motor capable of a practical application was
invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832. Following Sturgeon's work, a commutator-type
direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American Thomas
Davenport and patented in 1837.
The modern DC motor was invented by accident in 1873, when Zénobe Gramme connected the
dynamo he had invented to a second similar unit, driving it as a motor. The Gramme machine was the first
electric motor that was successful in the industry.
In 1888 Nikola Tesla invented the first practicable AC motor and with it the polyphase power
transmission system.

CATEGORIZATION OF ELECTRIC MOTORS

The classic division of electric motors has been that of Alternating Current (AC) types vs. Direct
Current (DC) types. This is more a de facto convention; many classic DC motors run on AC power, these
motors being referred to as universal motors.
The ongoing trend toward electronic control further muddles the distinction, as modern drivers have
moved the commutator out of the motor shell. For this new breed of motor, driver circuits are relied upon to
generate sinusoidal AC drive currents.
Considering all electric motors require synchronism between a moving magnetic field and a moving
current sheet for average torque production, there is a clearer distinction between asynchronous motor and
synchronous types. An asynchronous motor requires slip between the moving magnetic field and a winding
set to induce current in the winding set by mutual inductance.

Strana 1
dr Marko Miloš & dr Ivana Todić, kabinet 136; e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
 Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mašinski fakultet
HIBRIDNI TEHNIČKI SISTEMI

Comparison of motor types

Typical
Type Advantages Disadvantages Typical Drive
Application
Rotation slips
Least expensive
AC Induction from frequency Uni/Poly-phase
Long life Fans
(Shaded Pole) Low starting AC
High power
torque
AC Induction High power
Rotation slips Uni/Poly-phase
(Split-phase High starting Appliances
from frequency AC
capacitor) torque
Rotation in-sync
Clocks
with freq Uni/Poly-phase
AC Synchronous More expensive Audio turntables
Long-life AC
Tape drives
(alternator)
Precision
Positioning in
positioning Requires a
Stepper DC printers and Multiphase DC
High holding controller
floppy drives
torque
Long lifespan
High initial cost Hard drives
Brushless DC Low
Requires a CD/DVD players Multiphase DC
electric motor maintenance
controller Electric vehicles
High efficiency
High Treadmill
Low initial cost
Brushed DC maintenance exercisers
Simple speed Direct (PWM)
electric motor (brushes) Automotive
control (Dynamo)
Low lifespan starters

DC MOTORS

A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. Two examples of pure DC designs are Michael
Faraday's homopolar motor, and the ball bearing motor. By far the most common DC motor types are the
brushed and brushless types, which use internal and external commutation respectively to create an
oscillating AC current from the DC source - so they are not purely DC machines in a strict sense.

Brushed DC electric motor

A brushed DC motor is an internally commutated electric motor designed to be run from a DC power
source.

Simple two-pole DC motor

Strana 2
dr Marko Miloš & dr Ivana Todić, kabinet 136; e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
 Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mašinski fakultet
HIBRIDNI TEHNIČKI SISTEMI

When a current passes through the coil wound around a soft iron core, an upward force acts upon
the side of the positive pole, while a downward force acts upon the other side. According to Fleming's left
hand rule, the forces cause a turning effect on the coil, making it rotate. To make the motor rotate in a
constant direction, "direct current" commutators make the current reverse in direction every half a cycle thus
causing the motor to continue to rotate in the same direction.

A problem with the motor is that when the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic field - i.e. when
the rotor poles are 90 degrees from the stator poles -the torque is zero. This occurs when the core of the coil
is horizontal. The motor would not be able to start in this position. However, once it was started, it would
continue to rotate through this position by inertia.

There is a second problem with this simple two-pole design. At the zero-torque position, both
commutator brushes are touching both commutator plates, resulting in a short-circuit. The power leads are
shorted together through the commutator plates, and the coil is also short-circuited through both brushes. A
short like this is very wasteful, drains batteries rapidly, and at a minimum requires power supply components
to be designed to much higher standards than would be needed just to run the motor without the shorting.

One simple solution is to put a gap between the commutator plates, which is wider than the ends of
the brushes. This increases the zero-torque range of angular positions but eliminates the shorting problem.
With this modification it can also be effectively turned off simply by stalling it in a position in the zero-torque
angle range. A clear downside of this simple solution is that the motor now coasts through a substantial arc
of rotation twice per revolution, and the torque is pulsed. DC motors are commonly designed with more than
two poles, are able to start from any position, and do not have any position where current can flow without
producing electromotive power by passing through some coil.

If an external force turns the shaft of a DC motor, the motor will act like a generator and produce an
Electromotive force (EMF). During normal operation, the spinning of the motor produces a voltage, known as
the counter-EMF (CEMF) or back EMF, because it opposes the applied voltage on the motor. The back EMF
is the reason that the motor when free-running does not appear to have the same low electrical resistance as
the wire contained in its winding. This is the same EMF that is produced when the motor is used as a
generator. Therefore, the total voltage drop across a motor consists of the CEMF voltage drop, and the
parasitic voltage drop resulting from the internal resistance of the armature's windings. The current through a
motor is given by the following equation:

Vapplied  Vcemf
I
Rarmature

The mechanical power produced by the motor is given by:

P  I Vcemf

As an unloaded DC motor spins, it generates a backwards-flowing electromotive force that resists

the current being applied to the motor. The current through the motor drops as the rotational speed
increases, and a free-spinning motor has very little current. It is only when a load is applied to the motor that
slows the rotor that the current draw through the motor increases.

DC motors are commonly constructed with wound rotors and either wound or permanent magnet
stators.

Strana 3
dr Marko Miloš & dr Ivana Todić, kabinet 136; e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
 Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mašinski fakultet
HIBRIDNI TEHNIČKI SISTEMI

Wound stators

The field coils have traditionally existed in four basic formats: separately excited, series-wound,
shunt-wound, and a combination of the latter two, compound-wound. In a series wound motor, the field coils
are connected electrically in series with the armature coils. In a shunt wound motor, the field coils are
connected in parallel, or "shunted" to the armature coils.

Permanent-magnet motors

Permanent magnet types have some performance advantages over wound stator types, and have
become predominant in fractional horsepower applications. They are smaller, lighter, more efficient and
reliable.
Originally all large industrial DC motors used wound field or rotor magnets. Permanent magnets
have traditionally only been useful on small motors because it was difficult to find a material capable of
retaining a high-strength field. Only recently have advances in materials technology allowed the creation of
high-intensity permanent magnets, such as neodymium magnets, allowing the development of compact,
high-power motors without field coils.

DC brushless motors

A brushless DC motor (BLDC) is a synchronous electric motor which is powered by direct-current

electricity (DC) and which has an electronically controlled commutation system, instead of a mechanical
commutation system based on brushes. In such motors, current and torque, voltage and rpm are linearly
related.

Strana 4
dr Marko Miloš & dr Ivana Todić, kabinet 136; e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
 Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mašinski fakultet
HIBRIDNI TEHNIČKI SISTEMI

Two subtypes exist:

 The stepper motor type may have more poles on the stator.
 The reluctance motor.

In a BLDC motor, the electromagnets do not move; instead, the permanent magnets rotate and the
armature remains static. This gets around the problem of how to transfer current to a moving armature. In
order to do this, an electronic controller replaces the brush-system/commutator assembly. The controller
performs the same power distribution found in a brushed DC motor, but using a solid-state circuit rather than
a commutator/brush system.

Comparison with brushed DC motors

BLDC motors offer several advantages over brushed DC motors, including higher efficiency and
reliability, reduced noise, longer lifetime, elimination of ionizing sparks from the commutator, and overall
reduction of electromagnetic interference (EMI). With no windings on the rotor, they are not subjected to
centrifugal forces, and because the electromagnets are attached to the casing, the electromagnets can be
cooled by conduction, requiring no airflow inside the motor for cooling. This in turn means that the motor's
internals can be entirely enclosed and protected from dirt or other foreign matter. The maximum power that
can be applied to a BLDC motor is exceptionally high, limited almost exclusively by heat, which can damage
the magnets. BLDC's main disadvantage is higher cost. BLDC motors require complex electronic speed
controllers to run.
BLDC motors are often more efficient at converting electricity into mechanical power than brushed
DC motors. This improvement is largely due to the absence of electrical and friction losses due to brushes.
The enhanced efficiency is greatest in the no-load and low-load region of the motor's performance curve.
Under high mechanical loads, BLDC motors and high-quality brushed motors are comparable in efficiency.

Variations on construction

BLDC motors can be constructed in several different physical configurations: In the 'conventional'
(also known as 'inrunner') configuration, the permanent magnets are mounted on the spinning armature.
Three stator windings surround the rotor. In the 'outrunner' configuration, the radial-relationship between the
coils and magnets is reversed; the stator coils form the center of the motor, while the permanent magnets
spin on an overhanging rotor, which surrounds the core. The flat type, used where there are space or shape
limitations, uses stator and rotor plates, mounted face to face. Outrunners typically have more poles, set up
in triplets to maintain the three groups of windings, and have a higher torque at low RPMs. In all BLDC
motors, the stator-coils are stationary.

Strana 5
dr Marko Miloš & dr Ivana Todić, kabinet 136; e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
 Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mašinski fakultet
HIBRIDNI TEHNIČKI SISTEMI

There are also two electrical configurations having to do with how the wires from the windings are
connected to each other. The delta configuration connects the three windings to each other in a triangle-like
circuit, and power is applied at each of the connections. The wye ("Y"-shaped) configuration, sometimes
called a star winding, connects all of the windings to a central point (parallel circuits) and power is applied to
the remaining end of each winding.
A motor with windings in delta configuration gives low torque at low rpm, but can give higher top rpm.
Wye configuration gives high torque at low rpm, but not as high top rpm.
Although efficiency is greatly affected by the motor's construction, the wye winding is normally more
efficient. In delta-connected windings, half voltage is applied across the windings adjacent to the undriven
lead, increasing resistive losses. In addition, windings can allow high-frequency parasitic electrical currents
to circulate entirely within the motor. A wye-connected winding does not contain a closed loop in which
parasitic currents can flow, preventing such losses.
From a controller standpoint, the two styles of windings are treated exactly the same, although some
less expensive controllers are intended to read voltage from the common center of the wye winding.

Coreless or Ironless DC motors

Nothing in the design of any of the motors described above requires that the iron portions of the rotor
actually rotate; torque is exerted only on the windings of the electromagnets. Taking advantage of this fact is
the coreless or ironless DC motor, a specialized form of a brush or brushless DC motor. Optimized for rapid
acceleration, these motors have a rotor that is constructed without any iron core. The rotor can take the form
of a winding-filled cylinder inside the stator magnets, a basket surrounding the stator magnets, or a flat
pancake running between upper and lower stator magnets. Being impregnated with Electrical epoxy potting
systems typically stabilizes the windings. Filled epoxies that have moderate mixed viscosity and a long gel
time. These systems are highlighted by low shrinkage and low exotherm.
Because the rotor is much lighter in weight than a conventional rotor formed from copper windings
on steel laminations, the rotor can accelerate much more rapidly. This is especially true if the windings use
aluminum rather than the heavier copper. But because there is no metal mass in the rotor to act as a heat
sink, even small coreless motors must often be cooled by forced air.
Another advantage of ironless DC motors is that there is no cogging (vibration caused by attraction
between the iron and the magnets) and parasitic eddy currents cannot form in the iron. This can greatly
improve efficiency, but variable-speed controllers must use a significantly higher switching rate or direct
current because of the decreased electromagnetic induction.

UNIVERSAL MOTORS

A variant of the wound field DC motor is the universal motor. The name derives from the fact that it
may use AC or DC supply current, although in practice they are nearly always used with AC supplies. The
principle is that in a wound field DC motor the current in both the field and the armature will alternate at the
same time, and hence the mechanical force generated is always in the same direction. In practice, the motor
must be specially designed to cope with the AC, and the resultant motor is generally less efficient than an
equivalent pure DC motor.
The advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used on motors which have the
typical characteristics of DC motors, specifically high starting torque and very compact design if high running
speeds are used. The negative aspect is the maintenance and short life problems caused by the
commutator.
Motor damage may occur due to overspeeding if the unit is operated with no significant load. On
larger motors, sudden loss of load is to be avoided, and the possibility of such an occurrence is incorporated
into the motor's protection and control schemes. In smaller applications, a fan blade attached to the shaft
often acts as an artificial load to limit the motor speed to a safe value, as well as a means to circulate cooling
airflow over the armature and field windings.
With the very low cost of semiconductor rectifiers, some applications that would have previously
used a universal motor now use a pure DC motor, sometimes with a permanent magnet field.
An AC motor is an electric motor that is driven by an alternating current. It consists of two basic
parts, an outside stationary stator having coils supplied with AC current to produce a rotating magnetic field,
and an inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by the rotating field.

Strana 6
dr Marko Miloš & dr Ivana Todić, kabinet 136; e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
 Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mašinski fakultet
HIBRIDNI TEHNIČKI SISTEMI

There are two types of AC motors, depending on the type of rotor used. The first is the synchronous
motor, which rotates exactly at the supply frequency or a submultiple of the supply frequency. The magnetic
field on the rotor is either generated by current delivered through slip rings or by a permanent magnet.
The second type is the induction motor, which turns slightly slower than the supply frequency. An
induced current creates the magnetic field on the rotor of this motor.

Three-phase AC induction motors

Where a polyphase electrical supply is available, the three-phase (or polyphase) AC induction motor
is commonly used, especially for higher-powered motors. The phase differences between the three phases
of the polyphase electrical supply create a rotating electromagnetic field in the motor.
Through electromagnetic induction, the time changing and reversing rotating magnetic field induces
a time changing and reversing current in the conductors in the rotor; this sets up a time changing and
counterbalancing moving electromagnetic field that causes the rotor to turn in the direction the field is
rotating. The rotor always moves slightly behind the phase peak of the primary magnetic field of the stator
and is thus always moving slower than the rotating magnetic field produced by the polyphase electrical
supply.
Very large induction motors are capable of tens of thousands of kW in output, for pipeline
compressors, wind-tunnel drives and overland conveyor systems.
There are two types of rotors used in induction motors: squirrel cage rotors and wound rotors.

Squirrel-cage rotors

Most common AC motors use the squirrel cage rotor, which will be found in virtually all domestic and
light industrial alternating current motors. The squirrel cage takes its name from its shape - a ring at either
end of the rotor, with bars connecting the rings running the length of the rotor. It is typically cast aluminum or
copper poured between the iron laminates of the rotor, and usually only the end rings will be visible. The vast
majority of the rotor currents will flow through the bars rather than the higher-resistance and usually
varnished laminates. Very low voltages at very high currents are typical in the bars and end rings; high
efficiency motors will often use cast copper in order to reduce the resistance in the rotor.
In operation, the squirrel cage motor may be viewed as a transformer with a rotating secondary.
When the rotor is not rotating in sync with the magnetic field, large rotor currents are induced; the large rotor
currents magnetize the rotor and interact with the stator's magnetic fields to bring the rotor into
synchronization with the stator's field. An unloaded squirrel cage motor at synchronous speed will consume
electrical power only to maintain rotor speed against friction and resistance losses; as the mechanical load
increases, so will the electrical load - the electrical load is inherently related to the mechanical load. This is
similar to a transformer, where the primary's electrical load is related to the secondary electrical load.
In order to prevent the currents induced in the squirrel cage from superimposing itself back onto the
supply, the squirrel cage is generally constructed with a prime number of bars, or at least a small multiple of
a prime number. There are an optimum number of bars in any design, and increasing the number of bars
beyond that point merely serves to increase the losses of the motor particularly when starting.

Wound rotor

An alternate design, called the wound rotor, is used when variable speed is required. In this case,
the rotor has the same number of poles as the stator and the windings are made of wire, connected to slip
rings on the shaft. Carbon brushes connect the slip rings to an external controller such as a variable resistor
that allows changing the motor's slip rate.
Compared to squirrel cage rotors, wound rotor motors are expensive and require maintenance of the
slip rings and brushes, but they were the standard form for variable speed control before the advent of
compact power electronic devices. Transistorized inverters with variable-frequency drive can now be used
for speed control, and wound rotor motors are becoming less common.
Several methods of starting a polyphase motor are used. Where the large inrush current and high
starting torque can be permitted, the motor can be started across the line, by applying full line voltage to the
terminals (Direct-on-line, DOL). Where it is necessary to limit the starting inrush current, reduced voltage
starting using either series inductors, an autotransformer, thyristors, or other devices are used. A technique
sometimes used is (Star-Delta, YΔ) starting, where the motor coils are initially connected in star for
acceleration of the load, then switched to delta when the load is up to speed. Transistorized drives can
directly vary the applied voltage as required by the starting characteristics of the motor and load.

Strana 7
dr Marko Miloš & dr Ivana Todić, kabinet 136; e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
 Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mašinski fakultet
HIBRIDNI TEHNIČKI SISTEMI

The speed of the AC motor is determined primarily by the frequency of the AC supply and the
number of poles in the stator winding, according to the relation:

F
N s  120
p
Where:
Ns - Synchronous speed, in revolutions per minute
F - AC power frequency
p - Number of poles per phase winding

Actual RPM for an induction motor will be less than this calculated synchronous speed by an amount
known as slip, that increases with the torque produced. With no load, the speed will be very close to
synchronous. When loaded, standard motors have between 2-3% slip, special motors may have up to 7%
slip, and a class of motors known as torque motors are rated to operate at 100% slip (0 RPM/full stall).

The slip of the AC motor is calculated by:

Ns  Nr
S
Ns

Where:
Nr - Rotational speed, in revolutions per minute.
S - Normalized Slip, 0 to 1.

Having additional sets of coils or poles in the motor that can be switched on and off to change the
speed of magnetic field rotation has traditionally altered the speed in this type of motor. However,
developments in power electronics mean that the frequency of the power supply can also now be varied to
provide a smoother control of the motor speed.

Three-phase AC synchronous motors

If connections to the rotor coils of a three-phase motor are taken out on slip rings and fed a separate
field current to create a continuous magnetic field the result is called a synchronous motor because the rotor
will rotate synchronously with the rotating magnetic field produced by the polyphase electrical supply.
The synchronous motor can also be used as an alternator.
Nowadays, synchronous motors are frequently driven by transistorized variable-frequency drives.
This greatly eases the problem of starting the massive rotor of a large synchronous motor. They may also be
started as induction motors using a squirrel-cage winding that shares the common rotor: once the motor
reaches synchronous speed, no current is induced in the squirrel-cage winding so it has little effect on the
synchronous operation of the motor, aside from stabilizing the motor speed on load changes.

Two-phase AC servo motors

A typical two-phase AC servo motor has a squirrel-cage rotor and a field consisting of two windings:
1) a constant-voltage (AC) main winding, and 2) a control-voltage (AC) winding in quadrature with the main
winding as to produce a rotating magnetic field. The electrical resistance of the rotor is made high
intentionally so that the speed-torque curve is fairly linear. Two-phase servomotors are inherently high-
speed, low-torque devices, heavily geared down to drive the load.

Strana 8
dr Marko Miloš & dr Ivana Todić, kabinet 136; e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
 Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mašinski fakultet
HIBRIDNI TEHNIČKI SISTEMI

Single-phase AC induction motors

Three-phase motors inherently produce a rotating magnetic field. However, when only single-phase
power is available, the rotating magnetic field must be produced using other means. Several methods are
commonly used:

Shaded-pole motor

A common single-phase motor is the shaded-pole motor, which is used in devices requiring low
starting torque. In this motor, small single-turn copper "shading coils" create the moving magnetic field. Part
of each pole is encircled by a copper coil or strap; the induced current in the strap opposes the change of
flux through the coil (Lenz's Law), so that the maximum field intensity moves across the pole face on each
cycle, thus producing a low level rotating magnetic field which is large enough to turn both the rotor and its
attached load. As the rotor accelerates the torque builds up to its full level as the principal magnetic field is
rotating relative to the rotating rotor. Such motors are difficult to reverse without significant internal
alterations.

Split-phase induction motor

Another common single-phase AC motor is the split-phase induction motor. Compared to the shaded
pole motor, these motors can generally provide much greater starting torque by using a special startup
winding in conjunction with a centrifugal switch.
In the split-phase motor, the startup winding is designed with a higher resistance than the running
winding. This creates an LR circuit, which slightly shifts the phase of the current in the startup winding. When
the motor is starting, the startup winding is connected to the power source via a set of spring-loaded contacts
pressed upon by the not-yet-rotating centrifugal switch. The starting winding is wound with fewer turns of
smaller wire than the main winding, so it has a lower inductance (L) and higher resistance (R). The lower L/R
ratio creates a small phase shift, not more than about 30 degrees, between the flux due to the main winding
and the flux of the starting winding. Simply exchanging the connections of the startup winding relative to the
running winding may reverse the starting direction of rotation.
The phase of the magnetic field in this startup winding is shifted from the phase of the mains power,
allowing the creation of a moving magnetic field, which starts the motor. Once the motor reaches near design
operating speed, the centrifugal switch activates, opening the contacts and disconnecting the startup winding
from the power source. The motor then operates solely on the running winding. The starting winding must be
disconnected since it would increase the losses in the motor.

Capacitor start motor

A capacitor start motor is a split-phase induction motor with a starting capacitor inserted in series
with the startup winding, creating an LC circuit which is capable of a much greater phase shift. The capacitor
naturally adds expense to such motors.

Resistance start motor

A resistance start motor is a split-phase induction motor with a starter inserted in series with the
startup winding, creating capacitance. This added starter provides assistance in the starting and initial
direction of rotation.

Permanent-split capacitor motor

Another variation is the permanent-split capacitor (PSC) motor (also known as a capacitor starts and
run motor). This motor operates similarly to the capacitor-start motor described above, but there is no
centrifugal starting switch, and the start windings are permanently connected to the power source, along with
the run windings.
A capacitor ranging from 3 to 25 microfarads is connected in series with the start windings and
remains in the circuit during the run cycle. The start windings and run windings are identical in this motor,
and reverse motion can be achieved by reversing the wiring of the 2 windings, with the capacitor connected
to the other windings as start windings. By changing taps on the running winding but keeping the load
constant, the motor can be made to run at different speeds.

Strana 9
dr Marko Miloš & dr Ivana Todić, kabinet 136; e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
 Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mašinski fakultet
HIBRIDNI TEHNIČKI SISTEMI

Repulsion motor

Repulsion motors are wound-rotor single-phase AC motors that are similar to universal motors. In a
repulsion motor, the armature brushes are shorted together rather than connected in series with the field.
Several types of repulsion motors have been manufactured, but the repulsion-start induction-run (RS-IR)
motor has been used most frequently. The RS-IR motor has a centrifugal switch that shorts all segments of
the commutator so that the motor operates as an induction motor once it has been accelerated to full speed.
RS-IR motors have been used to provide high starting torque per ampere under conditions of cold operating
temperatures and poor source voltage regulation.

Single-phase AC synchronous motors

Small single-phase AC motors can also be designed with magnetized rotors. The rotors in these
motors do not require any induced current so they do not slip backward against the mains frequency.
Instead, they rotate synchronously with the mains frequency. The shaded-pole synchronous motor is one
version.
Because inertia makes it difficult to instantly accelerate the rotor from stopped to synchronous
speed, these motors normally require some sort of special feature to get started. Various designs use a small
induction motor or a very light rotor with a one-way mechanism.

STEPPER MOTOR

A stepper motor (or step motor) is a brushless, synchronous electric motor that can divide a full
rotation into a large number of steps. The motor's position can be controlled precisely, without any feedback
mechanism.

Fundamentals of Operation

Stepper motors operate differently from normal DC motors, which rotate when voltage is applied to
their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple "toothed" electromagnets
arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of iron. An external control circuit energizes the
electromagnets. To make the motor shaft turn, first one electromagnet is given power, which makes the
gear's teeth magnetically attracted to the electromagnet's teeth. When the gear's teeth are thus aligned to
the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet. So when the next electromagnet
is turned on and the first is turned off, the gear rotates slightly to align with the next one, and from there the
process is being repeated. Each of those slight rotations is called a "step." In that way, the motor can be
turned to a precise angle.

Stepper motor characteristics

Stepper motors are constant-power devices (power = angular velocity x torque). As motor speed
increases, torque decreases. Using current limiting drivers and increasing the driving voltage may extend the
torque curve.
Steppers exhibit more vibration than other motor types, as the discrete step tends to snap the rotor
from one position to another. This vibration can become very bad at some speeds and can cause the motor
to lose torque. Accelerating quickly through the problem speed range, physically damping the system, or
using a micro-stepping driver can mitigate the effect. Motors with a greater number of phases also exhibit
smoother operation than those with fewer phases.

Types

There are three main types of stepper motors:

 Permanent Magnet Stepper
 Hybrid Synchronous Stepper
 Variable Reluctance Stepper

Strana 10
dr Marko Miloš & dr Ivana Todić, kabinet 136; e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
 Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mašinski fakultet
HIBRIDNI TEHNIČKI SISTEMI

RESOLVER

A resolver is a type of rotary electrical transformer used for measuring degrees of rotation. It is
considered an analog device, and has a digital counterpart, the rotary encoder.

Description

The most common type of resolver is the brushless transmitter resolver. On the outside, this type of
resolver may look like a small electrical motor having a stator and rotor. On the inside, the configuration of
the wire windings makes it different. The stator portion of the resolver houses three windings: an exciter
winding and two two-phase windings (usually labeled "x" and "y"). The exciter winding is located on the top; it
is in fact a coil of a turning transformer. This transformer empowers the rotor, thus there is no need for
brushes, or no limit to the rotation of the rotor. The two other windings are on the bottom, wound on a
lamination. They are configured at 90 degrees from each other. The rotor houses a coil, which is the
secondary winding of the turning transformer, and a primary winding in a lamination, exciting the two two-
phase windings on the stator. The primary winding of the transformer, fixed to the stator, is excited by a
sinusoidal electric current, which by electromagnetic induction induces current to flow through the secondary
windings along the stator. The two two-phase windings, fixed at right (90°) angles to each other on the stator,
produce a sine and cosine feedback current by the same induction process. The relative magnitudes of the
two-phase voltages are measured and used to determine the angle of the rotor relative to the stator. Upon
one full revolution, the feedback signals repeat their waveforms. This device may also appear in non-
brushless type, i.e., only consisting in two stacks of sheets, rotor and stator.

Strana 11
dr Marko Miloš & dr Ivana Todić, kabinet 136; e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
 Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mašinski fakultet
HIBRIDNI TEHNIČKI SISTEMI

Types

Basic resolvers are two-pole resolvers, meaning that the angular information is the mechanical angle
of the stator. These devices can deliver the absolute angle position. Other types of resolver are multipole
resolvers. They have 2*p poles, and thus can deliver p cycles in one rotation of the rotor: electrical angle =
mechanical angle * p. Some types of resolvers include both types, with the 2-pole windings used for absolute
position and the multipole windings for accurate position.
Other types of resolver include: Receiver resolvers. These resolvers are used in the opposite way to
transmitter resolvers. The two-diphased windings are energized, the ratio between the sine and the cosine
representing the electrical angle. The system turns the rotor to obtain a zero voltage in the rotor winding. At
this position, the mechanical angle of the rotor equals the electrical angle applied to the stator.
Differential resolvers: These types combine two diphased primary windings in one of the stacks of
sheets, as with the receiver, and two-diphased secondary windings in the other. The relation of the electrical
angle delivered by the two secondary windings and the other angles is secondary electrical angle,
mechanical angle, and primary electrical angle.

ROTARY ENCODER

A rotary encoder, also called a shaft encoder, is an electro-mechanical device used to convert the
angular position of a shaft or axle to an analog or digital code, making it an angle transducer.
There are two main types: absolute and incremental (relative).

Absolute rotary encoder construction

The absolute digital type produces a unique digital code for each distinct angle of the shaft. They
come in two basic types: optical and mechanical.

Absolute rotary encoder

Mechanical Absolute Encoders

A metal disc containing a set of concentric rings of openings is affixed to an insulating disc, which is
rigidly fixed to the shaft. A row of sliding contacts is fixed to a stationary object so that each contact wipes
against the metal disc at a different distance from the shaft. As the disc rotates with the shaft, some of the
contacts touch metal, while others fall in the gaps where the metal has been cut out. The metal sheet is
connected to a source of electric current, and each contact is connected to a separate electrical sensor. The
metal pattern is designed so that each possible position of the axle creates a unique binary code in which
some of the contacts are connected to the current source (i.e. switched on) and others are not (i.e. switched
off).

Strana 12
dr Marko Miloš & dr Ivana Todić, kabinet 136; e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
 Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mašinski fakultet
HIBRIDNI TEHNIČKI SISTEMI

Optical Absolute Encoders

The optical encoder's disc is made of glass with transparent and opaque areas. A light source and
photo detector array reads the optical pattern that results from the disc's position at any one time. A
controlling device, such as a microprocessor, to determine the angle of the shaft, can read this code. The
absolute analog type produces a unique dual analog code that can be translated into an absolute angle of
the shaft.

Standard binary encoding

Rotary encoder

n
In general, where there are n contacts, the number of distinct positions of the shaft is 2 . In this
example, n is 3, so there are 2³ or 8 positions. In the above example, the contacts produce a standard binary
count as the disc rotates. However, this has the drawback that if the disc stops between two adjacent
sectors, or the contacts are not perfectly aligned, it can be impossible to determine the angle of the shaft.

Gray encoding

To avoid the above problem, Gray encoding is used. This is a system of binary counting in which two
adjacent codes differ in only one position.
In this example, the transition from sector 4 to sector 5, like all other transitions, involves only one of
the contacts changing its state from on to off or vice versa.

Rotary encoder

Strana 13
dr Marko Miloš & dr Ivana Todić, kabinet 136; e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
 Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mašinski fakultet
HIBRIDNI TEHNIČKI SISTEMI

Incremental rotary encoder

An incremental rotary encoder, also known as a quadrature encoder or a relative rotary encoder, has
two outputs called quadrature outputs. They can be either mechanical or optical. In the optical type there are
two gray coded tracks, while the mechanical type has two contacts that are actuated by cams on the rotating
shaft. The mechanical types require debouncing and are typically used as digital potentiometers on
equipment including consumer devices. Due to the fact the mechanical switches require debouncing, the
mechanical type are limited in the rotational speeds they can handle. The incremental rotary encoder is the
most widely used of all rotary encoders due to its low cost: only two sensors are required.
The fact that incremental encoders use only two sensors does not compromise their accuracy. There
can be an optional third output: reference, which happens once every turn. This is used when there is the
need of an absolute reference, such as positioning systems. The optical type is used when higher RPMs are
encountered or a higher degree of precision is required.
Incremental encoders are used to track motion and can be used to determine position and velocity.
This can be either linear or rotary motion. Because the direction can be determined, very accurate
measurements can be made. They employ two outputs called A & B, which are called quadrature outputs, as
they are 90 degrees out of phase.

Incremental rotary encoder

The two output waveforms are 90 degrees out of phase, which is all that the quadrature term means.
These signals are decoded to produce a count up pulse or a count down pulse. For decoding in software, the
A & B outputs are read by software, either via an interrupt on any edge or polling, and the above table is
used to decode the direction.
Rotary sensors with a single output are not encoders and cannot sense direction, but can sense
RPM. They are thus called tachometer sensors.

Strana 14
dr Marko Miloš & dr Ivana Todić, kabinet 136; e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
 Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mašinski fakultet
HIBRIDNI TEHNIČKI SISTEMI

SELECTION OF ELECTROMOTOR

Regardless of how simple or complex the application, there are some common requirements to
consider for the selection of the proper motor (and/or controller). Some common considerations are:

 Required output torque

Motor torque is a combination of the internal torque loses (a function of motor design) and external
torque load. External torque load is a function of load inertia and load acceleration.
 Required speed range
How fast should motor run when loaded and unloaded.
 Available space for motor mounting
Motor length and its maximum diameter must be taken into consideration. Also, motor dimensions
may be dictated by performance requirements.
 Source of power for the motor
Source of power could be AC or DC. Current limits and voltage range could be limiting factors.
 Special shaft and/or mounting requirements
What length and diameter of shaft are needed, and is a rear shaft extension required (for encoders,
brakes, etc.) are the questions that should be kept on mind.
 Environmental considerations
Temperature / Humidity / Shock and vibration / Altitude / Presence of chemicals, contaminants,
vapor, etc.
 “Heat sinking” of motor
A motor can be heat sinked by mounting it on a mass of thermally conductive material. The material
conducts heat away from the motor. Heat sinking has a dramatic effect on motor performance.
Effective heat sinking increases the continuous output torque capability of the motor.
 Expected velocity profile
A velocity profile is a graph that shoes how quickly the motor accelerates to rated speed, the time
the motor runs at rated speed, and how quickly the motor decelerates to zero speed.

Brush DC Motors Brushless DC Motors

Stepper Motor

Strana 15
dr Marko Miloš & dr Ivana Todić, kabinet 136; e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
 Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mašinski fakultet
HIBRIDNI TEHNIČKI SISTEMI

Typical motor technical specification parameters

Selecting a suitable motor rating for the application

Selecting the right type of motor for the given application is very important. Based on the load
characteristics, the motor must be selected with the proper rating. Three parameters govern the motor
selection for the given application.

They are:
• Peak torque required for the application
• RMS torque required
• The operating speed range

Strana 16
dr Marko Miloš & dr Ivana Todić, kabinet 136; e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
 Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mašinski fakultet
HIBRIDNI TEHNIČKI SISTEMI

Peak Torque TP Requirement

The peak, or maximum torque required for the application, can be calculated by summing the load
torque TL , torque due to inertia TJ and the torque required to overcome the friction TF . There are other
factors which will contribute to the overall peak torque requirements, the windage loss, which is contributed
by the resistance offered by the air in the air gap. These factors are complicated to account for. Therefore, a
20% safety margin is given as a rule of thumb when calculating the torque.

TP  1.2(TL  TJ  TF )

The torque due to inertia TJ is the torque required to accelerate the load from standstill or from a
lower speed to a higher speed. This can be calculated by taking the product of load inertia, including the
rotor inertia and load acceleration.

TJ    J L  J M 
Where:
JL  JM - Is the sum of the load and rotor inertia and
 - Is the required acceleration

The mechanical system coupled to the motor shaft determines the load torque and the frictional
torque.

RMS Torque Requirement TRMS

The Root Mean Square torque can be roughly translated to the average continuous torque required
for the application. This depends upon many factors. The peak torque TP , load torque TL , torque due to
inertia TJ , frictional torque TF and acceleration, deceleration and run times.
The following equation gives the RMS torque required for a typical application where t A is the
acceleration time, t R is the run time and t D is the deceleration time.

TP t A  TL  TF  t R  TJ  TL  TF  t D
2 2 2

TRMS 
t A  tR  tD

Strana 17
dr Marko Miloš & dr Ivana Todić, kabinet 136; e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
 Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mašinski fakultet
HIBRIDNI TEHNIČKI SISTEMI

Speed Range

This is the motor speed required to drive the application and is determined by the type of application.
For example, an application where the speed variation is not very frequent and the maximum speed of the
blower can be the average motor speed required. Whereas in the case of a point-to-point positioning system,
this would require a motor with a rated operating speed higher than the average movement speed. The
higher operating speed can be accounted for the components of the trapezoidal speed curve, resulting in an
average speed equal to the movement speed.

It is always suggested to allow a safety margin of 10%, as a rule of thumb, to account for
miscellaneous factors, which are beyond our calculations.

DC motor directly provides rotary motion and, coupled with certain transmission system, can provide
transitional motion. The electric circuit of the armature and the free body diagram of the rotor are shown in
Fig. 3.8.4.

Motor torque, T is related to the armature current, i and a constant factor K t . The back EMF e , is related
to the rotational velocity:

T  Kt i
d
e  Ke
dt
In SI units (which we will use), K t (armature constant) is equal to K e (motor constant).

Motor Torque – Speed characteristics

Usually, for the Permanent Magnet DC motors, it is given their Speed to Torque characteristics. If we start
d di
from the upper equations taking that  is constant (  0 , and that  0 ) than we can get:
dt dt

T b
K  i  T  b   i   
K K
R b R b R  K2 R R K2
R  i  K   V  T  ( R  K )   T     T  (b   ) 
K K K K K K R
K2 V
T  (b   )   K 
R R
V
  0, T   s  * K
R
K2 V 1 V
T  0,    n    
bR  K K bR
2
K
2
1
K

Strana 18
dr Marko Miloš & dr Ivana Todić, kabinet 136; e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
 Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mašinski fakultet
HIBRIDNI TEHNIČKI SISTEMI

The graph above shows a torque/speed curve of a typical DC motor. Note that torque is inversely
proportional to the speed of the output shaft. In other words, there is a tradeoff between how much torque a
motor delivers, and how fast the output shaft spins.

Motor characteristics are frequently given as two points on this graph:

The stall torque  s represents the point on the graph at which the torque is a maximum, but the
shaft is not rotating.
The no load speed, n is the maximum output speed of the motor (when no torque is applied to the
output shaft).

Connecting these two points with a line, whose equation can be written in terms of torque or angular velocity
as equations, then approximates the curve:
s
T  s  
n

  n  n  T
s
We have defined power as the product of torque and angular velocity. This corresponds to the area of a
rectangle under the torque/speed curve with one corner at the origin and another corner at a point on the
curve (see figures below). Due to the linear inverse relationship between torque and speed, the maximum
power occurs at the point where:
Pmax  mp mp
n s
mp   mp 
2 2

Strana 19
dr Marko Miloš & dr Ivana Todić, kabinet 136; e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
 Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mašinski fakultet
HIBRIDNI TEHNIČKI SISTEMI

In upper mentioned Torque-Speed characteristics it is important to emphasize that thermal limitation

it is one of limiting factors for maximal long time applicable current ( P
max
heat  Ri 2 max , and such limitation
introduce Tmax  Kimax ).

Strana 20
dr Marko Miloš & dr Ivana Todić, kabinet 136; e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]